Steps towards sustainability: Assessment of walkability of streets in downtown

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Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Yasmeen Gul1, Zahid Sultan2, Gul Ahmed Jokhio3, Wan Saiful Nizam4, John Alexander Smith5

1. Assistant Professor, College of Architecture and Design, Al Ghurair University, Dubai.

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2. Senior Lecturer, Civil & Environmental Engineering Botswana International University of Science and
Technology (BIUST), Botswana.
3. Associate Professor at the Faculty of Engineering & IT, British University in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
4. Senior lecturer and Head of the department of Landscape Architecture, University Kalantan Malaysia.
5. Dean of the College of Architecture and Design, Al Ghurair University, Dubai

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Abstract: A people-oriented street is generally welcoming, safe and accessible especially for
pedestrians and cyclists. This is confirmed by many studies but, typically, there is a lack of

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information about the new urban areas which are constructed in newly developed cities such as
Dubai in the UAE. Therefore, the principal aim of this study is to investigate whether these streets

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are people or transit oriented and how much these streets contribute towards making people,
physically active. Old downtown (ODT) and new downtowns (NDT) of Dubai city were selected
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as the areas for this study. The results show that the NDT has more facilities for pedestrians and
cyclists. Interestingly, the ease and pleasantness of many streets coupled with less traffic and more
social life, derived from a greater number of known neighbors and relatives, encourage people to
walk more in the ODT. The provision of pedestrian walking signals, controlled crossroads, and a
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small crime rate make it easy for everyone to walk confidently. However, due to harsh weather in
summers, the covered pathways in NDT attract more pedestrian activity. Finally, it can be
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concluded that by purposefully making urban streets people-oriented; should carefully considered
when designing future urban neighborhoods within the city.

Introduction:
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According to World Health Organization (WHO) healthy urban environment is define as:
“A healthy city is one that is continually creating and improving those physical and social
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environments and expanding those community resources which enable people to mutually
support each other in performing all the functions of life and developing to their maximum
potential”.
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People-oriented streets are considered welcoming, safe, and accessible to the almost all types of
travelers of a society particularly for pedestrians and cyclists. It means design of buildings and

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 elements of roads such as sidewalks, intersection, roundabouts and other features are all scaled to

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equally motorized and non-motorized traffic. Thus, people-oriented streets work better for
everyone’s need within society because right of way everyone is properly designed. Sense of safety
and security for each type of user particularly pedestrians and cyclists are considered main priority.

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Traditionally, roads were designed for the movement of vehicles only even within the downtowns
as well. However, the smart development concepts emphasize balanced usage of lands within
downtown. The walkability of downtown areas and urban areas are very important for any city. In
recent times, not only worldwide, but the Government of Dubai has also successfully focused on

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the creation of more walkable streets and facilities for cyclists in the urban areas of the city.
Walking and cycling are important not only as contributors to sustainable urban design but also
are recognized as healthy for humans according to many guidelines. Consequently, the WHO

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guidelines declare that every adult (Age 18-65) should have 30 minutes of moderate physical
activity (e.g., brisk walking or cycling) for 5 days a week, or 20 minutes of vigorous physical
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activity (i.e., sports or exercise) for 3 days a week or any combination to achieve 600 MET in a
week. MET is the metabolic equivalent of task. Physical activities have different MET values (Gul,
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Sultan, M Moeinaddini, & Jokhio, 2018).

A detailed review of urban design literature identifies that the safe movement of motorized vehicles
was the main concern for urban planner and policy makers and very little attention was given to
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the green travel options such as walking and cycling while designing he cities and neighborhoods
(Weigand, 2008). Change in planning and development pyramid was started with adoption of
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agenda 21 during 1990s and public policy makers started to incorporate walking and cycling as
sustainable travel modes. The reason of this policy change was due to growing concerns over
environmental pollution, traffic congestion and the dramatic increase in human obesity (Hochmair,
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2009; Gul, Sultan, & Johar, 2015). This is well understood now that sustainable travel modes can
play important role to mitigate environmental pollution and traffic congestion, aid in weight loss
and increase the quality of life as has been reported that public transportation users have a
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significantly higher daily steps count (Villanueva, Giles-Corti, & McCormack, 2008). Within any
neighborhood, streets are the center of variety of activities thus, street designs must be sensitive to
the needs of all users, including pedestrians and cyclists (Gul, Jokhio, & Bibi, 2020; Gul, Sultan,
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M Moeinaddini, & Jokhio, 2018; Asadi-Shekari & Moeinaddini, 2013). Number of previous
studies have addressed this issue but only a small number of neighborhood design sustainable

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 travel mode variables were selected which may not be applicable for all situations. Therefore, these

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studies had some limitation in term of their methods to evaluate streets with respect to the needs
of particulary vulnerable users such as children, elderly/disabled people.

