OMEGA PROFILE

Omega's Black Played Baseball in the U.S. Army

GENTLEMAN JOE
W
hen his large
frame entered the
small hot room,
his welcoming
smile instantly
cooled the sultry
summer air. He
was a giant man
who stood 6 feet 3 inches tall. He endured the pains of
discrimination while gracefully navigating the perilous
avenues of Jim Crow to take his place in history. Joe
Black was a history maker.

Often called “Gentleman Joe,” he was the first African-

American pitcher to win a major league baseball World
Series game. He pitched three games for the Brooklyn
Dodgers in the 1952 classic against the New York Yankees.
“I never felt like a celebrity. God put me in the right
place—at the right time,” said Black. The patrons at Mrs.
White’s Rule Café made Black a celebrity during his visits
to the soul food restaurant in Phoenix. The tiny eatery,
slightly larger than a two-car garage, was as noisy as a
ballpark on a Sunday afternoon.
Brother Black ordered lunch amidst the hurried rustling
of hot plates landing on the tables in front of customers.
The clang of dirty dishes submerged into water echoed
from the kitchen. However, Black’s powerful voice soared
above the din, commanding attention. As he spoke, one
could imagine how quickly his fastball moved across the
plate. He was born poor in 1924, in Plainfield, N.J. Joe
Black was an excellent student who dreamed of playing
professional baseball.
‘Because you are colored, and they don’t play baseball in
the big leagues.’
Black paused, staring deeply into the past. He began
again, recalling his first brush with the disappointment of
discrimination. “I got mad and hateful. I had a scrapbook
of ballplayers, and I tore up all of their pictures—they
were all white. The one picture that I didn’t tear was Hank
Greenburg, my idol. He was big and hit home runs, and
that’s what I wanted to do,” said Black. “Because of the
hurt, I just stopped playing.’’ My mother said, ‘Son you
can’t be mad.’ I said, “but mama, white people won’t let
me play!”
In 1943, Black was drafted into the Army to serve in
WWII. His military duties allowed him to play pitch for
the Negro Leagues’ Baltimore Elite Giants. After two
years of military service, he accepted a scholarship to
play baseball at Morgan State College in the spring while
continuing to play for the Elite Giants in the summer.

“I was batting a .400 when I was a senior in high school. Even in Baltimore, far from the deep south, Black felt
The scouts were talking to other people, but they didn’t the sting of Jim Crow.
speak to me. I said, “Hey, I am the captain of the team. I
out-hit them all—why don’t you sign me?” A scout said, Story continues on next page

20 The Oracle - Fall 2017

 MILITARY AND SPORTS
“When I got off the train and arrived on the campus,
I walked one block that first Sunday to a Presbyterian
church. The man said, ‘You can’t come in here—this is for
white people.’ I replied, “Why? I’m a Presbyterian.”
The tentacles of racism touched every facet of his life.
“You would go into a store to try on a pair of shoes, and
you couldn’t try them on. You couldn’t try a coat on. You
bought stuff, but you couldn’t bring it back—whether it
fits or not.”
“It was frustrating, he said. Your life turns all around.”
Your parents knew-- they came from the south. They
would say, ‘You’re learn to survive.’
“At Morgan, I learned what it was to be colored, but I
also learned that I was somebody,” said Black.
In 1946 at Morgan State, Black was initiated in Omega
Psi Phi Fraternity through Pi Chapter. “All of the guys
from New York and New Jersey pledged Que. We didn’t
like the initiation—we like putting on the show,” he said,
laughing.
Before graduating from Morgan State in 1950, he
helped the Baltimore Elite Giants win the 1949 Negro
League National Championship.
At the restaurant, Black gleefully leaned back in his
chair, like a fisherman just as his line enters the water in
search of a catch.
