tffi

iiiiiriiii1:i:iilii:i:liliiiiiiriiti:iii:iiiii

iliiffi
INrquALlnES
FuNcrroNS
Tnr LINE
ln this chapter we develop the topics in algebra and
Beometry needed for learning calculus. The subjects we
emphasize are algebraic inequalities, the definition of
function, and the basic properties of straight lines in the
plane. These are essential tools for mastering the main ideas
of calculus.

INEQUAUTTES

In elementary algebra and plane geometry we study equalities almost

exclusively. The solution oflinear and quadratic equations, the congruence of
triangles, and relationships among trigonometric functions arc topics con-
cerned with equality. As we progress in the development of rnathematical
ideas, we shall see that the study of inequalities is both important and useful.
An inequality arises when we are more concerned with the approximate size
of ,a quantity than we are with its true value. Practically all laboratory
experiments in science deal with such approximations. AIso, since the proofs
of the most important theorems in calculus depend on approximations, it is
essential that we develop a facility for working with inequalities.
We assume the reader is familiar not only with ordinary numbers which
we call the reel number system but also with the laws of elementary algebra.
In this section we shall be conceroed with inequalities among real numbcrs,
and we begin by recalling some familiar relationships. Given that a and D are
any two real numbers, the sYmbol

a<b
 lNrqumrtrs. FuNCrloNs. THE tlNt
CHAPTER 1

means that a is less than b. we may also write the inequaiity in the opposite
direction.
b>a.
which is read b is greater than a.
The rules for handling inequalities are only slightly more cornplicated
However, the
than the ones we learned in algebra for manipulating equalitie.s.
as four Theorems about
differences are so important that we state them
Inequalities and they should be-studied carefully'

thqnc'
THEoREM 1 If a <b and b < c, then i<c. lnwords: if a is less thanb and b is less

then a is less than c'

flffOAfnf 2 lf c is any number and a<b, then it is also true thatora+c<b+c and
I
o - , . b c. ln worils: if the same number is added to subtrscted from
each side of an inequalityr, the resuk is an inequality in the satne direction.

a o"a, <ithen a* c <b + d. That is,inequalitiesinthe directio,

THEOREM 3 Ii r. same
may be added

is important to note that in general inequalities rnay not be subtracted'

It
For exampie,2 <5 and I < 7. We can say, by addition, that 3 < 12, but note
that subtiaction would state the absurdity that i is less than ;2'

ffffOnff"f a If a < b and c is any positiue number, then

ac <bc,
while if c is a negatiue nuwtber, then
ac > hc.

In words: multiplication a! both stdes af an ineqwality by the same positiue

number preserl)es the diriction, while multiplicatian hy a negatitse number
reuerses the directian af the inequality.

Since dividing an inequaiity by a number d is the-same as multiplying

it
by lld, we see-that Tireorem 4 applies for division as well as for
multiplication.
From the geometric point of view we associate a horizontal axis with the
# 0 1 2 3 totality of real numb*.r. Th" origin rnay be selec,ted at any eonvenient poiir!
-3-2-l with pos:tive nurmbers to the right and negative numbers to the left {Fig. 1).
TICURE
For wery real numtrer there will be. a corresponding point on the line aod'
1

every point will represeni a real nurnber. Then the inequality

"onr.rr.iy,
a<b may be read: a is to the left of b. Tliis geornetric way cf looking at
inequalities is frequently of help in solving problerns. [t is efuo helpfitl to
introduce the notion of an interual o! nuwbers,or poie$s" {f a and b are
nurnbers {as shown in Fig.2}, then the open imterval froni a to b ii tbe
\ flGUff 2 collection of all numbett itti"t are both iarger than e and smaller than b'
sEcTtoN 1.1 lNreu uflcs

That is, an open interval consists of all numbe rs between a and b,A number
x
is between a and b il both inequalities a < x and x < b are
true. A *.;;;;;
of writing'this is

a<x<b.
rh9 qlosed intervsl from a to D consists of all the points between a and b,
incluiling a and, (Fig. 3). suppose a number x is either equal to c o. targei
_b
than a, but we don't know which. we write this convenienily , > o, *hi-"h
is read: x is greater than or equil to a. Similarly, x ( b is ,.ud, ,", is
iss than or
equal to b, and means that x may be either smaller than b or may be b itsclf.
A
compact yay of designating a closed interval from a to b is to ,t"t. that it
consists of all points x such that

a< x Sb.
An interval which contains the endpoint b but not a is said to be helf-open
on
the left. That is, it consists of all points x such that

a<x<b.
similarly, an interval containing a but not b is called helf-open on the right,
and we write

aSx<b.
Parentheses and brackets are used as symbols for intervals in the following
way:

(a,b) for the open intervat a<x<b,

la,b)for the closed interval: aSxlb,
{a, b) for the interval half-open on the left a < x < D,
lqb) for the interval half_open on the right c < x i D.
we can extend the idea of. an interval of points to cover some unusual
cases. supposc we wish to consider ail numbers rarger than ?. Tlri. i";;
thought of as an interval extending te infnily on tf,e right. (Sec
Fig. 4.) Of
course' infinity is not a number, but we use the symbol (2, o) io
reprcscnt alr
numbers larger than 7. we could also write: all numbers x'such
that
7<x<o.
In a similar way, the symbol
The double inequality
(
- co, 12) will stand for all numbers lcss than 12.

-o<'x<12
is arr Equivalent way of representing all numbers x less than
tr2.
The first-degree equation 3x * 7:
19 has a unique solutioa x = 4. The
quadratic equation x2
-x-2:0 has two solutions, x= _f aoi i=2,_The
trigonometric equation sin x : l has an infinite number of
solutions: x = 30o,
150o, 390o, 510", .... The sorution of an equation involviaj
a ,ioE, 'ortno*o,
say x, is the colbction af afi rumbers whtchmake ttn
,qr;lrliton oiiirorr rn .
This is. called the solution set of the equation. similarly, tt
a .oiutioo or *
incewlitr involving a single unknown, say x, is the couectioi oi"ri'ou.*o
which make the incquality a true statemint. For exa.pte, tt
rioeqLuty
3x-7<8
 INEQUALmES. FuNcnoNs' Txt t'ttlr
CHAPTER 1

has as its solution oll numbers less than 5. To demonstrate

this we'argue in
If x is a number which satisfies the above inequality we
the following way.
can, by Theirern 2, add 7 to both sides of the inequality
and obtain a true
statement. That is, we have
3x-7 +7 <8+7 or 3x < 15'

Now, dividing both sides by 3 (Theorem 4), we obtain

-x<5
and observe that dx is asolutior.,then it is less than 5. Strictly
speaking,
that every number which is less than 5 is a
however, we have not proued
solution. In an actual proof we would begin by supposing that x is any
number less than 5; that is,
x<5.
Wemultiplybothsidesby3(Theorem4)andthensubtractT(Theorem2)to
get
3x-7<8,
the
the original inequality. Since the condition that x is less than 5 implies
originai inequaliiy, *i hur. proved the result. The important thing to noJice
is that the iroof consisted of reuersing the steps of the briginal argument
which led to the solution x < 5 in the first place. So long as each of the steps
. we take is reoersible,the above procedure is completely satisfactory
so fa11s
obtaining solutions i, The step going from 3x -'7 < 8 to 3x < l5 is
"on."tn"d. the inequali'
reversible, since these two inequalities ari equivalent. Similarly,
ties 3:t < 15 and x < 5 are equivalent. Finally, note that the solution
set

consists of all numbers in the interval ( - m' 5)'

Methods for the solution of various types of simple algebraic inequalities
carefully.
are shown in the following examples, which should be studied

EXAMPTE 1 Solve for x:

-7-3x<5x*29.
Solution Subtract 5x from both sides, getting

-7 -8x<29'
Multiply both sides by - 1, reversing the direction of the inequality, to obtain
7+8x>-2g.
Subtracting 7 from both sides yields 8x > -36, and dividing by 8 gives the
solution
*> -2,
or, stated in interval form: all x in the interval ( -3, o)' fi
To verify the correctness ofthe result, it is necessary to perform the above
steps'in ,.ror" order. However, the observation ihat each individual step
is
revlrsible is sufficient to check the validity of the answer'
$ECriON

EXAMru 2 Solve for x(x *0):

3-
-<).
x

Solution we have an immediate inclination to murtiply both sidei by x. However,

since we don't know in advance whether x ii positive o, n"gutiu., we must
proceed cautiously. we do this by considering two cases: (l) iis positivq
and
(2) x is negative.

case I. suppose x > 0. Then multipllng by x preserves the direction of the

inequality (Theorem 4), and we get

3<5x.
Dividing by 5, we find that x > t. This me4ns that we must find all numbers
which satisfy both of the inequalities

x>0 and x>$.

clearly, any number greater than $is also positive, and the solution in case r
consists of all x in the interval (t, o).

case 2. x < 0. Multiplying by x reuersesthe direction o[ the inequality. we

have

3>5x,
and therefore $ > x. we seek all numbers x, such thrt bothof the inequalities
x<0 and xct
hold. The solution in case 2 is the collection of all x in the interval ( o,0).
-
A way of combining the answers in the two qases is to state that the solution
set consists of all numberc x not in the closed interval
t0il.(see
Fig.5.)
D
EXAMPTE 3 Solve for x(x* -2):
2x*3.1
x+2 - 3'
Solution As in Example 2,we must consider two cases, according to whether x
positive or negative.
* 2 is

Case l. x*2>0. We rnultiply by 3(x+2), which is positive, getting

6x-9<x+2.
Adding 9 - x to both sides, we have
5x< ll, from which x<$.
Since we}ave already assumed that x + 2 > e and since we must have,
< +,
we see that x must be larger than
-2 and smaller than $. That is, tle
solution set consists of all x in the interval (-2,$).
cHAPrEt 1 lNEeu[mEs. fuxcnons. Trc um

Case2. x*2<0. Again multiplying by 3(x * 2) and reaersing the in-

equality, we obtain
6x-9) x *2,
or 5x > l1 and x > $. In this case, x must be less than -2 and greater than
$, which is irnpossible. Combining the cases, we get as the solution set all
numbers in (-2,$). See Fig.6.

1 PROBLEMS

In Problems I through 18, solve for x. *27 :? <2 and (x- l)(x+4)<0
l2x-3<1 22x*4<x-5 x
3 5-3x<14 4 2-5x<3+4x 28 Show that Theorem 3 for inequalities may be derived from
Theorems I and 2.
,i)tlr-6)<4-(2+5x) G)*-+.?.? 29 Given that a, D, c, and dare all positive numbers, and that
a<b arrd c<d; show thal ac<bd.
2l 42
8:<-- *30 a) State the most general circumstances in which the
7 -<-
3x 3x hypotheses a < b and c < d imply that ac < bd.
t2
9_<_ lo
32 b) Given that a < D and c < d, when is it true that ac> bd't
5 l-x 4< x1 3l IFx is a positive number, proie that
43 x-l
ll -<:
xj
12-<4
x x+l>2.
)t
,r'+l.s t4=-3<-+l
xx 32 a) lf x and y are positive nurnbers, show that

2-x lr r\
rsfi.-z 16
r+l <,
3
I-+-l(x+},)>4.
\' Y/'
n =I- <z
x-2 x* I b) If x, y, alrrd z are positive numbers, show that
J-x x+J x (t*t*1\t, +y+z)>e.
In Problems 19 through 27,find the values of x, if any, for which
\x Y z/
both inequalities hold. c) If x, y, z, and w are positive numbers, show that
192x-7<5-x and 3-4x<{ it: + :I + II + a1\
I |1x+r+i+w) > t6.
203x-8<5(2-x) and 2(3x+4)-4x+7<5+x \x y z w/
2x*6 x - and t5-3x<4+2x
2tT-i.t *d) Generalize the above results to n numbcrs 11; x2, ... r x6.
*33 Ifx and y are any numbers different from zero, show that
22 3-6x<2(x+5) and 7(2- x)<3x*8
2_3 \.Y{+z+>E+Q.
23;:1<4 and x_2<7 y'x-yx
*34 l-et x and y be positive numbers with x 2 y. Show that
*24 x-2 <3 and jI.
3-x
-'x* I - x-2 s
- 1+:r=4*r.
yxx'
'251<5 and x+2<7-3x
Show that the inequality is revorsed if y 2 x.
1
-- <i and (x-2)(x+3)<0
'25 *Starred problerns are those that are unusually difficult.
 sEcTtoN 1.2 Assoturr valur

_ )
ABSoI-UTE VALUE

If c is any positive number, the absolute value of c is defined to be a itself. If o

is negative, the absolute value of a is defined to be -a. The absolute value of
zero is zero. The symbol for the absolute value of a is lal. In other words, we
havc

DEFINITION

I r'rr t:xlimpl,-..

i1','=J. i l.]i:13, t2- 5t:l-3i:3.

This rathcr sirnpic idca has irnportant consequences but, before we can
consider thcrr. we nrust discuss methods of solving equations and inequalities
involving absr:lute values.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve for x: lx - 7l - l.