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A careful investigation of urban design literature identifies three factors such as neighborhood
walking facilities; socio-economic variables and urban structure indicators which influence
walking/cycling as a travel option. A number of studies were conducted to investigate this
relationship and found that particularly neighborhood design variables significantly influence

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individuals choice of mode of transport (Cervero & Duncan, 2003; Ewing & Cervero, 2010;
Ewing, Greenwald, Zhang, & Walters, 2011; Handy, Xing, & Buehler, 2010; Krizek, Forsyth, &
Baum, 2009; Schneider, Arnold, & Ragland, 2009; Greenwald, 2009; Gul, 2021; Gul, Jokhio, &

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Sultan, 2020). Some other studies established relationship between individual mode of transport
and job density, mixed land use, population density, and job-housing balance (Bento , Cropper, &
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Mobarak, 2003; Chatman, 2009; Greenwald, 2009; Kockelman, 1997; Zhang, 2004; Gul, Jokhio,
& Bibi, 2020). Moreover, Zhang (2004) and Gul et al (2020) examined the relationship between
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walk and street connectivity for non-work and work trips whereas Soltani & Allan (2006)
investigated relationship between walking and path directness (Soltani & Allan, 2006). Another
study is by Chatman (2009) who evaluated the effects of the distance to downtown on the walking
trips per person. Availability of transit stop and its distance to residence was discussed by Bento
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et al. (2003) and Kitamura et al. (1997). They found a significant relationship between transit stop
and walking. Some other studies investigate availability of walking/cycling facilities in
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neighborhood and an important influencing factor for non-motorized trips (Broach, Dill, & Gliebe,
2012) (Pucher, Dill, & Handy, 2010); (Dill & Carr, 2003); (Kelly, Tight, & Hodgson, 2011);
(Forsyth & Krizek, 2010); (Li, Wang, Liu, & Ragland, 2012); (Dill J. , 2009).
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The role of safety and security perception with neighborhood has also been addressed with respect
to individuals choose to walk (Kim & Ulfarsson, 2008); (Cervero & Duncan, 2003); (Gul, Sultan,
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Moeinaddini, & Jokhio, 2019)). For instance, the travel mode choice has been linked with
perception of crime within the neighborhood and found that perception safety and security play
important role and safe neighborhoods have better inclination towards sustainable mode of
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transport adoption. (Black, Collins, & Snell, 2001) (McMillan, Day, Boarnet, & Alfonzo, 2006);

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3978987
 (Jonnalagadda, Freedman, & Davidson, 2001); (Handy, Xing, & Buehler, 2010); (Gul, Sultan, &

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Jokhio, 2018).
Some new cities have developed rapidly in the late 20th century. Dubai in the United Arab
Emirates. is one of those cities where the original old city has dramatically changed into a new

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modern city, arguably drastically. The original CBD/Downtown around its Creek, Al Khor, has
been replaced by the new downtown. The previous pedestrian city changed quickly into a transit-
oriented city. An historical appraisal of the original CBD of Dubai in terms of public spaces and
circulation routes commences with the Cogan (Survey) Plan of 1822 when the 'original' city was

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visually documented. The first city plan by the English architect John R. Harris was commenced
in the 1960s. This was revised in 1971 to take into consideration the expected expansion away
from the CBD at Al Khor. As Dubai Municipality evolved, its Planning Department commissioned