“When Branch Rickey signed Jackie Robinson in ‘45—
everybody became 17 again and started dreaming about
playing in the big leagues,” Black said with a smile. He
and other Negro League players hoped that one day they
would play Major League baseball. In 1950, at age 26,
Black was signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers and made the
Major Leagues roster in the spring of 1952. “I got into the
Majors because Jackie needed a roommate.”
Black said Jim Gilliam, Robinson’s roommate had a
problem adjusting to integration. “He grew up in the
south, he never played with white guys, never went to
school with them. He would get on the bus and go sit in
the back by himself. In the dugout, he would go sit in a
corner by himself. He didn’t know how to talk to white
guys, so they sent him back to the Minors. That’s how I
got here.’’ For Black, his lifelong fantasy had come to life.
“Pitching the first game of the World Series was a dream
come true. I looked at third base, and there were the
Yankees: Casey Stengel, Mickey Mantle, Yogi Berra, but
no dark faces. I found myself saying, thank God for
The Oracle -Fall 2017
the United States because you do have a chance to make
your dreams come true.’’
During his first season in the Majors, Black had a 15-4
record with a 2.15 earned run average. The pitcher, who
was armed with a lightning fastball and a fading curve,
appeared in 56 games for the Dodgers. Because of his
outstanding season, he was named the 1952 National
League Rookie of the Year.
After his first season, Black lost some of his power
due to a stress fracture in his pitching arm. He retired
in 1957. Black went to graduate school at Seton Hall
and Rutgers Universities, receiving a master’s degree in
education. He taught health and physical education for
a few years before joining the Greyhound Corporation
as an executive. While at Greyhound, Black rose to vice
president. He began writing a syndicated column, By
The Way, that appeared in Ebony and Jet Magazines. His
column also was featured in several African American
newspapers and heard on African American radio
programs throughout the nation.
“When my mother died, I leaned over into the coffin
and kissed her. I became a different person--I could feel
something. I guess it was my mother’s spirit coming to
me. After that kiss, I thought more about other people,
and I wanted to share. She was my biggest influence in
my life,“ said Black.
Because of that epiphany, Black became better known
for his public service work after baseball than his
90-m.p.h. fastball. He helped start a pension plan for
Negro League players who played before 1947. Active
in baseball well into his 70s, Black was on the board
directors of the Baseball Assistant Team, an organization
that provided aid to needy former baseball players. In
Phoenix, he served as a community relations consultant
for the Arizona Diamondbacks’ Major League baseball
team.
As the interview came to a close, Black limped
away from the table. Like many former athletes, the
combination of time and weight gain stressed his once-
powerful limbs. Ever the gentleman, Black insisted on
paying for lunch. “This check is not big enough to even
buy a tire for your car—how do think I am living?”
Story by Bro. Milbert O. Brown, Jr., Editor of The Oracle
Written from Bro. Brown's 2000 interview notes with Brother
Black. In 2002, Brother Joe Black joined Omega Chapter.
21
 OMEGA PROFILE
Negro League Museum Named in
Honor of Army Veteran
H ubert Simmons affectionately
called "Bert" returned home to North
Carolina after serving in the Army
during WWII. One of Simmons' major activities
before joining and after his
service duty was baseball.
He was good. He could
play every position, but his
most notable spot on the
baseball diamond was as a
knuckleball pitcher. In 1941,
he played for the Raleigh
Tigers, a semi-pro team.
He doubled as a pitcher and
outfielder.
Even during his time
in the Army he played
baseball. Shortly, after
arriving back home from the
Army, Simmons enrolled in
North Carolina A &T State
University (NC A&T). He
would graduate from the
institution with a B.S. degree
in Business Administration.
Of course, he played
baseball for the school
receiving All Conference
Honors (1946-1949). He later was inducted
in the North Carolina A& T State University's
Sports Hall of Fame in 1978.
Shortly, after college he played baseball for
a few Negro League teams. Simmons was a
member of the Greensboro (NC) Redwings, a
Negro Southern League team in 1946 to 1948.