Solution This equation, accorr.ling tt; rhe definition of absolute value, expresses the
fact that x - 7 rnust bc J or .\, since in either case the absolutJvalue is 3.
If x- 7:3, we have.r;: l0; and if .x- ?= *3, then x:4. Wesee that there
are two values of x which solvr: the equation: x :4, 10. fl
EXAMPLT 2 Solve for x: l2x - 6l : la - 5xl.

Solution The trvo possibilities are

2x*6:4-5x and 2x-6:-(4-5x).
Solving each of these for x, we ohtain the two solutions

d x:+' -3 t 1

z---=_\
____t__-.1___1__ -. If c and
b are any two numbers, we may represent them as points on the
llbil line as shown in Fig. 7. Then the distance beiween a and b, denotea by a, is the
ncunr 7 length of the line segment from b to a. This distance is always positive (or zcro
if a: b). From the definition of absolute value we see that
u'tlli*ll+t'ritiffi
If x is any number, then
l"x I represents the distance d of x from the origin, i.e.,

- {-----+}- tl:lx - 0l :lxl. The statement lxl < 4 is equivalent to the condition that x is
-4 0 4 any number in the interval extending from to +4 (Fig. g). or, in terms of
-4
RGt St 8 the symbol for intervals, x must lie'in the interval (-q,q\. Sometimes a
 tNEQUAtlrlEs. FuNcrloNs. Tttt t-tNt
cnAPrEn 1

statement such as lxl <4 is used to denote the

interval (-4'4)' In terms of
inequalities without absolute value signs, the statemen

-4<x<4
the inequality i' - 3l < 5 means that
is equivalent to lxl < 4. In a similar way-'
, lie in ihe interval -
( 5, 5)' We could also write
-'i**tt
-5<'x-3<5'
must satisfy' If we add 3 to
This consists of two inequalities, both of which x
then
each member of the double inequality above'

-2<'x<8'
Therefore x must lie in the interval ( - 2, 8) See Fig' 9'
't
gAMPI.E 3 Solve for x: | 3x - 4l < '

Solution We rvrite the inequality in the equivalent form l

-7 <3x-4<7'
' n z1-- A/

Now we add 4 to each term:

-3<3't<11'
and divide each term bY 3:

-1<x<#.

il; i6-
Thesolutionsetconsistsofallnumbersxintheclosedinterval[_1,+].ST D
-I ()

flGUnt 10

EXAMPLE 4 Solve for x:12- 5xl< 3'

Solution

5<-5x<1'
reverse each of the inequalitie5' and we
get
Dividing by - 5 wili
l>x>-t.
interval (-. 1, 1)' See Olt
The solution set consists of those x in the ofen ',J
TTGURE 11

TXAMPIE 5 Solve for x:

It-ll . r
lr-61
Proceeding as before, we see that
2x-5
-'- x-6;<3.
-3<-"
sEcrl0N 1.2 AssorurE vlr.ug

We would like to multiply by x - 6, and in order to do this we must

distinguish two cases, depending on whether x - 6 is positive or negative.

Case l. ,x - 6 > 0. In this case multiplication by x - 6 preserves the direc-

tion of the inequalities, and we have

-3(x - oi < :,r - 5 < 3(x - 6).

Now the left inequality states that

-Jx*18<2x-5,
or lh;rl

f.r.
The right inequality states that
2x-5<3x-18,
or that
13 < "t.
In Case I we must have x:6 > 0 and! < x and 13 < x. If the third inequality
holds, then the other two hold as a consequence. Hence the solution in Case I
consists of all x in the interval (13, m).

Case2. x-6<0. The inequalities ret)erse when we multiply by x-6. \\e

then get

-3(x- 6)>2x-5>3(x-6).
The two inequalities now state that $ > x and l3 > x. The three inequalities

+ 0235 13
x-6<0 and zfr, and 13>x
all hold if x < f . In case 2, the solution consists of all nurnbers in the interval
ftcutt 12 (
- m, ?). we could also describe the solution set by saying that it consists of
all numbers not in the closed interval [?, 13]. See Fig. 12. n

2 PROBTEMS

ln Problems I through 16, solve for

I l2x+11:4 2;x-l;:t
x.
t3 3: s
,nlx-ll_l
lxl lx - 3l 14-xl 3
3l4-2xl:3 4l7-5xl:8
rolffil=o
s lx1l1:s
7 l3x - 5l-l7x * 2l
6l-2x-41:g
8 l2x + tl : l3xl
"l*:l:'
In each of Problems 17 through 27 , frnd. the values of x, if any,
9ix-61:13-2xl ,, for which the tbllowing inequalities hold. State answers in terme
l#l:,
4:
of intervals.
ll 1:? n I 17 lx+ll<4 It lx-31<2
lxl 5 lx-U 12-xl 19 [2x+51<3 m p-?xl<6
10
cHAPrtn 1 lNEeuAUnEs. Fuxcnoxs. THE LINE

2t lt?+ 5xl3l zzffi.s 28

lx(x+l)l<lx+41
Find all solutions of the simultaneous equations lx-vl
: 2, l2x + yl: 4.

A lx+31<l2x-61 29 Find all solutions of the.simultaneous equations lx+vl

"l#l.-, :l,l2x-3yl:8.
30 Find all solutions of the simultaneous equationslx2 -2y21
23 13 - 2xl llx + 4l
"l#l=, : t,l2x - yl:4.

,
J,

ABSoLUTE vALUE AND lNEQUALlrlEs

THEOREM s If a

Proof The statement of the theorem is equivalent to the double inequality

-(lal + lbD < a+ b< lal + lbl.
However, we know from the definition of absolute value that lcl is c ot -a
and lbl is b or -b. Therefore, we may write -lal < a<laland -lbl <b< lbl
since one ol the equal signs must aiways hold. Now adding these last two sets
of inequalities, we get

- lal - lbl < a+ b < lal + lbl,

which is the desired result. n

COROLLARY Il a and b are any numbers, then

iinl$fi$-1tr1iffi

Proof We write a-b as 4+(-b), and apply Theorem 5 to obtain

 la - bl: la + (-b)l < Icl + l_bl : lal + lbl.
The final equality holds since, from the definition of absolute
value, it is
always true that l- bl lbl. : f
In calculus we frequently need to know the approximate value of a
qua,tity although we cannot find iis exact varue. Theorem 5 and its corollary
are invaluable if we wish to make such approximations.
we show how this is
done by working several examples.

EXAMPI.E 1 Estimate how large thc expression x3

interval
- 2 can become if x is restricted to the
l-4,41.
Solution From the Corollary, we have

lr.-zl<lx3l+121.
since the absolute varue of a product is-the product of the absolute
varues, we
: :
have lxsl lx .x. xl lxl . lxl . lxl lxl3. Tirerefore we get
:
lxt -21<lxl3 +2.
By hypothesis we stated that lxl is arways less than 4,
and we concrude that
l*'-21<43+2:66
if x is any number in [-4, 4]. fl
EXAMPTE 2 Find a positive number M such that

lxt-2xz *3x- 4l<M

for all values of x in the interval
L_3,2).
Solution From Theorem 5 and the Corollary we can write
lx3 * 3x - 4l < lx3l + l2x2l+ l3xl + l4l,
- 2x2
and from our knowledge of the absolute value
of products, we get
lxsl + l2x2l+ l3xl + l4l : lxl3 + 2lxlz+ 3fxl +4.
Since lxl can never be larger than 3, it follows that
lxl3 + 2lxl2 + 3lxl + 4 <27 + 2.g +3. 3 +4: 58.
The positive number M we serk is 5g.
n
THEOREM 6

Proof sine c is less than or equar to d the reciprocal of.q the quantity
r/c, is rargcr
than or equal to the reciprocal of d. This forows
from Theorem 4 for
inequalities, since dividing both sides of th;l*q;;iit
quantity cd gives i'" i'oly"t"iJ'poritir.
 lNEeuAUTtEs. FuNcrloNs. THt tlNE
CHAPTTR 1

l r1
c- d

> b' we have

Again from Theorem 4, and from the fact that a

,(:) =,(:) =,(;)

l-l
The first and last terms yield the result'
Theorem6maybecombinedwithTheorem5toyieldestimatesformany
estimates are only
algebraic expressions.'-W" ob""e that since these
approximate, some techniques for making them
will give better results than
oit.... We exhibit this fact later in Example 5'

EXA {PLE 3 Find a number M such that

Ir2l -
l*-21
.,
when x is restricted to the interv al l+,*7'

Solution We. know that

lx+21= lr+21
l,*--l t.-zt
Ifwecanestimatethesmallestpossiblevalueofthedenominatorandthe
Iargestpossiblevalueofthenumeratorthen,byTheorem6,wewillhavethe
largest possible value of the entire expression. For
"rtirnrt"J-ii,.
numerator we have
lx + 2l< lxl+ l2l<|+Z:l'
Forthedenominatorwenotethatthesmallestvalueoccurswhenxisasclose
32'
ut possible to 2' This occurs when x - and so
lx- 21>li-21:+,
if x is in the interval []'*l' W" conclude finally that

lx + zl .'.:r. u
l'-zl-i
ExAM?n e Find an estimate ror the largest n;;,T;iru. "t

l.x+3 i

when -r is restricted to the interval l-4'47'

Solution The numerator is simple to estimatc'

since

1x2 + 2l< lxl' + 2 <

42 + 2 : l8'

However, we have to find a smaliest value ior ix

+ 3l if x is in l- 4' 41'.We see
x = - 3' since' then the
first of all that the expression is not defined for
by 'zero is always excluded"
denominator would b" ,,,o, and rjivision
 stcTroN

Furthermore, if x is a number near 3, then the denominator

-
numerator has a value near ll,.and the quotient will
is near zero. the
be a..large,,;;;l;;.
Indeed, by taking x sufficientry close to i *"
- can make the denominator as
small as we like and hence the fraction can be made
as large as we like. In this
problem there is no largest value of the given
expression in [-4,+]. sucrr
questions are discussed further in Chaptei 2.
n
EXAMPLE s Find a number M such that

lx+2 5i'- I
M
l-Y I

when -x is restricted to the interval ( l, 4).

Solution Method l. Since, from elementary algebra,

. x+2 ,__4x*2
xy)
we can write

+z
lx _ sl : r_o* * rt < t4lltfl?1
lx I lxl lrl
Since lxl < 4, we have 4jxl + 2 < lg, while the denominator, lxl, can never be
smaller than l. We obtain :

lx+2 I

I -sl'
<18'

Method 2. From the Corollary ro Theorem 5 it follows

that
lx+2 _l
t+-,1 =l+l +r5r:ff*,
lx+21

Now lxl + 2 < 6 and ixl > I. Hence we obtain

Ix+2 _l 6
|' -'l'i*5:ll' n
This pxample shows that some algebraic
manipulations lead to better
estimates than do others.

3 PROBI.EMS

In'Problems I through 12, find a positive number

one, such that the absolute value of the given
M, if there is 3 x3+ 2x2 -3x-6; x in [_2,5]
.*prr.ri"i Ao".
not exceed M when x is in the intervat given.
4 xa -Zx1 + x2-3x_5; x in [_3, _l]
I x2 - Jx + 4: x in l-2,21
x+2
2 x2 + 4r l:
- x in [*2,4] 5
,=; x in [5,8]
14
CHAPTER 1 lNteuAUTtEs. fuxcnoNs. Tm uNr

l5
[#.*l' x in r-2, -r]
o
ffi; xin(-1,4)
x2-6x+2 ,t xinro'21
, #; xin(-4+,41
.\ l6
l#."-'l;
x3-6x+5 t7
s ffi; xin(-2,3) l*-*l'xinro'31
lx 2xl
9 =*!7 ,; xin(-1,3)
' x2+4x+4'
l8
ft - ;;l' x in r-2'2f
x3-3x+5 19 Prove for any numbeis a and b that lal - lbl < la - bl'
xin[0,4]
ro
ffi; 20
2l
Prove for any numbers a and b that llcl - lbll < la - bl'
Given that a and b are positive, c and d are negative, and
2x*l
tt ii;;$; r in (-3' r) a> b, c > d, show that
ab
2x1-3x+l
'-:t cd
n _;-; x in (0.7,0.9)
22 lf a r, a 2, &x a"tlany numbers, show that la, * a2+ a3 | S lor I

In each of Problems 13 through 18, find in two ways how large + larl+ larl.
the
the given expression can become in the given interval' Use 23 lf ar, a2, a3 are any nurnbers and la, * azl> la.l, show that
methods in ExamPle 5.
ot al.
,, xinrl,3l
lfr.rl' Is the same result true
ar+a2
if lo, * azl>lazl is replaced by
,, A, + a2> ar?
l#-31'xin12,3l