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the architecture and planning consultants Doxiadis to produce a Structure Plan for the then rapidly
developing Dubai in the 1990s. This in turn was superseded by the URBIS® plan of 2003 which
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placed coastal development and desert encroachment as essential components of the 21st century
City. Currently a city master plan featuring 4 main strip zones, including a sea zone, re-emphasizes
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expansion but also draws attention to essential infilling of the spaces between the various 'cities
within the city'. By reviewing the historical context of the city's development, the progression from
pedestrian, boats and animal themed transportation to motor vehicles, trains and ferries, can be
appraised. The opportunity to revisit the earlier 'low energy' transportation elements have now
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been taken for this study area in order to help identify a healthy low energy option for Dubai's
residents and visitors alike (Smith, Under Process).
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This research considers indicators of neighborhood environments in urban areas of newly

developed cities by focusing on Dubai. The neighborhood environment has three important
constituents: the built environment, social environment, and streetscape facilities. The aim of this
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study is to assess and determine whether the newly developed urban areas are people oriented
which encourage non-motorized transportation and ultimately increase the physical activity among
residents and visitors. Therefore, the objectives of this study are: First, to identify neighborhood
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environment indicators of new urban areas within Dubai city; Second to compare these with the
old urban areas of Dubai; and third and finally, to investigate the association between the
neighborhood environment indicators with physical activity, identified principally by walking and
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cycling in those areas.

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 Methodology:

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Study Area
A cross-sectional study was conducted by matching the old downtown with the new downtown area of
Dubai city. The study area was selected because it is one of the newest developed transit-oriented cities of

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the world. The city is divided into different zones such as the new central business district, various
residential districts, recreational districts, and commercial districts; and connected with three major
highways that generally follow the Khaleej (Sea) line. The major development of Dubai city has occurred
along the sea line. There are different zones such as a sports district, golf course districts, Business Bay etc.

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and each of these recreational, commercial and residential districts relates to the three major highways.
Two important areas of Dubai have been selected for this study; one is the old downtown (Deira)
which was formerly one of the most attractive residential and commercial places of the city. The

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old markets such as a gold souk (gold market) is still an important place within the city. The other

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importance of the area is that it is close to the Alfahidi Fort, which symbolizes the original Dubai,
and nowadays an important tourist attraction. This area is also near to the Creek which historically
was used for trading but now is also a very busy tourist attraction. The second area of Dubai
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selected for this study is the new downtown, which is also very important in terms of its
geographical location, planning and design and features the world’s tallest building (Burj Khalifa).
This area was designed as a commercial and residential location. There are many tourist attractions
featured such as The Dubai Mall, regarded as one of the largest retail developments in the world.
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Both these urban areas demonstrate their own importance. The similarity, from the point of view
of this study, is that these areas are recognized as the respective downtowns of the city within the
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old and the new eras of the urban planning of Dubai. The selected area from each neighborhood
covers approximately 10 km2, which is considered appropriate for incorporating cycling and
walking. The location maps of the selected areas are illustrated in Figure 1.
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Figure 1::Map of location

The study area of each neighborhood was considered appropriate for individuals to access different
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destinations principally through walking and cycling. The selection criteria for the neighborhoods
for this study are in line with the published work of expert researchers. (Frank, Schmid, Sallis,
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Chapman, & Saelens, 2005; Sundquist, Eriksson, Kawakamia, Skog, & Ohlsson, 2011; Van, et al.,
2010). These can be applied when selecting the target areas for any such future study.

Study Sample
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A multi-stage cluster sampling technique has been adapted in this study while attempting to
involve the maximum possible number of respondents in order to obtain reasonable results.
According to the original technique, the target population is divided into clusters considered to
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represent the different characteristics of the entire populations. One or more clusters are then
chosen at random and maximum inhabitants of that cluster are surveyed. In this study, however,
the technique was slightly modified. For the modified multi-stage cluster sampling technique, the
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target population of the present study consisted of two types of neighborhoods: old downtown

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 (ODT) and new downtown (NDT). These neighborhoods were divided into smaller manageable

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areas such as residences near commercial areas, residences near public buildings (i.e., schools and
mosques) areas, and residences near recreational (i.e., public parks) areas. These smaller
neighborhood blocks were considered as clusters for sampling purposes. However, since these

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areas tend to represent different characteristics of the neighborhoods, the overall picture about the
neighborhoods could only emerge if data were obtained for all of these clusters. The random
selection of clusters, therefore, was not advisable to the present study. However, critically, the time
and resource limitations required that random sample selection had to be imposed at some stage.