He was managed by baseball's Hall of Famer
and Negro League great, John Henry "Pop"
Lloyd as played for a season with the Farley
Stars of Atlantic City, NJ. In 1949, he joined
the Ashville Blues (NC), a Negro Southern
League team.
22
22
The Oracle--Summer
During the last year of the Baltimore Elite Giants
existence in 1950, Simmons played for the Negro League
team. He ended his baseball career in 1952 as a player
for Baltimore's Yokely Stars. After baseball, Simmons
worked as a teacher for
the Baltimore City School
System for 30-years. He
coached baseball for many
years on the little league,
high school and college
levels. After his retirement
as a teacher in 1984, he
opened Simmons, Inc. The
business sold customized
team uniforms, and special
clothing for churches, schools
and fraternal organizations
according to his Negro
Leagues Baseball Museum
profile.
Simmons began to collect
several artifacts and
memorabilia featuring Negro
League players and teams.
Often time, the items would
land in the basement of his
home.
It was not until four years
after his death that Simmons' Negro League collection
was permanently housed in the new Owings Mills Branch
of Baltimore County Public Library. In November 2013,
fhree exhibit areas in the library became part of the
Hubert V. Simmons Museum of Negro Leagues Baseball.
The museum is located near Baltimore in Owings Mills,
MD. In 2008, Major League Baseball (MLB) wanted to
highlight former Negro League player who were denied
an opportunity to play in major leagues. At 84-years old,
Simmons was drafted by the Baltimore Orioles.
Hubert "Bert" Simmons was initiated into Omega through
Baltimore's Pi Omega Graduate Chapter in 1986. He
was part of the chapter's "Stressful Nine" line. Brother
Simmons joined Omega Chapter in 2009.
TheOracle
Fall 2017
2017

An exhibit in the Hubert V. Simmons Museum of Negro Leagues Baseball.
The museum is located in the Owings Mills Library in Owings Mills, MD.
Kendall Played Football
in College and the Army
S
ix days after the attack on
Pearl Harbor, Ulysses Kendall
was born on December 13, 1941,
in Chicago. Growing up, Ulysses
had to learn sign language to
communicate with his hearing-
impaired parents.
Often times, he would interpret
Joe Louis' fights for his parents as he
listened from the radio. Although he
possessed the ability to communicate
through sign language since grade
school, he had difficulty in writing the
English language.
By the time he finished high school,
Ulysees took a keen interest in
sports. He was so good that he was
awarded scholarships to play football,
basketball and track. In order to
strengthen his life skills, he decided
to first attend junior college. He was
The
TheOracle
MILITARY AND SPORTS
The United States Army drafted him
and quickly sent him to Germany.
While in Germany, he reluctantly
received orders to play football for
the Army. He was selected to play
on the All-Army until he received
order to Vietnam. In Vietnam, he
took part in five major operations
as a radio telephone operator. One
time, he called two fire missions
simultaneously.
Ebony Magazine featured Kendall's
Vietnam story in their August 1967
issue. After witnessing the carnages
of war and being blown into trees by
explosives. Kendall decided to end
his military career when his tour in
Vietnam was complete. He finished
as a Specialist Fourth Class.
When he return to the United
States, Kendall worked at the Timken
Company as a human resources
specialist. He was the first African
American to become a general
supervisor in the Steel Division. After
31 years of service, he retired. He later
became a juvenile probation officer,
and Canton (OH) City Schools'
Director of Safety and Security.
Brother Kendall was initiated into
the Kappa Tau Chapter on March
28, 2015. The Life Member credits
joining Omega Psi Phi Fraternity as
one of the best decisions he has ever
made.
Today, he enjoys spending time with
his family, listening to classical and
soul music. Bro. Kendell is also a
Kendall later transferred to Texas
member of the National Association
Western College becoming the first
of the Advancement for Colored
Black captain of the football team.