SETS. SET NOTATION. GRAPHS

(numbers,
A set is a collection of objects. The objects may have any character
points, lines, etc.) so long as we know which objects are in a given set and
*hi"h u.. not. If S is a sei and P is an object in it, we write P e S and say that
p belongs to s or that P is an element of s. If s, and s, are two sets, their
is in at least
union, dinoted by S,uS2, consists of all objects each of which
n
on. oi tt . two seis. ihe intersection of 51 and 52, denoted by 51 52, consists
of all objects each of which is in both sets. Schematically, if sr is the
S,
horizontally shaded set ( Fig. 1 3) and S, the vertically shaded set, then S t u
consists of ihe entire shaded area and S, nS, eonsists of doubly
the shaded
atea. Similarly, we may'fqrm the union and interEection of any number
of
" sl,
R6URT 13 sets. when we write s, u s, u
. .. u s7 for the union of the seven sets s1, s2,..
of alt'Otements each of which is in at loast bne of the :7
this union consists
sets. The intersection of these 7 sets is written SrnSrn ""^Sr'It may
happen ihat two sets S, and 52 have no elements in common. In such a case

J,"V that theirintersection is empty, and we use the tetm ernpty set for the
"r
set which is devoid of mernbers.
sEcTtoN 15
1.4 Srr Nor noN.
SErs. Gr pHs

Most often we will deal with sets each of which is specified by some
property or properties of its elements. For example, we may ipeak
of the set of

{x: x: Zn and n is an integer}

to represent the set ofall even integers. In this notation the letter
x stands for
a generic element of the set, and the properties which determine
membership
in the set are listed to the right of thi coion. we recall that a rational
number
y gne $1h cen be expressed as a/b where a and D are integers rtil*u,,pt.,
517, -3l2,and 1713 are rational numbers. The symbol

{x: x e (e l) and x is rational}

represents the rational numbers in the open interval (0,
1). If a set has only a
few elements, we may specify it by listini its members
between bruor. thu,
the.symaol {-2,0,1} denotes the set whose elements are the
and l. Other examples are
ou*b;
- i: 0,
(0,2):{x:0< x<2},
12,14):{t:2<r<14}.
The last set is read as "the set of all numbers r such that
r is greater than or
equal to two and less than fourteen.',
To illustrate the use of the symbols for set union and set
intersection, we
observe that

U,3l: ll,2llvl2,3l, (0, l) : (0, co) n(

- m, 1).
Notation. The expression "if and only if," a technical one used frequentry in
mathematics, requires an explanation. Suppose A and, g
stand for propo-
sitions which may be true or false. To say trrut ,l is
trueif Bis rnre means that
the truth of B impries the truth of ,{. fue often shorte,
tiri. by
saying that I implies A, and we denote this by "-pi"ssion
B+ A.
The statement A is true onryif B is rrue means that the truth of z{ impries the
truth of 8. we shorten this expression by saying that-,4 i,mptiir-n,
and we
denote this by

A+ B.
The shorthand statement "/
is true if and only if g is true" is equivalent to the
double implication:the truth of ,4 impties and is impliea
uv ttreiiuir,-or r. a,,
further shorthand notation we use the symbol.* io,"p*"n; ;if
onry if,,,"
il
and we write

A+B
for the two implications above. The term rcces*rry
and sufficient is sometimes
used as a synonym for ..if and only if."

In Sections 1-3 we sawr that the study of inequalities is greatry

illuminated when we represent real numbers by
means of points on a Etraight
Iine. In the study of problems invorving t*o uoto*;;;"ll
corresponding geometric interpretation-is both usefur
sL tnat a
and i,oilrt*,.
 lovrQurunrr FuNcnoNs' THt tlNE
CHAPTTR 1

equallions and inequalities in two or

The determination of solution sets of
tn mathematics' especially from the
more upknowns is an important toplc of a soiution set"
;;i;; il;; of applications. The geometric representation
in the studv of analytic geom€trv'
;;Iil A. graph, is particularly heipful iology which witl be used throughout the
We now introduce
'"t" "t*f
text. It is essenrial ttrat tilr'eaoe;;;#ifamiliar
with these terms as quickly
numbers is denoted by R1' Any two
real numbers
as possible. The set of ,iii*f When the
a pair of numbers'
a artd bform a p"ir. f"i"-"mple' 2 and 5 arewe hu'e an ordered pair' The
i'
order ofthe pair ptttttiUta, *' that
from'uythe ordered pair 5 and 2' We usually
ordered pait 2 arrd 5 is different
with a comma separating the first
designate an ordered ;;'i;;;t;'theses
ordered pair consisting
and second elements;;#;' an rl used for the
l
oi tt . norUers a (first) and b (second)'

:
is called rhe number plane and is
DEflNtTtoNs The set o{ all ordered w1r, ?f7*t ""*irs pait is called number
o'aie'ed
uztlvt's
denotedi, Each indi'uidu'l
numfu f:i:-i!e
its-'coordinates'
^;
plane. The two eiements in a
cailed

ThenumberplanecanberepresentedonageometrrcorEuclideanplane.
plane' R2'
It is important that;e k;ep seiarate-'t'"."on"I"p' of theaumber
which is an abstra;; ;#* ;i;rdered
pairi from the..concept of the
object we studied in Euclidean
geometric pirn., *hi-.h iJiiri*"-ai*ensional
o'*;.*;";T$',o"an line, denote
, plane we draw a horizontal and a verricar
them as the r and , I'*tt, tttp"ctiveiy' 1"9
lt:t their point of intersection O
a convenient unit of
F;;. iili. prt{,; it tuiltd tht-origin' we select
zeto' mark off a number scale on the
length and, starting from the origin as
negative to the left' Similarly' we
horizontal u*ir, po,iiiitt'o ittt rlght and
axii' with po'ii" numbers extending
upward
insert a scale along ti"
"ttitut that the units along the
and negative ones downward' It is not
necessary
along the vertical axis'
horizontal u*i, t'uit tt" rame length
as the units
H6URE 14 them as equal'
we will usually take
"f,-fr""gf.r between the points of the
We now set up a one-to-one correspondence
number plane, R2, *a ii,, points of
thi Euclidean (geometric) plane. For
w-e construct perpendiculars from
P to
each point P in the Euclidean plane x axis is at
;;*; intersection with the
the coordinat. a*es, ;, in rig. 15. The
the y axis is at the point R" The distance
the point Q,andtt't int""""tion with
Q is to the right
of o and negative if
from the origin to ;;;;t;;positive-if
6i';;;;'"tti uv.o' Similarlv' the distance oR is denoted
Q is to the left
in it'" number plane Lorresponding to P
"f is (a' b)'
by b. Then trre point
there corresponds exactly one
conversely, to .u.r., point in the numbeiplane correspondence
point in the Euclidean plane' Because of the
-one-to-one frequently
the plane of Euclidean geometry,we
between the number plane and
;;;;;;;;" t".*, for the number plane. For example, a
find it conveni"nt tlo
>.t, .,line,,inrnenumbe"rpii*u"*4rn r*setofpbintscorrespondingtoalinein
the geometric Plane'
ThedescriptionaboveSuggeststhemet}'odlobeusedinplotting(thatis,
representing g**"t"*ffyl of the.number plane' When plotting
i"oints
HGURT 1s
 sEcTtoN 1.4 Ssrs. Sgr NorATtoN.
17
Gn*xs

points, we enclose the coordinates in parentheses

adjacent to the point, as
illustrated in Fig. 16.

DEFINITIONS Tlre.solution xt of an equation in Mo ilnknowns

consists oy rtt puirii tln
number plane, R2, whose. coordinates satisfy
th, ,quotiu,r.'i""g"o.rrrr,
repre.sentation of the sorution sd
lthat is, the actuar drawingl isiaaed the
graph of the equation.

The solution set of an equation in two unknowns

is, of course, a set in Rz.
It is a simple matter to extend the set
', sets in the number prane If s denotes the
notation already in,roar".ai;
2
#;.
set of ail (x, y) in R having certain
properties, which, for example, we ca1
A and B, we describe s as follows:
S : {(r, y): (x, y) has properties
.4 and B }.
As an illustration, if S is the solution set of the
equation
FIGURE 16 2x2 - 3yz :6,
we write

S = {( ., y): 2.+7 - Jyz : 6,r.

To construct the exact graph of the sorution
set.of some equation is
generaily impossible, since it would rbquire
the protting of infinitery many
points' Usually, in drawing a graph, we
general nature of the, graph, ploi these
select p"i"rr'i. exhibit the
points,"rroughrmn ttre
remaining points by drawing i "smooth "ni tt""ppr-oximate
through poirt, already
plotted. "u.u""
It is usefur to have a systematic method of choosing
points on the graph.
we can do this for an equation in two unknowns
when we can solve for one of
the unknowns in termsof the other. d;;,'iro,, the formura
assign varues to the unknown in the outuin"a]'#'l#
iormula and obtain values of the
unknown for which we.sorved. The corresponding
varues are then taburated
as shown in the examples below.

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch a graph of the solution set of

the equation 2x _t 3y: 5. Use set
notation to describe this set.

The solution set S in set notation is

S = {(x, y):2x * 3y : 5}.

To sketch a graph, we first solve for one
of the unknowns, say x. we find
,: * - ty. Assigning values to 1 we the following table.
"U"i,

Plotting these points, we see that they appear

EGIJIT 17 !v .v
J -rr--' to lie vu
on the
rus Dlralt'fl[
straight lln
rine shown
in Fig. 17.
tr
t8
lNreu^l'mEs. fuNc-tloN' Ttlt uM
cHAPrtn 1

2 Sketch a graph of the solution set of the

equation
EXAI\,IPLE

***:r.
25'16
set S'
Use set nbtation to describe the solution

+ (y2ltOr: 1}' Solving for y in terms of x'

we obtain
Solution S = {(x, y\: (xz 125\

y: xlJx-7.
Since x enters into the equation only
in the term involving x2' we may
abbreviate the table as indicated below'

0 t1 +2 +3 !4 +5
:
v +4 tt'tfr *Jn rf r* 0

L3.2 !2.4 0
y (apProx +4 !3.92 t3.67

Plotting these points, we see that they appear

to lie on the oval curve of
i;;. ifli;i;tr,at eact cotu*o"*.rpt iu.htrt and last really represents four
n
FIGURE 18
points. What happens if we choose x > 5 or x < - 5?

4 PROBLEMS

given-as the union or 13 x*y:Q 14 3x+2Y:6

In each of Problems I through 6, a set S is
i"itit*,i", of sets of rcal n-umbers' Describe the sets without 15 y=|x2 16 x=1Y2
;r*e;; ;;ion or intersection svmbol' {Example: The set 17 y-x2-4 lE x:Y2-l
sl-[0, il rtr, 3) can bc describcd as s = [0' 3)) 19 y:x2-2x-3 20 Y=x2-2x+3
I S= [-1, 2)u[], 3]u(2, 7l 2l xz+y2=25 22 x2+Y2:9
2 s:[-a,6)n[3,8] 23 4xz * y2:36 ?4 x2 - Y2 :!
3 S: {2, 6, 8}u{1,6, 8}u{Q 5,9}
23 Zxz *y2:17 26 x7 -y2 *9:0
a S: [0, 2)ala,7) 27 y:-x2+2x+3 28 Y=$x3
s S = {{2, 5,e}u{4, 6, 10}}n{3,6, 1l}
29 y:x3-4x 30 Y=x3-3r*?
6 S: [-5, l]n[-3, 8]n{O 2l 31 2x2 + 3xy + y2 :0 (fllnr: lHrite as a quadlatic il y')
each of the following
Sketch a graph of the solution sct S of 32 x2+xy+Y3=5
equations" 33 2x2 +-3xi+ y? + 2x + 3Y= i6
7 x-Y:$ E x+3Y:l 34 x7-5x*6-0 35 y=fxl
9 y-2x=4 10 3x - 2Y:6 36 y:lr-11+t 37 Y=l/(lxl+f)
11 x:4 17 y= -l
 19
srcrroN 1.5 fuxcnors Rncnol^I' norrnon

t. !