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The random sample selection in the present study has been undertaken at a higher level. Instead of
the clusters, the inhabitants of a cluster were chosen randomly, and data was collected that

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represented the different characteristics of that cluster. Thus, when the data representing all the
clusters were compiled and analyzed, the full picture about the old and new downtowns emerged.

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The random selection (i.e., 50 out of 200 inhabitants) from within a cluster was undertaken based
on clearly defined criteria. Only persons fulfilling these criteria were chosen randomly. These
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criteria were: 1) Be within the age group of 18 years to 65 years, 2) Not have any special condition
that prevents physical activity, 3) Be able to complete or understand the survey in Arabic, English,
or Urdu/Hindi languages. The above selection criteria notwithstanding, it was decided to attempt
to sample only one person per house.
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A minimum required sample size was 384 individuals for both the neighborhoods. However, this
study has used an over-sampling approach of 200+ individuals from each neighborhood; which is
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in line with some previous studies (Frank, Schmid, Sallis, Chapman, & Saelens, 2005; Sundquist,
Eriksson, Kawakamia, Skog, & Ohlsson, 2011; Van Dyck, et al., 2010). The final sample size after
exclusion of missing data was 404. The students of the College of Architecture and Design
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collected the data in two groups. Training sessions were conducted by the first author who also
monitored the whole survey process, which was conducted from April 2021 to June 2021.

Study Variables and instruments:

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 Various indicators from the

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built environment were Streetscape Facilities
Shades Pathways; street
selected and calculated benches; bike lanes;
with the relevant crossings/pedestian signals;

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transit stops/parks
instruments. It is important

Sense of comfort

Sense of interest
Sense of safety
to note that if a Built Environment
neighborhood is designed Street connectivity; street
Integration
properly, it can create a

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sense of safety, comfort and Social Environment
interest for its users. Some Safety from crime; safety
from traffic
of the indicators are given

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in Figure 2 which were Figure 2: Neighborhood Environment Indicators

measured for the purposes of this study.

Neighborhood Environment Variables/Independent Variables

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Streetscape Facilities: The neighborhood environment (NE) indicators were used as independent
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variables for this study, which were divided into three categories; streetscape facilities, social
environment (i.e., safety indicators) and built environment (i.e., street connectivity and
integration); and were calculated by adopting different methods. Streetscape facilities were
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measured through Microscale Audit for Pedestrian Streetscape (MAPS). This method is an
observational (inventory) method. MAPS is basically a tool to collect and audit data on the
pedestrian environment and walkability in any neighborhoods. It has capacity to include variables
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such as streets, sidewalks, intersections, and other cross section elements of roads (e.g., road
crossing features, presence of trees, bicycle lanes, kerbs etc.), as well as the negative connotations
of graffiti and trash. MAPS is suitable observational tool to investigate physical activity in any
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neighborhood because it can incorporate microscale factors which allow for a more fine-grained
examination of the environmental features. Streetscape feature (microscale data) of the
neighborhood are typically collected using in-person environmental audits. Three versions of
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MAPS tool are available online which can be used according to the requirement. Each on has
varying degrees of complexity. This study has used the Mini version of MAPS. MAPS-Mini is a
15-item audit survey, for segments and crossings of any neighborhoods. The items are primarily
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focused on whether the segment is residential or commercial, how many public parks there are,

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 how many public transit stops there are, if there are street benches other than coffee shop kiosks

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for people to stop, sit and relax during periods of walking. Streetlights are also measured, if present
or not, and whether there are only some or sufficient streetlights. The maintenance of buildings is
also considered an important attribute for encouraging people to walk or to be physically active.

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Questions are devised. Are social indicators apparent such as the existence of graffiti/tagging? Are
there designated bike lanes? If there are sidewalks, what are the condition of sidewalks in that
area? Are there buffers between sidewalks and roads and what percentage of sidewalks are
provided with trees? Are there pedestrian signals or not and, on crossings, do the ramps exist at

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kerbs? Finally, do people know that there are marked cross walks in neighborhoods?

The consent was obtained from the participants to collect their personal data to be used for research

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purposes after anonymizing.