People (NAACP) and he continues to
Kendall eventually went on to finish
work in Ohio's Canton community.
his football career by playing for
the Philadelphia Eagles, Canton Pro
Bulldogs, Hamilton Tiger-Cats in the
Canadian League, and Philadelphia Story by
Bulldogs. His career with the Canton Bro. Casey Smith,
Pro Bulldogs ended in 1965 after he Kappa Tau Chapter's
sustained an injury to the leg. Keeper of Records & Seal
Oracle- Summer
- Fall 2017
2017 23
23
 CHANGING TIMES
World War II and
the Kansas City Monarchs
By Dr. Milbert O. Brown
The year 1941 marked the beginning of an unforgettable
period in American history. While some U.S. soldiers basked
in the comfortable confines of a Hawaiian breeze, half a
world away the bulk of the United States citizenry had begun
to rebuild their lives after digging out of the rubble from
America’s Great Depression years. The country was emerg-
ing from the valley that once had birthed unforeseen chal-
lenges.
The daybreak of a promising new decade presented
hopeful fruits for American growth in commerce and indus-
try. Race relations were thought to have improved; after all,
the heavyweight boxing crown was worn by a fellow called
the Brown Bomber: Joe Louis. The Negro Leagues’ East-
West All-Star Game in Chicago drew a crowd of just over Pearl Harbor 1941
50,000 people.
But Jim Crow still smothered the hopes and dreams of could smell the burned human fresh; and the pillaring smoke
Black people. The lynching of Black men remained a custom opened America’s nostrils during a time filled with disarray.
practiced in small Southern hamlets and large Northern After an early-morning surprise attack by Japan on Pearl
towns. The excitement of seeing a little white baseball dance Harbor, just west of Honolulu, on December 7, much of the
through the air still could not replace the hurt that families United States Navy’s Pacific fleet lay damaged and
felt when they heard how their loved ones died at the hands destroyed. Resting in the cool waters was the broken steel of
of a racist mob. One such individual, Felix Hall, 19, had vol- the USS Arizona. The warship’s hull was now surrounded by
unteered to train with an all-Black Army unit but was later oil-contaminated waves, which served as a fluid coffin for
found hanging from a tree with a rope around his neck on the over 1,000 sailors’ bodies committed to a watery grave.
Army base at Fort Benning, Georgia. On the day when the United States was attacked,
In December 1941, the world saw the smoldering fire Negroes were still considered second-class citizens due to
that charred the iron guns and, even from a distance, they America’s insidious apartheid system known as Jim Crow.

On August 25, 2021, six members of Doris Miller's family attended the ceremony at Northrop Grumman in Newport News,
Virginia, where the Navy conducted the “First Cut of Steel” that signaled the formal start of construction for the fourth Ford-class
aircraft carrier named the USS DORIS “DORIE” MILLER. Northrop Grumman acquired Newport News Shipbuilding in 2001.

about...time/Vol. XLIX (2021) Fall 17

Negro soldiers and sailors had limited possibilities while
serving in the military, but that all changed after that surprise
December morning: “From the moment the embers began to
burn at Pearl Harbor, Black society, in general, vowed that it
would not be shut out of the American war effort and its pal-
pable unifying effects at home.”
As the Japanese pilots swooped down and targeted
bombs into the belly of the USS West Virginia, Doris Miller,
a Black cook from Waco, Texas, who lacked any combat
training operated an antiaircraft gun and began firing at the
swirling enemy planes. Only a few hours earlier, Miller had
just finished serving breakfast and was simply gathering
laundry. Like society, the Navy had the perception that
Blacks had low mental aptitudes and that they should be rel-
egated to menial chores like laundry duty, serving as cooks,
and shining white officers’ shoes.
Doris Miller turned that perception upside down and his
act of bravery at Pearl Harbor earned him the Navy Cross.
The Black press, the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and Black lead-
ers publicized Miller as a symbol of Black achievement in
the military.