FUNCTIONS. FUNCTTONAL NOTATION

In rnathcmar.ics and many of the physical scienccs, sirnplc ['rmulus.ccur

repcatedly. For cxample, if r is the radius of a circle an<I I is its area. then
. A:nr2.
If heat is added to an ideal gas in a container of fixed volume, the pressure p
and the tcmperature 7'satisfy the relation

P:q+cT
tvhere a and c are fixed numbers with values depending on the properties .f
the gas, the units used, and so forth.
The relarionships expressed by these formulas are simple examples of the
concep'r of lunction, to be defined precisely later. However, it is noi essential
tha-i a I'unction be associated with a particular formula. As an example,
consider the cost c in cents of mailing a package which weighs x grams.
Suppose postal regulations in some country state that the cost is'.61 per gram
or fraction thereof." We can construct the following table:

Weight x
in grams 0<.x<l l<x<2 2<x<3 3<x<4 4<x<5
Cost C
in cents t2 l8 24 30

This table could be continued until x: the maximum weight permitted by

postal regulations. To each value of x between 0 and the *u*irnu. weight
there corresponds a precise cost C. we have here an example of a function
rclating x and C.
_ It frequently happens that an experimenter finds by measurement that
the numerical value y of some quantity depends in a unique way on the
measured value -x of some other quantity. It is usually the casi that no known
formula expresses the relationship between x and y. All we have is the set of
ordered pairs (x,.y). In such circumstances, the entire interconnection
between x and y is determined by the ordered pairs. often this corre-
spondence is denoted by a letter such as
/, which indicates that each value of
yis obtained from a particular value of x. we write y:f(x) to show the
relationship. If D denotes the set of alr values of x which octur, and E the set
of all values of y which occur, then / indicates that each value in D gives rise
to precisely one value in E. The value y in E is denoted
/(x). (see Fig. r9.)

lt = IQ')

I)orrrairr
Ft6utr 19
20
tNreuAlmts. FuNcjrtoNs. Txr uxe
CHAPIER 1

a
set of numbeis D
from a set of numbers !-i:-!
to each numb" * i7 -too
O
correspontlence thatassigns ""i!,y:,".1-:O:::^!\:rY',
";:,:,7;;i':\" i;';;;;;;;;;;p;;;,*' rhe sit D is catted the domain or the
i""rrin, i *,t ihe ,et E it th' f"
'41'd 'h' '""g" "f
An example of a function is given b1 the formula for the area y of a
i'
,qrui. *t,"re side has lt,;i; ''; i'J, y:f wt may write f {1) 1x2' and we
see tha-t for each ,alue of-* > 0 we ;btain
a number which is the area of a
Squareofsidex.ThedomainDofthisfunction,i.e.,thesetofallpossible
(0, .o), and the range E, i'e., the set of
values of r, is the haltinfinite interval (0' oc')'
values for the area y, is the half-infinite interval
"fip"tSUf. the temperature T and
The formula P:3 +27, a particular case relating
thepressurep,isanexampleofafunction.HeretheletterTreplacestheletter
we have a function since to
x and the letter p repluce, the letter.v' However'
value of p. we write p :l(Tl
each value of T there corr"rponds eiactly one
the range of p depend on
for the iunction e :3 ; ir.ln" domain of T and
so forth'
ii"
' p".il.trrr conditions of the gas, the container of the gas' and
a function'
Th. example oi poriat ,utt'liutn in Table I also represents
expresses the cost .f mailing c
although no simple ror*rru is aviilable which
in terms of the weight x. We may still write C
:f
(x) and use-the^table to find
:
grams, then C 24 cents' We :
a value of C for .ach ,. For ex#ple, if x 3|
call this function the postage function'
as a set of
From a geometriJ;;in"t of ,ie* a function can be considered
This interpretation is
ordered pairs (x, y;, *f,"t. y is identified with l(x)'
ii" gtuptt of a function' Consequently' we make the
useful in constructing
following alternate definitlon o[ a function'

two pairs
DETINITIONS ,4 function is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) of real numbers in which no
Ii
other lpords, rc each ualue of x (the
frst member
f
haue the same rst element.
y (the second member ) ' The
uqlue of
of the pair 1 there corresponds exactly..one
the function' and the set
srt ,,,f all ualues of r which occur is called
the
lomain:tf
u1ait y which occur is called th"'
WhenwewishtoConst.ructthegraphofafunction,thedefinitionintermsof
implied by the term function
ordered pairs is most uselui. The speciil property
parallel ti the y axis intersects the graph no more than
assures us ihat every line
graph of a lunction
on.. tfig.20). Thevertical lines which pass through the
points of intersiction with the x axis form a set called
intersect the x axis. These
theprojectiononthexaxis.Thisprojectionisthedomainofthefunction
furnction intersect the y axis
rrig. zot. Horizontal lines through t'he graph of the range o[ the
and these intersections form alet *hi.h *t recognize
as the
is the projection o4 the y axis of the graph of the
function. That is, the range
graph of a function many
function. Note that horizontal lines may intersect the
times.
, It is important to be able to discuss functions and their propertles
withoutactuallyspecifyingtheparticularoneswehaveinmind.Forthis
stand for
purpose we use , ,yrntof uruuily a letter of the alphabet' to
a
FICURE 20
letters most often used are {, g, *, G, o,a. Sometimes, if a
function. The
so that,
problem concerns many different functions, subscripts are employed,
would for three different functions'
,'for example , f ,, fr, 6 "rd
stand
 21
SECTION 1.5 R NcnoNs FuNcnoMr NorAnoN

Several symbols for function are now in common use. one such is
f : xr* y, where x is a generic element of the domain of and is the element
/ 1,
of the range which is the image of x. Another notation for function is
f:Dr--D,r,where D, is the set forming the domain of / and D, is the set
forming the range.
When specifying a function /, we must give its domain and a precise rule
for determinin-g the value 9f /(x) for each .x in the domain. For the most part,
we shall give functions by means of formulas such as

'f(')=x2-x+2'
Such a formula, by itselt does not give the domain of x. Both in this case and
in general, we shall take it for granted that if the domain is not specified,, then
any ualue of x may be inserted in theformula so long as the result ma'kes sense.
The domain shall consist of the set of all such ualues x.
In prescribing a function by means of a formula, the particular letter useil
is usually of no importancei:. The function F determined by the formula

f(x): x3-2x2+5
is identical with the function determined by

r(r)-t3_2t2+5.
The difference is one of notation only.

DUIMPLE 1 Suppose that f is the function defined by the equation

f(x):x2-)x-3'
Find /(0), f ( t), f ( * 2), f {2),
- f (t),
f (3), and f ( f (x)),plot a graph of / for
the portion of the domain in <x<
-2 3.

Solution We have

"f(0) =
02 -2.0-3= -3, f(-r):(-l)2 -Zi_l)-3:0,
f(-2) :(-2)2 -2-(-2)-3:5, Ie) :22 -2.2-3: -3,
"f(3)
: 32 2'
- 3- 3 :0, f(t)=t2 -2t-3.
The difficult part is finding f (f (x)), and here a clear understanding of
the meaning of the symbolism is needed. The formula defining means that
whatever is in the parentheses in
/
"f( ) is substituted in the right'side. That is,
f U$)) = (f (x)12 _ 2.(f (x,t\ _ 3.

However, the right side again has /(x) in it, and we can substitute to get
f(f(x)) : (x2 _ 2x _ 3)2 _ 2(x' _ 2x _ 3) -:3
:x4-4x3-4x2+l6x*12.
To plot the graph we compute

,f(l):12-2'l-3:-4
and assemble all the results above to obtain the following table.
 lr{Equnrnrs. Fuxcrmr'rs Tff uNE
CHAPTER 1

f(*) = v
tr
The graPh is Plotted in Fig' 2l'
become unwieldy, and we may use
sometimes successions of parentheses
the same as /(/(x))'
brackets or braces *i,i,t"1"''ie meaning: f Lf$))is
If we write
g(x): xt +2x-6' -2<x<3'
ihismeansthatthedomainofthefunctiongistheintervall._2,3).Ilinthe that g
same formula, the portion -2 <x ( 3 were omitted' we would assume
(-o' o)' This
is defined by that fo;;iu i' atl; the
domain would be
by the
we may define a function F
opens up many possibilities' For example'
following conditions iii,. F'dehned in this wav has the interval
f.,i.il",
[- 1, 5] for its domain):
F(x) : - rr==r.1r,
{r.rr*_r;;r;,
Formulaswhichdefinefunctionsmayhaveobviousimpossibilities'If
in a position to find
not.*pri"iuv"ioioltJr$;, ih" rr"d", should be
these are
flGURt 21
them. For examPle,
1

fr(x):; -1
is a function defined for all values of x
except x : 3, since division by zero is

always excluded. If

Ir{x) =
thenitisclearthatthedomainof/,cannotexceedtheintervalfrom
_2to+2'sinceimaginarynumbersa,reexcluded.Anyvalueofxlarger',.
than 2 or less than - 2 is impossible'

Discuss the distinction between the

function
gAlfPt"E 2
F(x) : x2 -4 and' G(x) : 75 L' 2'

I
t: - =4 is $ctorable into (x - 2)(x + 2\' at first glance it
Sotution Since the expression all of
the dornain of G is
appears ,iuilt. functions urq tt e same.
However,
rnut'il, ;il;;"ri r"lr.. For the function F, however, there is
"pr. for x, both numerator and
difficulty u"i ;;. ii ,iir--',]"fr- is inserted
denominatorareZ,eto.TherpforeFandGareidenticalforallvaluesofx
except'=; ;;t;:z t"t ['une G(2\:4' Fol x:2 the function F is nor
other quantity, at our pleasure'
tlefnetl.we couta define F(2) to be 4 or any
I But we would have to specily that fact' If we
write

xz -4 :4,
F(x): x_z and F(2\ '
 23
sEcTtoN'r.s FuNCfloNs. FuNcnoi{ L NorAnoN

then this function is identical with G. This may seem to be a minor point, but
we shall see later that it plays an important part in portions of the catculus.
LJ

DUIMPLE 3 Given that f (x) : x2, show thit

f (', + y2) : f lf G)) + f lf ( y)) + 2f (x) f ( yt.

f(x'+ y'):1x2 + y2)'-= xa +2x2y2 + ya,

f lf txll:f lx\: (*')': -r4,
I Lf $1:f lyz): (y')' : yn,
2f (x)|iy):2x'Y'.
Adding the last three lines, we obtain

llf lf (y)l + 2f (x) f (y):

G)l +f x4 * 1'a + 2x2 y2,

which we have seen is just /(x2 + y2). tr

EXAMPTE 4 Given f(x): lxl, plot the graph.

Solutiori From the definition of absolute value, we have

x for x>0
JG):{I
[_x for x<0. ^

We set up the table of values:

x 0ll
y:f (x)

The graph is shown in Fig. 22. Note that the graph has a corner at the origin.
n

FIGURE 22

5 PROBTEMS

Civen that /(x):.x2+1, find f(-4'1, f (0), f (t), f (2\,,f(3), and .f (a- tl. ptot a graph of
"f(-3), f(-Z\, rhe
f (- t), _f $), f (l), f (2!,, f (3\. Plot the graph of the equarion equation f :"ft_t) for -3 <.x < 3.
y:f (x\ for -4 < x < 3. 5 Given that
Given that f(xl:x2 *x+ l, find /(
-21, .f(-t), .f(0),
f (l), f (2), /(3). Plot the graph of the equation : / (x) for
-2 <x< 3.

Given that f(xl : x2*

-y
rr'r = lrlj'
- 3x /( -3),,f( -2), /(- l),
2, find
rind /( *4), /r -:), fl-2t,./( l], .f tol. f tl), t( 1000).
./(0), /(l), f(21, l9l, and f(a+2). plot a graph of the - -
equation y=IGl ficr f(1000). and l'[/(x)]. Is -l
in the domain of /'? ptot I
-3<x<3. graph of / for .r on [-4. ll using the values above anil
Given that /{x) = {x3 rx * 3, find /( Ie2l,.f( - l),
-31, additional values niar - i.
 lxiquluns. FuNcnoNs' THE tlNE
cHA'PTtR 1

17 Given /(x) :1tr-r--, what is the domain of /?

6 Plot a graph
Civen the function (ffinr, iornpf.te the square under the radical')
ot f.
lx- I lE Given the function
^''):2:=' l' *.1' O' l' 2' 3' 4'
find /(-x) for x: - 1000, -4, - -2' ' f(x): x2 -2x -3
<iomain of /? Plot a
1000. Also n.a /i/(xil' Is J in the
values above and
graph of / for x t" i]+'+j using the defined
uOaitionut values near j'
find the domain of /' Give, by formula' a function
;;;;ii ; in R rvhich coincides with
1 / wherever / is defined'
7 Given that /(x) :x2 -'2, frnd /[/{;tx)}]' 19 Same as Problem 16 for the function
8 Given that /(x) :a3 - 2x+ 1, find /{/t/(.)l} ('+ 2)(-'-L 6*:16)(1j.
9 Given the function Jtxt:- $_z\@_4x_12\ .

f$l:;+, In Problems 20 through 26,find the value

of

f{x+hJ-f$).
/(x) for x : - 1000, -3'
1000' Show
find -
:2' l'o: Rr' Plot a graph
,fur'fi-rl : -/(x) for all values of x in''ll3'
h

of/ior x on [-3.3]' and sirnPlifY, assuming rhal h + A'

l0 Civen that 20 f(x) : x2 21 f(x) :2x2 + x - 3

- fT*t
: Il-.\+', 712 f 1x\: x3 Zl 16:!
I
show that za ftxt:!, 25 f(i:yG, x>o
/(x) -/(Y) : x- Y
l+/(x)/(/) 1+xY 26 f txt: V;: * 3
whenever both sides are defined'
27 lf f (x):r/i, show that

rr civen f(x\:lG+t' frnd /(-1), /(0]' f(rl' tQ)' f

(3)'
[i9-rot :-
,-b
1-
What is ihe domain of l? Plot its graph' tt'l+ttU
12 Given /(x) : ll, what is the domain of /? Find /(x) 2E A functron is.linear if it has the form flx):ax*D for
-
lx x on /
fo, *: -2, -1,0, l,2,3,4andplotagraphof/for some numbers a and b'lf f andg
are linear functions' show
that /+g is a linear function' Show that l[g]
t-2,41. is a linear
13 Given f (x):3-lx+ 1l' find /(x) for x: -4' -3' -2' function."Under what circumstances
is /'g linear?