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Built Environment Indicators: The built environment indicators including street connectivity and
integration were calculated objectively with the help of aerial maps of the neighborhoods. Aerial
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maps were then converted into Space Syntax maps using Depth Map software. This process
provided the axial maps in different colors and values to show connectivity of streets. Space Syntax
is a tool for the analysis of spatial layouts and human activity patterns in urban areas. It is based
on a set of theories and techniques conceived by group of researchers under Bill Hillier in
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University College London during the late 1970s and early 1980s. This tool is considered very
helpful for urban planners to simulate the likely social effects of their designs (Lida & Shinichi.,
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2005) and it provides better understanding of the way cities function. The spaces in the selected
neighborhood are broken down into small components and analyzed in this system. A city is the
container of human activities and Space Syntax examines the spatial structure of cities and
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neighborhoods and configures relationship between spaces such as buildings, streets, intersections,
roads, walkways, and parks, among other non-built-up areas in each location and people (Koohsari,
Kaczynski, Mcormack, & Sugiyama, 2014). The result of relationship of key components is
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represented as maps and graphs describing the relative connectivity and integration between those
space components. Visibility graphs, axial maps lines, and convex spaces are the three basic
conceptions of space of this system. Connectivity within the city is calculated by axial maps. These
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maps have the longest and fewest lines, called axial lines, that cover all the spaces in a layout and
connect them with each other. These axial lines are used to study the movement of people in a

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 spatial network. Axial lines can be drawn either by hand or by using software such as Depth Map

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X and AJAX etc., which are freely accessible software developed by Alasdair Turner at University
College London (Peponis, et al., 1997; Turner, Alasdair, Penn, & Hillier, 2005; Bin & Liu, 2010;
Wan & Said., 2014). There are three values for street connectivity and integration: minimum

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connectivity, average connectivity, and maximum connectivity. The average connectivity values
were then used for further statistical analysis in SPSS.

Social Environment Indicators: For social environment indicators a portion of Neighborhood

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Environment Walkability Scale (NEWS) has been used in this study. NEWS is a suitable
instrument that assesses the perception of neighborhood design features such as walking/cycling
infrastructure, neighborhood aesthetics, traffic safety, crime perception, and neighborhood

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satisfaction related to physical activity. This instrument was developed by James F. Sallis (James,
2002). There are different versions of this instrument according to the study area. This study used
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the questions that measure the sense of satisfaction, sense of interest (i.e., natural and manmade
aesthetical features) and the sense of safety from crime and traffic of people in the old and new
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downtown areas of Dubai.

Physical Activity variables/Dependent Variables:

Neighborhood Physical Activity Questionnaire (NPAQ) was applied to calculate total Physical
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Activity (PA) such as walking and cycling in this study. The participants were asked if they had
been walking and cycling in the preceding seven days and, similarly, the duration (time per day)
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and days per week were recorded. Walking was divided into two types i.e., walking for any utility,
and walking for leisure. The reason for using NPAQ concerns a level of comfort allowing
participants to recall the name of the area, instead of just recalling the walking activity at
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neighborhood level in the preceding seven days. The destination options for practical walking were
schools, mosques, work, public transport, and shops. The destination options for recreational
walking were parks, friends’ or relatives’ houses, cafés, walk on pathways and trails of
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neighborhoods just for pleasure without any particular destination, and ‘others’ (this needed to be
specified by the respondents). All physical activities were then multiplied with average standard
MET values of each activity (Ainsworth, et al., 2000). The physical activity variables with the
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corresponding MET values are given in Table 1.

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 Table 1: Explanation of Physical Actvity variables /Dependent Variables

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PA Variables Standard Explanation
MET Values
Total PA Total walking +Cycling
Cycling 5.5 Moderate physical effort, which makes breathing harder than normal for example brisk walking, cycling,
scrubbing the floors, or carrying light loads, etc.
Total Walking 4 Practical Walking + Recreational walking

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Practical Walk 4.5 Walk for transportation and utility purposes such as walking to public bus stop, shops, school and mosques

Recreational 3.5 Walk for leisure or health benefits such as walking in park or in neighborhood just for recreational purposes
Walk

Results:
Results of this study are divided into four parts. The first part of the results explains the descriptive