The grandson of slaves, Miller had worked on his family’s
farm but could not find work elsewhere, so he joined the
Navy in 1939. The little Texas town he was from supported
strong racist attitudes against Black people; in one instance,
a 17-year-old boy was burned alive at the town’s square
a few years before Doris’ birth in 1919.
Miller carried a 6-foot, 3-inch frame, and with
over 200 pounds of weight behind his punches,
he was crowned as his ship’s heavyweight box-
ing champion. Back in Texas, he had been the
school’s fullback, and he could have played base-
ball well, but Doris Miller’s destiny involved more
than just hitting a ball across the field.
18
His courageous act of heroism helped changed the mili-
tary’s evaluation of Black men in uniform. It also helped to
pave the way for Negro League players to be accepted as
professional baseball players.
The Kansas City Monarchs during World War II
Approximately 120 Negro League baseball players par-
ticipated in World War II by serving in the Army,
Army Air Corps, Navy, and Marines. The Kansas City
Monarchs had over 13 players who served during the war
years. Henry “Hank” Thompson, a second baseman, fought
in the Battle of the Bulge in the Army’s 1695th Combat
Engineers unit.
Monarchs catcher Joe Greene was part of a well-decorated
unit, the 92nd Infantry. Greene’s company removed the body
of disgraced Italian dictator Benito Mussolini after his exe-
cution during the liberation of Milan, Italy. The Monarchs’
Willard Brown of the Army Quartermaster Corps fought on
France’s Normandy beaches. Brown, a great outfielder, was
a seven-time Negro League home-run champion and was
enshrined in the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2006.
In 1942 the Kansas City Monarchs won the Negro World
Series over the Homestead Grays. That same year, the team
had a father and son drafted into the Army. Frank Duncan Jr.,
a catcher for the team, and his son, pitcher Frank III, created
professional baseball’s first known father-son battery before
their military service. According to Negro League historian
James Riley, Frank Jr. was considered one of the top
catchers in Negro League baseball. One of Frank
Duncan’s epic stories was that Dizzy Dean, a
major-league pitching great, needed a good catch-
er to play an exhibition game against the
Monarchs. It was said that Dean pulled Duncan
out of a pool room and had him catch the game. In
the beginning of his career, the senior Duncan was
acquired by Kansas City in a three-player trade in
Vol. XLIX (2021) Fall/about...time
1921. From 1923 to 1925, he helped the Monarchs win three
Negro National League pennants.
During his career with the Monarchs, Duncan left and
returned to the team four times. At the age of 42, he was
drafted into the Army, serving in the 371st Infantry
Regiment of the 92nd Division. Although he served in the
Army for only six months, Duncan set a marksmanship
record and was promoted to sergeant. Wartime service
affected the careers of many baseball players and teams.
After Frank Duncan III was discharged from the service, he
started pitching for the Baltimore Elite Giants and played in
the Mexican League but was not as productive as he had
been during his time with the Monarchs.
TOP, l-r: The Monarchs 1941
World’s Colored Champions and
Jackie Robinson; (2nd row, l-r)
Buck O’Neil and J.L. Wilkinson.
Just as Frank Duncan Jr.
arrived back to the Monarchs in
1943, other Kansas City team-
mates were shipping out.
Outfielder Ted Strong joined the
Navy while Connie Johnson and
James “Pea” Greene committed
to the Army. Buck O’Neil, the team’s solid first baseman,
was drafted and attached to a Navy Construction Battalion.
American society began to change as the Second World
War progressed. More women began to work outside the
home, and with the loss of many White baseball players to
the armed services, the talk of Negro players integrating into
the major leagues increased. A Pittsburgh Courier reporter
asked the new commissioner, Happy Chandler, what his
thoughts were on the integration of Negro players. Chandler
said, “If they can fight and die in Okinawa, Guadalcanal, and
in the South Pacific, they can play baseball in America.”