- f, O, i, 2 and plot a graph of / for x [-4' of Plot 29 Given f {x):2x- I' g(x) ; xz +2' h(x): l1+ 1' find
on 2]'

14 Given ,f(r): lxl +lx-21, what is the domain /? /lgttr(x)]l'

the graPh for x on l-3,2)' 30 The volume of a sphere of radius r is given by the
formula
l5 Given
4-
3 f(rl : 1nt" '
/(r)=lr_rl'
volume is multiplied
Show that if the radius is doubled' the
what is the domain of /? Plot the graph for x on l-2' 1)
by a factor of 8.
and x on (1,31.
of /? 3lFindafunctionihatgivesthevolumeofasphereifthe
16 Given 1111:o{Fr)G-3), what is the domain radius of the sphere is t-he square root of thc
area of a circle
-2 and 6' using several
Pl"i t."ptt o"f ; fot'x between
of radius r.
" close to 1 and 3'
values
sEcTtoN 1.5 RErATtoNs. lxrrnceprs. AsvmrrorEs
25

RELATIONS. INTERCEPTS. ASYMPTOTES

DEFINITIONS The solution set of qn equation in two unknowns,

relation.. TIre domain of a r eration is the set
say x and y, irffi
of alr number, *o"r"n that the
:
uertical line x xo intersects the graph of.the reiatior.
rh" rangl ofi'retotion is
W ,t t, ;rth ,r* tfu 6ai"tit line y: yo intersects the graph.
^l
Figure 23 shows the_ graph of a typical relation. we see that
x : xo.intersects rhe ggaph in three poinis while
the line
the tine y : yo iniirre"t, tt e
graph in two points. unlike a functlon, it
is not necessary that in a reration
vertical lines such as x:xo intersect the graph
in only p"lri.if we are
connecting"r"
given a relation in x and y, that is, an equatlon
the variabres x and
y, then we can determine its domain
by performing ,n. foifo*lngi;;;;i,
we solue for y in terms o/x. (we caution that this i;
step i" rrt"r"*t possible.)
(ii) In the resulting expression or expressions
in x, we determine thosi varues of
x for which at least one of the expressions has meaning. The domain is
totality of such values of x. To find the range, the
we perform steps (i) and (ii)
with-the roles of -x and y interchanged. Severar
examples illustrate the
method.

domain

A relation in E2
FIGURC 23

EXAMPI.E 1 Find the domain and the range of the

relation defined by
12:x2-4xi-3.
Solution To find the domain *:.fi:rt solve for y in terms of x. Setting (x) :
f 3, we see that y2:f (x) and f xz _ 4x

Y: + Jf u), y: _ r[f6.
26
ffir*t ,rt. FuNcrloNs' THE UNE
CHAPTTR 1

when /(x) is
-t'itt' /t'i]o' it att"t*ine
Sincethereisnorealnumberwhichis-thesquarerootofanegativequantity'
the domain consists "i"ii''r"t
' nonnegativ., ir'" t-pi"ttit i' - 4x I 3'we obtain
*t f"tto' '
f (x\ : xz - 4x* 3 = (x - l)(x - 3)'
both factors are
factors are positive or
and f is positive whene'rer borh for x > 3 and both
nesative. The factors ;: ;aij ; 3 are uoin'fotiti'" is the set
f";; . i The domain of the relation
ffi;il
u [3, + oo)'
( - oo, 1l
the relation
for x in terms of y' From
To find the range we solve
{.2_ 4x*3-Y2:$'
we obtain
-2t$ +7.
the range is (-m' + m).
A graPh of the
Since + 1
1'2 is Positive for all ),,
,"iu,ion is sketched in Fig'
24'
flGURt 24
or not the solution
Given the equatioa + x'v - 4 :0' determine whether
'x2 how it can
EXAMPTE 2 pro'lt'i e'upt' s.1t^'ot a function' show
set S is a function' and range'
functions' Find the domain
"i's.'.rf
;;t;;";i:;';ral
be represented as the

for y' we find

Solution Solving the above equation
4-*'
x2+x)'-4:0 + !=-i-- -4* _*
set of the equation
y:{4lx)- x. Since there is only
The set S is the solution function /
s'it a fun'ction''ln fact' s is the
one value of y for t";';;l;;;r ''
defined bY
4-x2
f(x):
: solve for
0' To find the range' we
The domain consists.of
all x in R1 except x
x in terms of Y, getttng
r_;_-
+16\'
*:lrt-y!JY2
side of the above
be inserted in the right
all possible values of -v may
Since
expression, rhe range
t, io piot the graph we make the following
"ii "r ^;.
table:
I
-4 -3 -2 -t 2

-t -3 -3
(x) : Y. -3
"f
table. since / is
smooth curve through the points plotted from the
we draw a or the
uni Ttll to set an indication
;;;;;; ;i-
not defined for x = o, i,
EGUTf, 5 t"i"riot of near x:0' (See Fig' 25')
/
 27
srcTloN 1.6 . ReunoNs. lrrErcErrs. AsyMprorrs

EXIIMPLE 3 Let S be the solution set of the equation xa 4x2 * y, :0. plot the graph of
-
S. IfS is not a function, show how it can be represented as the union ofseveral
functions.

Solution Solving for y. we note that

xn-4x2 *y':A !:*x 4-x2
Thus s is a relation which is the union of two functions
f, andl, defined by
fJx) : *r/4 - *' and fr(x): - xuT - *r. We obtain the following table:
x +2 ,-l
+l -r-
,l
0

v 0 t*.,f; \E ti$, 0

y epprox. 0 + 1.98 + 1.73 +0.97 0

The graph is shown in Fig-. 26. Note that fi and f2 are defined implicitty by
thr equation - x4 4x2 * yz : O. tr
we now discuss several facts about graphs which are easily obtained
from the equation and which are substantial aids in construciing quick,
accurate graphs. Later we shall see how the methods of calculus can be used
ftcuRt 25 to get additional information about alraph before it is drawn.
It is useful to know where a graph crosses the x and y axes.

DEFlNlTloNs A point at which a graph cros.se.t the x axis is called an x intercept; a point
where it crosses the y axis is called a y intercept.

EXAMPLE 4 Find the,x and y intercepts of the graph of

x2-3y2*6x-3y:7.
Sotution Setting -y: 0, we get
x2 + 6x * 7 :0; thus x: -7 x: I
The x intercepts are ( - 7, 0) and ( 1, 0).
Setting x :0, we get

3y2+3y*7:0; thus y: -3 t !t-B

since the solutions for y are complex numbers, there are no y intercepts
and
the graph does not intersect the y axis. tr
:! Li
lNEeuAUnEs. FuNcrloNs. Tnr uxr
CHAPTTR 12

EXAMPLE 5 Given the curve with equation

l(xz - l\:2'
find the intercepts and sketch the graph'

Solutioir Setting x:0, we get y - -2, which is the y intercept; y: 0 Yields the
impossible statement 0: 2' and the curve has no x intercePt. We make uP a
table of values:

Weseethatasxincreases,the'valuesofygetcloserandclosertozero.onthe
:
other hand, there is no value of y correspondirtg to x 1 or -
1' In order to
get a closer'look at what happens when x.is near 1, we construct
an auxiliary
t-able of values for x near 1. We obtain the following set of values:

As x moves cJoser 1 from the left, the corresponding values of y become

to
the values of y
large negative numbers' As .x approaches 1 from the right'
in Fig. . The portion
UeJome Iarge positive numbers. The curve is sketched
27

RGURT 27
sf cTloN 1.5 RETATIoNS. INfENCETTS. ASYMPTOTES

to the left of the 1, axis is a reflection of that to the right of the y axis since
negative values of x yield the same values of y as do positive values of x.
D
In Example 5, the vertical line through the point (1,0) shown inFig.27
plays a special role. The curve to the right ofthe line gets closer and closer to
this line as the curve becomes higher and higher. In fact, the distance between
the curve and the line tends to zero as the curve continues upward beyond all
bound. Such a line is called a vertical asymptote to the curve. Similarly, the x
axis is called a horizontal asymptote, since the distance between the curve and
the x axis tends to zero as x increases beyond all bound. A knowledge of the
location of the vertical and horizontal asymptotes is of great help in sketching
the curve. We now give a rule (which works in many cases) for finding the
asymptotes.

RUIE To locatc the vefiical asymptotes, solue the equationfor y in terms ol x. lf the
result is a quotient td two expressions inuoluing x,.find all those ualues of x for
which the denominator uanishes and the numerator does not. If a is such a ualue,
the uertical line through the point (a,O) will be a uertical asymptote . To locste
the horizontal asymptotes , xtlue for x in terms of y , and find those ualues of y for
which the denominator uanishes (and the numerqtor does not).If b is such a
oalue, the horizontal line throu{h the point (0, b) ,s a horizontal asymptote.

Two examples illustrate the technique.

TXAMPLE 5 Find the intercepts, domain, range, and asymptotes, and sketch a graph of the
equation (x2 - 41yz :1.

Solution a) Intercepts: The value -y: 0 yields no r intercept; when x :0, we have
!2: *i, and there are no y intercepts.
b) Domain: Solving for y in'terms of x:

l': *

The domain is all x with lxl> 2.

c) Range: Solving for x in terms of y:x: +rff+4y,1y. The range is all y

except y:0.

dl Asymptotes; To find the vertical asymptotes, we use the expression in part

(b) for the domain, Setting the denominator equal to zero, we have the
vertical lines x :2, x:
- 2 as asymptotes. To find the horizontal asymptotes,
we use the expression in part (c) for the range. Setting the denominator equal
to zero, we have the horizontal line ):0 as an asymptote. The graph ir
sketched in Fig.28. n
 lrsQultfi ls. fu NcrrcN$ THE urd
CHAPTEI 1

RGURE 20

graph of
E(AMPIE 7 Find the intercepts, domain, range, and asymptotes, and sketch the
the equation
x2Y:x-3'
Solution a) Intercepts: If y:0, then x:3'and the x intercept is 3' Setting x:0 yields
no y intercePt.
b) Domain: Solving for y in terms of x, we find
' v-
x-3

The domain is all x # 0.

c\ Range:To solve for x, we write the equation yx2 - x * is3 :0' The solution
of tnit equation in x obtained by the quadratic formula
, - ,r,
\ ^- J:2y
*:, 1f v *0.

The original equation shows that x: 3 when ): 0' The range is all y < it;
FtGLnt 29 that is, (-*,#).
d\ Asymptotes: The line x:0 is a vertical asymptote' The line l:0 table:
is a
horizontal asymptote. To draw the graph we construct the following

xl-+i-3l-21-l 2l3l4l5
y l-*l -+l -i I -a I -z I -* I o ltlil
The graph is sketched in Fig.29.
n
 31

RELAnoNs. lNrEncETs. AsY{rrofts

sEcrloN 1.6

6 PROBLEMS

b) Construct an equation which has the x axls as an

In Problems I through 33, find in each case the intercepts' the graph crosses the x axis 3
if any' asymptote and such that
domain, range, and veitical and horizontal asymptotcs' for constructing such equdtions
times. State a method
Also sketch the graPh. is any positive
where the number of crossings is n' where n
I Y=4*' 2 y':2x integer.
3 y': -4x 4 Y2 :2x'4
35 F ind the range and intercepts of the solution set I -
of y I I

5 Y:1-*' 6 xY:$ : lx - 21. Draw the graPh.

7 x2Y:g 8Y':*'+5 36 Discuss the solution set of
9 2xx - 3y' :6 lo9x2-4y2+36:0
ll 2x2 + 3yz :6 12 3x2 + : 18
2y2 lx-21
/-1x+31
13 xy2 :6 14 v2:l-2x1
15x2+xv*v2:12 16 y2 - xY:) for intercepts, asyrnptotes, range, and domain' Draw the
11 y2(x + 1) :4 l8 -v(,r2 - 1) : I graph.

19 x2(y2 - 4) :4
range' and
20 .r2(y -21 =2 37 Civen ly'- tl:l.x+21. Discuss for domain'
2l (x2 + l\y' :4 22 y1(x - 2\ + 2: i) intercePts. Draw the graPh'
l)(x-3):a and plot the graph of the equation
23 y(x- 1)(x-l):a 24 v2(x* - Discuss for intercepts
38
if (x,, y,) and (xr, yr) are on the
26 x2\y2 - 4\ -- 4y
x:y + ly'. Show ihat
25 x{y2 -4\:2Y g."ptt uni lr < lz,then .x, <x2'(Hint: Consider the cases
27 y2 + 2x: x' .Y2
28 Ya:Y'-x' 6 <r' . yr, y, <0 < yr, !r 1!z< 0') Would
you say that
29 ya:4(x'- y'\ 30 -x2-Y2 : x- 2 the solution set is a function?
3l y2(x2 - ll: x + 2 32 (x2 - 4)Y' -- x' - |
39 Let n be anY integer. Define
3l Sy(x - 1)(x - 3) :2(5x + 3)
f(x) = n for n<x<n+ l,n:0' +l' +2' ""
*34 a) A curve may closs an asymptote, as demonstrated in
the x axis' a) Plot the graPh of /.
Fig. 29. where we see that the graph crosses
its graph crosses its b) Plot the graPh of 8(x) : x -f (xl'
CJnsruct an equation such that
c) Plot the graph of l'{x + il.
asymptote twice.