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statistics and compares the streetscape facilities data which were calculated through MAPS-mini.
The second part of the results explains the data of the Built Environment (i.e., walkability, street
connectivity and integration) which was made with the help of Space Syntax (Depth Map)

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software. The third part compares the social environmental data (i.e., sense of safety, sense of

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interest and sense of comfort) which were calculated using portions from the NEWS. The fourth
and final part of these results shows the association of neighborhood environment indicators with
total physical activity (i.e., walking and cycling).
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Streetscape Facilities:
In total, 27 segments, and 29 crossings were surveyed using the MAPS-Mini template in the new
downtown (Zabeel) area as given in Figure 3. On the other hand, there were 17 segments, and 16
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crossings in the old downtown (Deira), which are given in Figure 4.

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Figure 3: Survey map of new downtown Figure 4: Survey map of old downtown

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Descriptive Statistics: The descriptive statistics of both the neighborhoods in Table 1 show that
there were 27 segments in new downtown (NDT) and 17 in old downtown (ODT) of Dubai city.
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Types of segments show that in the NDT 78 percent segments were residential while in the ODT
a greater number of segments, which was 82 percent, were residential-cum-commercial. The
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number of parks in segments results show that there were less parks in the ODT context when
compared with the NDT. The number of transit stops was higher in the ODT. The percentage of
non-availability of a transit station was 63% in the NDT as compared with the ODT where there
were only 10% segments with no transit stops. Both neighborhoods have relatively small numbers
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of street furniture, while the NDT has even smaller numbers of street furniture than the ODT.
Streetlights on the other hand were ample in the NDT when compared with the ODT. The buildings
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were well maintained in the NDT relative to the ODT. The percentage of well-maintained
buildings in the NDT was 100% while the maintained building percentage in the ODT was 88%.
Graffiti and tagging were only 11% in the ODT while there were no graffiti and tagging in the
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NDT.
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics of old and new downtowns of Dubai city
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Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

S.N. Neighborhoods New Downtown (DT) 27 100.0 100.0 100.0

Old Downtown (DT) 17 100 100

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1. Type of Segment Residential 21 77.8 77.8 77.8

NDT
Commercial 6 22.2 22.2 100.0

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 Residential 1 2.3 5.9 5.9

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ODT Resi/com 14 31.8 82.4 88.2

New construction 2 4.5 11.8 100.0

2. No. Of Parks No parks 23 85.2 85.2 85.2

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NDT 1 park 2 7.4 7.4 92.6

2 or more 2 7.4 7.4 100.0

No parks 10 22.7 66.7 66.7

ODT
1 park 5 11.4 33.3 100.0

3. No. of Transit Stops 0 TS 17 63.0 63.0 63.0

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(TS) NDT 1 TS 2 7.4 7.4 70.4

2 or more TS 8 29.6 29.6 100.0

1 TS 1 2.3 5.9 5.9

ODT

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2 or more 16 36.4 94.1 100.0

4. Availability of Street No 25 92.6 92.6 92.6

NDT
Benches

ODT
Yes

No

Yes
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2

10

7
7.4

22.7

15.9
7.4

58.8

41.2
100.0

58.8

100.0
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5. Streetlights installed Some 4 14.8 14.8 14.8
NDT
Ample 23 85.2 85.2 100.0

Some 2 4.5 11.8 11.8

ODT
Ample 15 34.1 88.2 100.0
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6. Building maintenance New

Well maintained 27 100.0 100.0 100.0
DT

Old Maintained 15 34.1 88.2 88.2

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DT Well maintained 2 4.5 11.8 100.0

7. Graffiti/Tagging NDT No 27 100.0 100.0 100.0

Yes 2 4.5 11.8 11.8

ODT
No 15 34.1 88.2 100.0
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8. Bike Lanes No 22 81.5 81.5 81.5

NDT Yes, separated with

5 18.5 18.5 100.0
barriers
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No 16 36.4 94.1 94.1

ODT
Yes 1 2.3 5.9 100.0

9. Side Walks New No 7 25.9 25.9 25.9

DT Yes 20 74.1 74.1 100.0

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Old No 2 4.5 13.3 13.3

DT Yes 13 29.5 86.7 100.0

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 10. Poorly maintained Yes poor 6 22.2 22.2 22.2