Unlike Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, Chandler’s
predecessor, Chandler, a U.S. senator from Kentucky, was
more commonly known as a player-friendly baseball execu-
tive. For years, Landis had a negative racial attitude toward
baseball integration and “publicly maintained there was no
discrimination in baseball, and privately worked against any
effort to end discrimination.”
about...time/Vol. XLIX (2021) Fall
Jackie Robinson Breaks Major League Color Line
One of Senator Chandler’s promises was to support the
continuance of baseball during World War II. The new com-
missioner was also responsible for ushering in Jackie
Robinson’s opportunity to break the color line and bringing
fair treatment for Black players. After Robinson entered the
league, he met with several incidents of blatant racial taunt-
ing. Chandler threatened to suspend the Philadelphia
Phillies’ manager, Ben Chapman, for hostile racial insults
directed at Robinson.
Buck O’Neil later commented that integration for Black
people still moved at a turtle’s pace. While in the Navy,
O’Neil got letters that informed him about how the
Monarchs team was making out. One letter mentioned that
the Monarchs had just signed a “colored” Army officer to
play shortstop. The letter stated that this Army officer was a
football and track standout named Jackie Robinson. The
University of California, Los
Angeles, star was an electrifying
player who could hit and steal
bases.
While in the Army, Lieutenant
Jack Roosevelt Robinson had
been waiting for his physical to
clear so that he could join the
761st Tank Battalion, a segregat-
ed combat unit at Fort Hood,
Texas. One day, Robinson, a
handsome, gentlemanly young
man dressed in his distinguished
Army uniform, flanked with officer’s
insignia, boarded an Army bus and set
off an incident that greatly impacted
his Army career. After boarding the
bus, Robinson was told to move to the
back of the segregated Army bus. He
refused and was later court-martialed.
Robinson was found not guilty and,
after he completed his service commitment, he was honor-
ably discharged.
Kansas City Monarchs pitcher Hilton Smith had seen
Robinson playing baseball for an all-Black Army team
against a White service team during a 1942 exhibition game.
As Robinson waited for his Army discharge papers, he heard
that the Monarchs needed players, so he wrote the team and
was granted a tryout.
After enduring two seasons without some of the Kansas
City Monarchs’ stars, who were missing due to the war,
owner J.L. Wilkinson signed two players who became
household names within the Negro Leagues: Jackie
Robinson and Ted “Double Duty” Radcliffe.
Robinson played only one season for the Monarchs, but
he significantly impacted baseball history for a lifetime.
Radcliffe played only 12 games with Monarchs after being
hurt in a home-plate collision. He was referred to as “Double
Duty” because he sometimes pitched one game of a double-
header and then caught the other. He was a six-time Negro
League All-Star, selected three times as a pitcher and three
times as a catcher. Radcliffe played for a few other teams
19
before becoming a manager. Talent-wise, Radcliffe was equal
to or greater than his younger roommate Robinson during
their time with Kansas City. During their short time together,
the two men had a special bond. As Radcliffe put it, “I
roomed with Jackie the two months before he was called
up to Montreal. I don’t think I’ve met a guy with more class
in my life.”
Decline of the Negro Baseball League Teams
In 1947 Robinson was the first of five Negro League players
admitted into the White major leagues; Larry Doby, Dan
Bankhead, Willard Brown, and Hank Thompson were the
others who soon followed. All five of the players were World
War II veterans, which demonstrated that White society was
more accepting of Black players who had served in the mili-
tary during the war years. After the color barrier was broken,
the Monarchs and other Negro Leagues teams began a rapid
decline, as White minor- and major-league teams signed away
all of the best Black talent.
The once-powerful Monarchs lasted until 1965; they were
an independent team for the final three years of their existence
as the Negro American League had finally folded after the
1962 season; the Negro National League already had disband-
ed after the 1948 season. Monarchs owner J.L. Wilkinson
never received any benefit from Robinson’s signing by the
Brooklyn Dodgers. As Hilton Smith recalled at Wilkinson’s
1964 funeral, “[T]hey just took Jackie, made all that money off
him, and Wilkinson was the man that was responsible for him
playing, and he didn’t get a dime out of it.”