DISTANCE FORMULA. MIDPOINT FORMUTA

We consider a rectangular coordinate system with the unit of measurement

the same along both coordinate axes. The distance between any
two points in
it pt"n" is tf,e length of the line segment joining them. We shall.derive a
Pz@2, Y'z\ "
formula for this distance in terms of the coordinates of the two points"
Let Pr, with coordinates (xr, y1), and P2, with coordinates (x2, Iz), be
two points, and let d denote the length of the segment between P, and P,
(Fig.30). Draw a line parallel to the y axis through Pr, and do the same
itrriugtt Pr. These lines intersect the x axis at the points -A(xr,!) and
L- .-+ r' f(xr,-O).1fhe symbol ,{(x,,0) is to be read'the point 'n witlr.coordinates
I.t(rr, o) i B(r2,0)
(r,, d).';) i.tow diaw a line through P, parallel to the x axis; this line inters:cts
itre.uirticat through P2 and B at a point C(x2, y,)'

-
CHAPTER 1 lNEeurt.mrs. FuNcroNs. Trr uxr

The length of the segment between P, and C (denoted lP, Cl) is equal to
the length lABl.lf x, is to the right of x, (as shown in the figure), then the
length of lABlis x2 - xr. If x, were to the left of x,, the distance would be
Xr-xz.In either case, the length of lABl is easily written by using abso-
lutevaluenotation: lABl: lx, - xrl.Similarly,thelengthof lPrCl :lyz- ytl.
It is a good exercise for the reader to check the correctness of these facts
when the points P, and P, are in various quadrants of the plane.
We note that triangle P tP 2C is a right triangle, and we recall from plane
geometry the Pythagorean theorem: "The sum of the squares of the legs of a
right triangle is equal to the square of the hypotenuse." Applying the
Pythagorean theorem tc triangle PrP2C, we get

lPrPrl2 :lPtC12 +lP2C12 or d2:lxz- x,l'+ lyr-- yrl'.

This may also be u'ritten
d2 : (xz- x,), + (y, - yr),
and, extracting the square root, we obtain:

DEFINITION (Distance Formula) The distance d between two points Pr(.xr, yr) and
Pr(xz, y-r) is defined to be

Notation. The distance d between any two distinct points is always positiue
and, in keeping with this, we shall always use the square-root symbol without
any plus or minus sign in front of it to mean the positive square root. If we
wish to discuss the negative square root of some number, say 3, we write
-v3.
EXAMPIE I Find the distance between the points P,(1. l) and P:(5.r-2).
Solution We substitute in the distance formuia and get

d : 16 * 31t;1:1:1V : J4 +e : rn u

EXAtvtPlf 2 The point P,(5, -2) is 4 units arvay from a second pcint Pr, whose y
coordinate is 1. Locate the point Pr.

Solution The point P, will have coordinates (x2, 1). From the distance formula we
have the equation

4: Ja,;* -, 1t:-[]l/
To solve for x,, we square both sidcs and obtain

t6:(-rz-5)r+9 or x,-5:+tn.
- _v

There are two possibilities for xr:

xz:5+{, 5-!n.
sEcrloN 1.7 Dsrrxce ForMur. AffDroNr r(ltrtrur

In other words, there are two points Pr, one at (5 + ,fi,1) and the other at
6 - ,f;,l), which have y coordinate 1 and which are 4 units from P,' D
Let A(xr,0) and B(x2,0) be two points on the x axis' We define the
directed distance from ,4 to B to be x, - xr. lf B is to the right of z{, as shown
.t(rr,0) B(.r2, 0)
in Fig. 31(a), the directed distance is positive. tf B is to the left of .4, as in
(a)
ng. ir(Ul, iire directed distance !s negative. If two points C(0, yt) and
D6, yJ ui. on the y axis, the rlirected distance from C to D is similarly defined
B(c2,0) A(r1,0)
to'# yr-yr. Directed distances are defined only for pairs of points on a
ih)
coordin-ate aiis. while ordinary distance between any two points is always
positive, note that directed distance may be positive or negative.
R6IRE 31

Pz@z' az)
l*t Pr(x',yr) and Pr(xr,)z) be any two points in the plane' We show
how to fini tie ciordinates of the midpoint of the line segment ioining Pt atd
P2. Le; P, with coordinates (i, l), be the midpoint" Through Pr, P, and P2
dr-aw parallels to the y axis, and through P, a parallel to the x axis, forming
Pr(t1, y v)
the triangles shown in Fig. 32. We recall from plane geometrY lhe statement,
..A
line parallel to the base of a triangle which bisects one side also bisects the
other side." Since PC is parallel to-PzD and P is the midpoint of P1P2, it
c follows that C is the midpoint of PrD. We see at once that Ais the midpoint
of ArBr.The coordinates of ,4, are (x1,0), the coordinates of Aate (i,0), and
thosi oi B, are (xr, 0)" Therefore the directed distance z{1,4 must be equal to
HGLNE 32 the directed distance .48,. From the definition of directed distance we have
i-xr:xz-i
and, solving for x, we obtain

-H##HftH#$#trtr

If we perform the same argument for the y coordinates, the result by analogy
is

Thus we have established the Midpoint Formule. The midpoint (i, y) of the
line segment joining Pr(rr, yr) and P2(x2, y2) is
(i, y) : (l(x, * xz),i(y, + yz)).

E;,qMpt"E 3 Locate the midpoint of the line segment joining the points P(3, -2) and
Qe4,5).
Solution From the above formula,
- 3-4
f:-A-:-i I and l:- -2+5 3
D
2 =1.
g Mpf"E I Find the length of the line segment joining the poinr A(7, -2\ to the
midpoint of the line segnent betwecn the points B(41) and C(3' -5).
CHAP.TIT 1 lNEeuAuflcs. FuNcnols' THE ut{t

Solution The midpoint of the line segment between B and C is ar

_ 4+3 _ 1-5 : ^
y:--2 7
^- 2 -2' -2.
From the distance formula applied to / and this midpoint we have
a:r/W:1r. tl
EXAMPTE 5 A line segment AB has its midpoint at C(5, - 1). Point ,4 has coordinates
(2,3); find the coordinates of B.

Solulion In the midpoint formula, we know that i: 5, | = - l, 11 = 2, lr:3, and we

have to find x2, y,r. Substituting these values in the midpoint formula, we get

2+ x. 3+v,
2' -1- T,
and
x2:8, lz: -5. it

7 PROBLEMS

ln Problems I through 4. find the lengths of the sides of the 15 Show that the triangle with vertices at A(O,2), 8(3,0),
triangles with the given points as vertices. C(4, 8) is a right triangle.
t A(4.1). B(2, - I), C(- I,s) 16 Same as 15, with A(3,2),8(1,l), C(-1,5).
2 A( - 1,0i. B(5. 2), C(3. -21 17 Show that the quadrilateral with vertices at (3,2), (0,5),
( -3,2), (0, - l) is a square.
3 A(3, -4t. BQ,r),C(6, -2) '18 Show that the diagonals of the quadrilateral with the
4 A(4,0),8(0, -2),C(5,7)
following vertices bisect each other: (
-4, *2), (2, -- 10),
In Problems 5 and 6, locate the midpoints of the line segments (8, - s), (2, 3).
joining the given points.
19 Same as 18, for (5, 3), (2, -3), ( -2, l), ( 1, 7).
s P,(2.5).P2(7. -4) 6 A(3,71, B(8, -12t 20 The four points A(l,l), B(3,2), C(7,3), D(0,9) form the
ln Problems 7 and 8. locate the three points which divide the vertices of a quadrilateral. Show that the midpoints of the
line segment joining P, and P, into four equal parts. sides are the vertices of a parallelogram.

7 t'i(1,1), P2{-2,5) 8 Pr(4, O), P2( -1, -2, 2l a)Show how directed distances may he defined in a natural
way for pairs of points on a line parallel to a coordinate
9 The.midpoint of a line segment AB is at the point P(-4,
axis.
-3). The point .,1 has coordinates (8, -5). Find the b) Using the defrnition in (a), carry through the proof of
coordinates of B.
the midpoint formula, using directed distances along lhe
l0 Thc midpoint of a line segment ,48 is at the point P(-i,2). Iine P,D in Fig.32.
The .r coordin ale ol A is at 5, and the y coordinate of B is at
Find the points A and B. 22 The formula for the coordinates of thc point QGo, yn)
-9. which divides ttre line segment from P,(x,, yr) to P r(xr, yr)
t t iind the lengths of the medians of the triangle with vertices
in the ratio p to q is
at At4. I ). B( - 5, 2). C(3, - 7).
l2 Same as Problem ll,for A(-3,2), B(4,3), C(- l, -41.
l3 Show that the triangle with vertices at A(1, -2), B(-4,2),
C( l, 6) is isosceles.
l4 Same as 13, with A(2,3), 8(6,2), C(3, -l). Derive this formula.
 DISTANCE FONMULI MIDPOINT FONMULA
sEcTloN 1.7

26 Find the set of all points P(x, y) which are at a distance of 5

23 l-et A(xr, yr\, B(xr, yz\, C(xr, y.) be the vertices ol 1nV
triangle. Show that the length of the line segment
joining from (3,4). Draw the graPh.
the midpoints of any two sides of this triangle is j the length 27 Find the set of all points P( x, y) such that the distance of P
of the third side. from (4, l) equals the distance of P from the y axis' Draw
-
the set of ail points P(x, y) which are equidistant from the graph.
24 Find
(-1,2) and (3, 41.(Hint: Let d, be the distance from P to 2E Find the set of all points P(x, y) such that thc distance of P
i-r,zi and d2 the distance from P to (3,4)' Then the from (1,2) equals the distance of P from the - axis Drarv
condition il r = dz becomes the graph.
29 Find the set ofall points P(x, y) such that the distance of P
J6 +F + o:* = ,q;-j1' a 1v - +li
frorh (1, - l) is twice the distance of P from (4, - 1)' Draw
the graPh.
Squaring this equation and simplifying yields the equation
of the solution set.) Draw the graph. 30 F'ind the set of all points P(x, y) such that thc sum of thc

Find the set of all points P(x, y) which are at a distance of 2 squares of the distances of P from the coordinate axes is I 6'
25
from (1, l). Draw the graPh. Draw the graPh.

SIOPT OF A IINE. PARATTEL AND PERPENDICULAR TINES

A line /l, not parallel to the x axis, intersects it. Such a line and the .t axis lorru
two angies *i,i"h ur" supplementary. To be definite, we denote by a the angle
formeJby starting on the side of the x axis to the right of L and going
countercllckwise until we reach the line L. The angle fl will have a value
betfeen 0 and 180'. Two examples are shown in Fig. 33. The angle a is called
the inclination of the lin€ L. All lines parallel to the x axis are said to make a zero
angle with the x axis and therefore have inclination zerp. From plane geometry
we- recall the statenrent: "I[, when two lines are cut by a tlansve ist l.
corresponding angles are equal, the lines are parallel. and conversely." In
Fig. 3i,lines i, uid freach have inclination a. Applying th; theorem of planc
geomedry, wittr the x axis as the transversal, we conclude that Lr an.1 / , are

(g)

(b)
HGtIf I} RGUTE 3'
 lNEQUAtlrlEs. FuNcnoNs' THt UNE
CHAPTER 1

are parallel arnd'

Darallel. More generall
y' all lines with the some inclination
haoe the same inclination'
conversely, all parallel'liis
simple one which is easy to
understand'
The notion of in"fioution is a
geometry.and calculus it is cumbersome
However, for purpotes of analytic of a
inooaoo the notion of the slope
and difficult to use' F*;;;;-*t in of the
aenoted by * ila is defined
terms
line L. The slope i' f"'"UV
inclination as follows:
L' ilenoted bY m' is
(Trigonometric) lf Lis aline of inclinati
D$lNrnoN 1
gioen bY

us recall some the properties of the tangent

Before discussing slope, let 3f
runction.* rhe tangent'il;il
;;;"'l I' i:^t:::::Y':t$ :'j ;,oi i:It
lSlt;l',;rui,u.., .t""a,v, i"u'.tine 1 yl.n d:45'.
:
:l#T.,:ff increase t"'i'-"t q"]:.approachis 90"
the function
continues to
increases withour bou"d:i;
;**,'t'" of 9-0" is;;t defined. Loosely
speaking'
90' and 180' th€
we sometimes say that'the
i"rg*i "igO' is infinite. Betweenwith the help of the
and its values are obtained
tangent function is negative'
relation
tan(180'-a): -tand'
angle is the negative of that
of the
That is, th€ tangent of an obtuse
anqle, (See Fig' 35')
corresponding acute 'upplementurV parallel
iunction, wI ... ihut any line
From these fu.t, ul'o'uilt e tanlent between 0" and
tin' *itr' un inclination
to the x axis has "'" ;G:;hil'u has no slope' strictly
to v axis
90' has positive 'ropu"Xjint farallel such 'thea iine has infinite slope' If the
soeaking, although *; ;;iiles
say
;ht in Fig' 33(a) has
inclination is an obtu; "'gl;' 'l-o-p::ln"cutive"The'line slope'
Fig. lj(U) tras negative
oositive slope, and 16";;;in [now two points on it' To see
Jr"p" if
We can always frnd;'he "i"il'9 the points P(2,1) and 0(5,3), as
.we
this we consider ,h. ti;;';;Igitrougt x axis
of t[is tine, Araw a parallel to.the
shown in Fig.36. To ffiilGe formlng the right triangle
y axis through Q'
through P and a p"'"ii"f
to of
poR. The angte a 'f"ir"tin"t"ion]ty correiponding angles
;1;;";i1o.ttr.
", aennition of tangent run"iion in. a right triangle is
The
pa-rallel lines. given by
FIGUTE 35 *opposite or., uo;^"tii'; The slope is therefore

m:tan o: lR0l
lF-Rl

Since|R0l:3_|=2al'dlPRl:5-2-3,theslopemisJ. the plane'

p(r,]i; ;ro QGr,,vz) lleranv two points intwo
Suppose tr,ut points'
and we wish to tud th;'i;;',1 olint rint pu"initn'ough'these Fig' 37(a) we
The procedure is exactli ti'" *tt" as the one jusidescribed' In

in Appendix l'
.We providc a rcviev of the elcmens of trigonometry
rrcwt 35
 t7
SECTION 1.E Sropt oF A uNE PArA[s. AND PnPslucuun uNEs

see that

m: tan d: !2: lt ,
xz- xt
and in Fig.37(b)

m : tana = -tan(lgo - a): - #: #.