On the other hand, one of the Monarchs players who
enjoyed the fruits of Wilkinson’s grace was Satchel Paige.
One of the greatest pitchers, Black or White, Paige spent the
majority of his career in the Negro Leagues. He was later
inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1971. Paige’s reputation
allowed him to demand, and to receive, a cut of the gate, and
Wilkinson provided him the use of his airplane to ferry Paige
to games across the country.
Although many Monarchs players left to serve in the mil-
itary during the war years, Paige remained behind and made a
sizable name and income through self-promotion and by barn-
storming with several teams. Paige’s glorious return to the
Monarchs signaled the team’s “Second Dynasty” and the
Negro World Series Championship in 1942. They also won six
Negro American League pennants in 10 years from 1937 to
1947. The 1942 Negro World Series featured two of the league
giants, Satchel Paige pitching for Kansas City Monarchs and
Josh Gibson catching for the Homestead Grays.
In 1939 Wilkinson had introduced a portable lighting sys-
tem that enabled the Monarchs to play night games, thus
allowing them to attract larger crowds. Between NAL games,
barnstorming tours, and the advent of night baseball for some
teams, many Negro League franchises had become profitable
organizations.
At the height of the World War II in 1944, the Monarchs
franchise was one of the most popular of all Negro League
organizations and a top money-maker as well, with $100,000
in gate receipts and a profit of $56,281. The popularity of the
Monarchs and their Negro League peers during wartime
helped to set the stage for the integration of White baseball in
the years that followed. ...
20
Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson, Negro League Baseball stars!
REFERENCES • When the Monarchs Reigned
‰ Alexa Mills, “The Story of the Only Known Lynching
on a U.S. Military Base in American History,”
Washington Post, September 2, 2016: 1.
‰ Mark Ribowsky, a Complete history of the Negro
Leagues, 1884 to 1955 (New York: Carol Publishing
Group, 1995), 245.
‰ Robert K. Chester, “‘Negroes’ Number One Hero’:
Doris Miller, Pearl Harbor, and Retroactive
Multiculturalism in World War II,” american Quarterly,
March 2013: 31, 61.
‰ Thomas W. Cutrer and T. Michael Parrish, “How Dorie
Miller’s Bravery Helped Fight Navy racism,” World War
ii magazine, October 31, 2019.
‰ Davis Barr, “Negro Leagues Players Played Major
Role in World War II,” mLBlogs, November 10, 2017.
https://nlbm.mlblogs.com/negro-leagues-players-played-
major-role-in-world-war-ii- 97421eb0130a. Retrieved
February 7, 2021.
‰ Bill Swank, “They Also Served with Valor,” in Todd
Anton and Bill Nowlin, editors, When Baseball Went to
War (Chicago: Triumph Books, 2008), 174.
‰ James A. Riley, The Biographical encyclopedia of the
Negro Baseball Leagues (New York: Carroll & Graf
Publishers, Inc., 1994), 256.
‰ Buck O’Neil and Steve Wulf, i Was Right on Time
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 166.
‰ John Paul Hill, “Commissioner A.B. ‘Happy’ Chandler
and the Integration of Major League Baseball: A
Reassessment,” NiNe: a Journal of Baseball history and
Culture, Fall 2010: 40.
‰ William A. Young, J.L. Wilkinson and the Kansas City
monarchs (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co.,
Inc., 2016), 142.
‰ Patricia McKissack and Fredrick McKissack Jr., Black
Diamond: The Story of the Negro Baseball Leagues (New
York: Scholastic, Inc., 1994), 134.
‰ When the monarchs Reigned: Kansas City’s 1942
Negro League Champions. Edited By Frederick C. Bush
and Bill Nowlin, Associate editors Len Levin and Carl
Riechers Foreword By Mike Gibbons. Society for
American Baseball Research, Inc. Phoenix, AZ
Vol. XLIX (2021) Fall/about...time