rz, j't )

A difficulty arises if the points P and Q are on a vertical line, since then
, t xt: xz aid the denominator is zero. However' we know that a vertical line
when
has no siop", and we state that the formula holds for all cases except
xr: Xz.Ntte that there is no difficulty if P and Q lie on a horizontal line. In
case, lr:lzand the slope is zero, as it should be'
(^)
that
""-'W"
."" tt ri itr"rr is an algebraic formula for the slope of a line which is
equivalent to the definition in terms of the inclination'

, (AlC"b*t") The slope m of a line L through the two points P(xr,yr) and

Q{xr, yr) with x, * x2 is giuen by tke formula

If we think of a particle traveling along the line L from P(xr,Ir) to

HCLnt 37 Q(*r,yr), then the particle will rise an amount !z-!r while running
horiionially an amount Xz-xr- We say,. intuitively, that the slope is the
"rise" divided by the "run" or, more succinctly,
rise
sioPe : '
-
Of course, if yr-y, is negative then the "rise" is actually a fall so the
expression rise/run is to be taken loosely'
a

4+ EXAMPTE 1 Find the slope of the line through the points (4, -Z) and (7,3).
,f Solution First wg note that in the formula for slope it doesn't matter which point we
2+ g
label (x,, y1) [the other being labeled (xr, yr)). We let (4, -Z) h (xr, y,) and
I

E(5,1) (7,3) be (*r,yr). This gives

1+ P(4,1)
3-(-2) s

n/
m: -1-T-:3 n

rct f 3a EXAMPTE 2 Through the point P(4, 1) construct a line with slope equal to !.
Solution Starting at P, draw a parallel to the x axis extending to the poin-t R one unit
to the right (Fig. 38). Now draw a parallel to the y axis, stopping I units above
R. The coordinates of this point Q are (5, i). The line through P and Q has
slope !. tr
We have seen that parallel lines always have thc same inclination
Therefore, we have the following result.
 lNEeuAunEs. FuNcnoNs. THE ttNE
CHAPTER 1

two lines with the same

THEOREM 7 Two porollrl lin,' haue the same slope' Conuersely'
slope are parallel.

Proof Sinceparallellineshavethesameinclination,thedefinitionofslopeinterms
two lines have
oiin.rinution shows they have the same slope. Now suppose
angle between 0"- and 180"'
the same slope, say ,. th.n there' is exactly: one
;;il;;r, t"th that ian fi : m'To see this observe that thern graph in the
of the tangent
range of the
iur.tlo, in Fig. 34 shows clearly that for any value
there is exactly one value of
ir^g.rifrr.tiJn, i'e., for any value on the- y axis' slope' their
have the same
[r,i.fl ,fr", tan I :rm. We conclude that ifthetwolines
lines
therefore are parallel' (This
inclinations must also be the same, and
the lines are perpendicular to
works even if the slopes are infinite, since then
T
the x axis and so Parallel')
Whenaretwolinesperpendicular.llfalineisparaileltothcxaxis,ithas
rnfinite slope. Suppose,
zero slope and is perpeniicular to'any line which has
i,hu, slope n, which is not zero (Fig'- 39)' Its inclination
t o*.uri, that a line
*lff U. o1,, also different from-zero. L,et L, be perpendicularto Lt and have
> 0. We
;il;;;';;d inclination n2, &S Shown; ii is assumed here that m,
recallfromplanegeometry:,..Anexteriorangleofatriangleis.equaltothe
(in Fig. 39)
sum of the iemote interio; angles.,' This means that
a: : 90' * ar and lan d'2: tan (90' * a1)'
We recall from trigonometry* the basic formulas
sin ('4* B) : sin '4 cos B + cos '4 sin B

cos (A + B): cos '4 cos B - sin '4 sin B'

We find
sin (90" + a')
mz: lan dz:lan(90. + dr) : cos(90. + sr).

Nowapplyingthebasictrigonometryformulastotheaboveequation'weget
sin 90'cos a, * cos 90" sin o,
m2
c* gO'=ot r, --sin 9tr si, o, ,
We use the fact that sin 90' : 1; cos 90' :0 to obtain
i
cos a1
m.:
" ---:--: -cot 'a,
tan al
-stn 1,
The last formuia, in terms of slopes, states that

We have established the next result'

'See Appendix
l.
 39

Sro?t of A uNE. PAnALLE AND mPENDlcuun LINES

sECTloN 1.8

r if an'| onty if their slopes are the negatiue

reciprocals of each other.

P,(]'--4) and Q'( *2'6) is parallel to the line

EXAMPIE I Show that the line through
through Pr.(-3,6) and 02(9' -18)'
to the formula' is
Solution The slope of the line through Pt and Q" according

^,:#^l:
2-3 -ts
-5
- -2'
Similariy, the line through P, and Q2 has slope

m': -!-3:
9+l
- 2'

Since the slopes are the same' the lines must be

parallel'

ExAMptE 4 Determine whether or not the three points P(-l' -5)'8$'3)' and R(7' 12)

iie on the same straight line'

Solution The line through P and Q has siope

3-( -5) :*' a

'':l-(_l.)
very same
If R were on this line, the line joining R and Q would have to be the
line; therefore it would have the same slope. The slope of the line through R

and Q is

*r:H:1, l-l z

and this is different from m,. Therefore, P, Q, and R do not lie on the
same

line. fl

ExAMPIE s Is the line through the pr;ints Pr(5, - 1) and Q,( -3'2) perpendicular to the
line through the points Pr(-3,1) and 02(0' 9)?

Solution The line through Pt and Qt has slope

2-(-1) : _ 3
mr:_;3_5 g.

The line through P, and Q, has sloPe

,r:ffi:l
The slopes are the negative reciprocals of each other, and the lines are
D
PerPendicular.

EX }{ru 6 Given the isosceles triangle with vertices at the points P(- l, 4), QQ: t), a1d
R(2, 5), show that the median drawn from P is perpendicular to the base QR
(Fie. a0).
CHA?T'I T lMeuruTtB. FuNcnoNs. Tm uNE

Solution l,et M bethe point where the median from P intersects the base QR. From the
definition of median, M must be the midpoint of the segment QR. The
coordinates of M, from the midpoint formula, are

.t:012:r,
z2 ,=511:1.
Now we check the slopes of PM and QR. The slope of PM is
3-4
n,:t_(_D I

The slope of QR is

*':sfi:z'
HGUNE 10 Since
I
frl: _
^r,
the median is perpendicular to the base. D

8 PROBLEMS

In Problems I through 6, check to see whether the line through t4 P(r,3), Q(3,7), R(3, 11), S(1, 7I
the pair of points P1, Q, is parallel or perpendicular to the line rs P(2,3), Qg, l), R(0, - 8), S( - 5, - 3)
through the pair of points Pz, Qz.
16 p(5, 6), 0( -8, -7), R(-8, - 10), S(5, 3)
I Pr(-5,2),QrQ, -l) and P2@,2\,Qr02, -l) t7 P(-1,2),QQ, -2), R(?8, -t), s(-+3,*)
2 P13,l), Qr{-2,7) and P2$, *3)., Qr(- 1, -8) rE P(3, +), Q$2), R(r, -4), S(5, 12)
3 Pr(5,3), 0r(8,3) and Pr(7, 4), Q2Q, -4) lg P(3, -\, Q(2, -6), R(1,7), S(0, -8)
4 P t(-4,5), Qll4,2) and Pr(6, 0), Q2(9, -4) 20 P(5, 3), 0(8, 3), R(4,4), S(7,4)
5 PJl2,8), 0,(4, 8) and Pr(3, 1), 0r(-6, 1) 2t P(3,0), 0(3, 5), R(0, e), s(0,4)
5 Pt(7,-1), Cr(10,2) and Pr(O, -4),0r(1, -5) 22 P(2,1), Qfi,13), R( - 5, l8), S( - 10, 6)
In Problems 7 through 10, determine whether or not the three 23 P(6,2), QQ, - 1), R(7, 5), s(8, -4)
points all lie on the same straight line.
24 The points .4(3, -2), B(4,1), and C( * 3, 5) are the vertices
7 P!3,4), 0(8,5), R(13,6) of a triangle. Show that the line through the midpoints of
t P(2, - l), 0(5,3), R(-7,4) the sides AB and /C is parallel to the base 8C of the
triangle.
e P(7,1),Q(-7,2), R(4, -5)
t0 P( - 3, 0), 0(4, 1), R( 11, 2) 25 The points.4(0, O), A(o,0), and C(|a, b) are the vertices of a
triangle. Show that the triangle is isosceles. Prove that the
ll Construct a line passing through the point (5, -2) and median from C is perpendicular to the. base ,{8. How
having slope fl.. general is this proof?
12 Construct a line passing through the point (-3, l) and 25 The points /(0,0), B(a,0), C(c + b, c), D(b, c) form the
having slope - ]. vertices of a parallelogram. Prove that the diagonals bisect
In Problems 13 through 23, the points P, Q, R, S are the vertices each cther.
of a quadrilateral. In each case, determine whether the figure is 27 The points /(Q 0), 8(a,0), C(b, c), D(e,/) are the vertices
a trapezoid, parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle, square, or irone of a quadrilater[l. Show that the line segments joining the
of these. midpoints of cpposite sides bisect each other. How generat '

13 P(1, 3\, QQ,5), R(6, l7), S(5, l5) is this proof?

 SECTION r uxe prnru.a
Srorr or AND pmptNDtcuun **
2t Show that in apy triarigle the length of one sidc is
no largcr joining two opposite vertices.
than the sum of the lengths of the other two sides.
30 Let P(-io,O) and e(!a,0) be two adjacent vertices of a
29 Let P(-ta,0) and e(!a,O) be two a_djacent.vertices of a
regular octagon situated above the .ia. fg.
regular hexagon above the side pp. Find the coordinates Find the
of coordinates of the remaining six vertices and the
the remaining vertices and the length of the diagonat length of
the diagonal joining two opposite vertices.

THE STMIGHT LINE

It is.easy to verify that.the equation y:4 represents all points

parallel to the x axis and four units above on a line
it. similarry, d"i;;;, x= -2
represents all points on a line parallel
to the y axis and two units to the left. In
gcneral, any line parallel to the y axis
has an equation of the form
X: Q,

where c is the number denoting how far the

line is to the right or left of the y
axis: The equation

!=b
describes a line parailel to the x axis and
b units from it. In this way we obtain
the equations of a[ rines with zero or innnite
srope. A rine which is not
parallel to either axis has a slope m which
i, aimer"ni'rro;r;;; i;;;;#;
the line passes through a poinf denoted p(-x;
yr ). To be sp""inc, *'e'consider
dqry m t9 tte -] andthe point p to t ur. coordinates
1: (4, _3). If a point
Q6, iis on this line, then the srope as carcurated
from p to must be
e
shown in Fig.41. That is, - !, as
rcUE{1
y+3 2
i--7: -, or y+3: -lO-oy.
frus rs the equation of tle tiye paslilr through
the point(4, _ 3) with stope _
In the general case of,a line withltop" i pu.rirg
statement that Q$,y) is on the line is the
t;;od; iir,,y,t, tt.!.
same as thi statem-ent that^ihe slope
m as ccimputed from p to
e (Fig.42) is
!-lr
r-rr Of

FGIIf € -:ttl
We summarize this general statement
as follows:

THEOREI| r @oint-Slope Formuh for the Equetion of a

passing through the point P(xr, yr) with
Une) fru ,iiffi
slope m is
CHAPTER 1 lNreuAuTrrs. Fuxcroxs. Tnr uxr

If we are given the coordinates of a point and the numerical value of tha
slope, substitution in the above formula yields the equation of the line going
through the point and having the given slope.

EXAMPTE 1 Find the equation of the line passing through the point (-2,5) and haring
slope f .

Solution Substitution in the above formula gives

.,-5:*t-x-(-2)l or 3y:4x+23.
We know that two points determine a line. The problem of finding thr,a
equation of the line passing through the points (3, -5) and (-7,2) car,re
solved in two steps. First we employ the formula for the slope ol'a line.
".
given in Section 8, to obtain the slope of the line through the given points. \\'e
get
7-.
n :?-!:5)
_7_ -t - -- 10'
Tlren, knorving the slope, we use either point, togethcr with the slope, in th;
point-siope formula. t his gives [using the point (3, -5)]

I-(-5): -f6(.x-3) or i0],- -7x-29.

We verify quite easily that the same equation is obtained if we use the porll
(-7,2) instead of(3, -5).
The above process nray be transformed into a general formula brl
applying it to any two points, Pr(xt, y,)and Pr(*r,yr). The slope of the lice
through these points is
" n': lz- Xt
lt
Xz-
Substituting this value for the slope into the point-slope form, we get the twe
point form for the equation of a line:

Note that this is reaily not a new formula, but merely the point-slope fonr:
with an expression for the slope substituted into it.
Thus we have the following corollary.

COROttARy TO THEOREM 9 ('I'wo-Point Form for the Equation of a Line) The equation of the line passine
throu,gh the two points Prlx1,),r) and Pr(r2,y) with xr*x2is giuen by

v...-!:V irir*t :II:ili1M,,t*::ia :it ; Iil

Another variation of the point-slope form is obtaincd by introducing a

number called the y intercept. Every line not parallel to the y axis musi
intersect it: if we denote by (0, D) the point of intersection, the number b b
SECTION I.' THt STIAIGHT TINE €

ca'ed the y intercept.* Suppose a rine has slope

m and y intercept D. we
substitute in the point-slofe form to get

t- b :m(x -o) or fldf#lffir

This is cailed the srope,intercept form for th6
equation of a straight rine.

EXAM'.E 2 A rine has srope 3 and y intercept

-4. Find its equation.
Solution Substitution ln the slope-intercept formula gives

!:3x-4.
The important thing to notice is that the point-slope
form is the basic one
for the equation of a straight rine. The other iormur"r;";
variations or particular cases.
;.;;;; ;;,t.pi;
Examples I and 2led to equations of lines which
could be put in the form
Ax+By+C=0,
where l, B, and c are any numbers. This
equation is the most general
equation of the first degree in x and y. \Ve
shali establish the theorem;

THTOREM 10 Euery equation of the form

r-ifi[fr[11$fl*i#

so long as A and B are not

Proof We consider two cases, according as B=0 or B#0. If B=0, then we must
have A * 0, and the above
becomes
"quutlon
C
,: -
A,
which we know is the equation of a straight
line parallel to the y axis and
- C/,4 units from it.
If B + 0, we divide by B and solve for ;,, getting

AC
t: -Ex-8.
From the slope-interceqt.foy for the equation
of a line, we recognize this as
the equation of a line with slope _ AIB Lnd y _
intercept ClB. Ij
In the statement of the theorem it is necessary
to make the requirelncnt
that ,{ and B are not both zero. Ifboth ofthem
vanish and c is zero, theringar
equation reduces ro the triviarity 0=0, which
i";tir# by'J"rry point
in the plane. lt C +0, then no point p(x, y).urirn"r"ri.
[!,i, "ifi;;
.The point (O 6) is
atso called the y intercept.
CHAPTET 1
lN[eu LrnE tuNcltoNs' Trr uxe

D(AIVIPI..E 3 Given the linear equation

3x+2Y+670,
find the sloPe and Y intercePt.

Solving for Y, we have

y: -jx - 3.
: tl
From this we simply read off that m - ] and b: -3'
a linear equation' When
An equation of the first degree in x and-y is called
we solve for y in terms of x, u, i-n th' point-sl'ope
form' y becomes a function of
x.Suchafunctioniscalledalinearfunction.Anylinenotparalleltotheyaxis
may be thought of as a function'
bisector of the line
E(Al\{ru d Find the equation of the line which is the perpendicular
Fig'43')
r.g*"r, joining the points P('-3,2) and 0(5,6)'(See
Solution We give two methods.

1. Wp first find the slope m of the line through P and Q'

It is
Method
6-2 I

^:5al:1'
Theslopeoftheperpendicularbisectormustbe-2'thenegativereciprocal.
segment PQ.They:are
N.*a *. get the *oidinut., of the midpoint of the line
5-3 6t2:4.
).:
'=;: 2

The equation of the hne through (1,4) with slope -2 is

y- 4: -2tx- l) + 2x*Y-6:0'
which is the desired equation'

Method2.WeStartbynotingthatanypointontheperpendicularbisector
let d'
;;; equidistant from P
"ia 2 Let R(x, v) be any such-poing and From the
from R to
J."",. the distance from R to P, and d, the distance Q'
dr:dz,we
the condition
roi*uru for the distance between two points and
have

$ + 3tr+lil : Jir - tl'; Iv - r' '

out, we obtain
fuuanng both sides and multiplying
x2 +6x +g + y2 - 4y +4: x2* 10x* 25 + v2 - 12y + 36.

terms combine to
The terms o[ the second degree tancel and the remaining
give

6x-4y* 13: -10x- 12v+61 + l6x+8y-48:0'

Dividing by E, we obtain the same answer as in the first method:
2x+Y-6:0' tl
 {5
sEcTtoN 1.9 THE sTnArcHT UNE

9 PROBLEMS

In Problems I through 17, find the equation of the iine with the 27 pind the equation of the line passing through ( * 5, 3) and
given requirements. perpendicular to the line through the points {7,0) and
I (-8. r).
Slope 2 and passing through (
- 1,4)
28 Find the equarion of the line passing through (2, 1) and
2 Slope 4 and passing through (3, - l) -
perpendicular to the line through the points (3, l) and
3 Slope -J and passing through (-2,5) (-2,5).
4 Passing through the poinrs (5, 2) and ( - 1, -6) 29 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector ofthc linc
5 Passing through the poinrs {2, -3) and (0, -4) segment joining (6, 2) and ( - 1, 3).
6 Passing through the points (1,4) and (-2, -7)- 30 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the linc
joining (3,
7 Slope 0 and passing through (-2, -7) segment
- l) and (5,2).
8 Passing through the points (3, 8) and (3. - j) 3I the points p(0, O), e@,0), R(a, b), S(0, b) are the vertices
of a rectangle. Show that if the diagonals mect at right
9 Passing through the points (4, _Z) and (-7, - 2) angles, then a: *b and the rectangle must be a square.
l0 Slope - f and y intercept 3 32 Let P, Q, R, S be the vertices of a parallelogr:rm. Show, by
ll Slope 0 and y intercept -5 analytic geometry, that if the diagonals are equal the
12 Slope ! and y intercept 8 parallelogram must be a rectangle.
13 Slope 2 and passing rhrough rhe midpoint of the line 33 P, Q, R, S are the vertices of a parallelogram, Show, by
segmenr connecting (3, (4,7) analytic geometry, that if the diagonals arc perpendiculai
-2) aruJ

-j
14 Slope and passing through the midpoint of the line the figure is a rhombus.
segment connecting (2, and (5, 34 The points .4(1, o), B(7,0), c(3,4) are the vertices of a
-''l) - 1)
15 Slope *3 and y intercept 0 triangle. Find the equations of the three medians. Show that
the three medians intersect in a point.
16 Parallel to the y axis and passing through the point (4, _- 3)
35 Tlre points , (0,0), B(a, 0), C(b, c) arevertices of a trianglc.
17 Parallel to the x axis and passing rhrough the point(6, _5)
Show that the three medians meet in a point.
18 Find the slope and -y inrercept of the line 2x +1y + 4 :0. 36 The points .4(1,0), B(5,1), C(3,g) are the vertices of a
19 Find the slope and y intercept of the line 2x 3y 7 :0.
- - triangle. Find the equation of the perpendicular from each
20 Find the equation ofthe line through the point (1, _4) and vertex to the opposite side. Show that these three lines
parallel to the line x + 5y 3 :0. intersect in a point.
-
2l Find the equation of the line through the point ( _2, _3) 37 The points ,<10,01, B(a,0), C(b,c) are the vertices of a
and parallel to the line 3x 7y + 4:0. triangle. Find the equation of the perpendicular from cach
- vertex to the opposite side. Show that these thrce_lines
22 Find rhe equation cfthe line through the point (3. and
perpendicular to the line 2x + 3y + 4:0
-2) intersect in a point.

23 F-ind the equation of the line through the poinl (1,5) and
3t !:l a > 0, c > 0 be given numbers. Show that the poinrs
perpendicular to the line 5x 4y + I :0. ,{(0,0), B(a,0), C(a+b,c),.D(b,c) are rhe verticei of a
- parallelogram, and show that its area is cc.
24 Find the equation of the line through the point ( l, _3)
and parallel to the line ihrough the points (3,2)- 39 Let c > 0 and d > b be given numbers. Show that the point$
and
( - 5.7) ,4(0, 0), B(a, 0), C(d, c), D(b, cl are the vcrticcs of a irapc.
zoid and that its area is jc(a + d _ b).
25 Find the equarion of the line passing through (4, _2) and
parallel ro the line through the points (2, _l) and (5,7). 40 Let a>0, c>0 be given. numbers- The points ,{(0,0),
B(d,9), C(6, c) are rhe verrices of a triangle. Supposc'that
2.6 Find the equation of the line through the
midpoint of the b
arrd E are points on sides AC andaC, respectivciy,
Iine segmenr joining (2, l) and (6, _4) and ihrough the *ittr tinc
segment DE parallel to AB. Show that
point which is j of the way from (3,2) to (7, _6). 1OO1lOep
lcAVlABl.
 CHAPTTN 1 lNreuAunEs. FuNcnoNs. THr UNE

CHAPTER 1

REVIEW PROBTEMS

In Problems 1 through 6, solve for x. f (a) f (b) -f (ab)

| 3+2x<4-x 2 2(6-4)<3x+5 +I0l - 3 -1
f (a)

3 2*'.4
x-l 4. _<_
x*l 3 What is the domain of /(x) =U@aya77 PIot the
2-x 2 graph.
1r-
5 ''^<3 and
3+x
<-4 Plot lhe graph of /(x) : lx + 1l + lx - 11.

x 2
In Problems 24 through 27, find the intercepts, domain, range,
.') and asymptotes, if any. Sketch the graph.
6 =-:-<3 and 2x-6<5
I*x 24 y2(x - 3):a 25 y= f ar2
In Problems 7 through 10, find the values of x, if any, for which 26 y'-3xy+2xz:O 27 la:x3
the inequalities hold.
28 Draw the graph of
,ffi-, E 12+xl<14-xl
r@:l-.
9 l2x(l - x)l < 2 t0 lx + 2l < lx(x - l)l lx- ll
I I Find all solutions of the simultaneous equations Find the domain, range, intercepts, and asymptotes.
lx - yl : l,
l2x-Yl:1. a) Find the midpoint of the line segment L joining (2, l)
12 Write a complete proof of the srarement: la. bl: lallbl for and (5,6).
all real numbers a, b.
b) Find the equation of the line through this midpoint and
perpendicular to L.
l3 Write a complete proof of the statement:
Use the formula in Problem 22 of g6p1i61 7 to find the point
t,r : lll one-third of the way from (
- l, 3) to (4. l).
tbt lb I
3l Describe the set of ai! poinrs such that the distance from
for all real numbers a,b with b +0.
(2, l) is always equal to the distance from (-1,3). Sketch
this set.
In Problems 14 through 17, find an estimate lor how large the Suppose a line has x intercept (a,0) and y intercept {0, b).
given quantity can become in the given interval. Show that the equation of the line is
14 lx(x + l)l in t- 2. 3l
xv+-:1.
15 lx2 + 2x - 3l in [-a,2] ab
ix+21
tu in [o' zi This equation is known as the two-intercept forrn of the
lr-*-r, * i, straight line.
12+l
t7 ;r;i in [3,7l Find the equation of the line through the point A(2, -l)
which is parallel to the line 2x - 3lt - i : 0.
l8 If a,, a2, ..., an are any numbers, show that la, * a2* ..
Find the equation of the line through the point B(3, -Z)
* onl < larl + la2l * -.. * lo,l. which is perpendicular to the line x + 2y + 3:A.
19 In the inequality la + bl < lal + ibl, state all conditions in Given the line 2x * ky -3:0. find the value offt such that
which the equality sign holds. the point (1,4) is on the line.
20 Civen i{x\: x2 -2x * a, find /( - l),,f(0), f (2}, f {a),and Given the vertices of the triangle A(2, 1), B(4,0), C(5,4),
f(a + 3). find the equation of the line passing through / and the
2l Civen f{r) : x2 +2, show that point which is one-iourth of the way from .B to C.