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NDT
Sidewalks Not poor 21 77.8 77.8 100.0

Yes Poor 3 6.8 20.0 20.0

ODT
Not poor 12 27.3 80.0 100.0

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11. Buffer New No 23 85.2 85.2 85.2

DT yes 4 14.8 14.8 100.0

Old No 11 25.0 73.3 73.3

DT Yes 4 9.1 26.7 100.0

12. Percentage of 25% 21 77.8 77.8 77.8

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Sidewalks covered NDT 26-75% 5 18.5 18.5 96.3
with Trees
75-100% 1 3.7 3.7 100.0

25% 16 36.4 94.1 94.1

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ODT
26-75% 1 2.3 5.9 100.0

13. Walk Signals NDT Yes 27 100.0 100.0 100.0

14. Ramp at curbs

ODT

NDT
Yes

Yes

On both sides
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15

24
34.1

11.1

88.9
100.0

11.1

88.9
100.0

11.1

100.0
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Yes, one side 2 4.5 13.3 13.3
ODT
Yes, on both sides 13 29.5 86.7 100.0

15. Marked Crosswalks New

Yes 27 100.0 100.0 100.0
DT
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Old
Yes 15 34.1 100.0 100.0
DT
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In the ODT there were only 18.5 percent bike lanes which were also separated by barriers. On the
other hand, in the NDT there were only 6 percent bike lanes in the neighborhood. Both
neighborhoods enjoy a good percentage of sidewalks; the NDT has 74% the ODT has 85%. The
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quality of sidewalks was good (not poor) in both neighborhoods. Those were 74 and 80 percent in
the NDT and ODT, respectively. No buffers were noticed in both neighborhoods. It was 85% for
NDT and 77% for ODT. When compared with the ODT, the NDT was greener. In the ODT only
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6% of sidewalks had (26-75%) green tree cover. Concerning walk signals, 100% of neighborhoods
of Dubai city have walk signals for crossing the roads. At the same time, neighborhoods have a
very good percentage of ramps on kerbs. Results confirmed 89 and 87% respectively in the NDT
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and ODT. Finally, both neighborhoods had 100 % marked crosswalks on crossings.

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 Comparative Analysis: An independent sample T-test was applied to compare the 15 street design

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elements in the ODT and the NDT to test whether there is any difference in the street designs using
the MAPS-Mini template. The results of an independent sample T-test in Table 3 show that there
was no significant difference in the types of segments such as residential or commercial in both

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types of neighborhoods. Similarly, there was no significant difference in the number of parks in
both types of neighborhoods. However, there was a significant difference in the number of transits
stops. The NDT had a smaller number of transits stops as compared to the ODT. Similarly, the
number of street benches, other than coffee shops etc., was significantly higher in the ODT. The

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availability of streetlights was similar in both types of neighborhoods with no significant
differences between the two. Although it was noticed that the buildings in both neighborhoods
were maintained, the buildings in NDT appeared significantly in better condition. Similarly, the

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numbers of graffiti were low in both types of neighborhoods, but the NDT had significantly less
graffiti as compared with the ODT. Similarly, in the case of bike lanes, the NDT had more
designated bike lanes as compared with the ODT. er
Table 3: Observational data of Old and New Downtowns of Dubai
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Variables Sig. 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
Lower Upper
.000 -1.736 -.81272
No. of public transit stops
-1.654 -.89426
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.000 -.5735 -.10213

Availability of street benches
-.6144 -.06093
.000 .75428 1.01043
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Building Maintenance
.71160 1.05311
.000 -.0104 .24572
Graffiti/tagging
-.0531 .28840
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.000 -.0887 .71183

Availability of Bike Lanes
-.0206 .64378
.046 -.3966 .14475
Availability of sidewalk
-.3797 .12793
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.002 -.0744 .47528

Coverage of streets with trees
-.0362 .43710
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The availability of sidewalks is significantly different in the two neighborhoods. The ODT has a
greater number of sidewalks than the NDT. At the same time, it was noticed that there were no

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 poorly maintained sidewalks in either of the neighborhoods. The results also show that there was

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not a significant difference in the maintenance of sidewalks in the two neighborhoods. It was also
observed that there were no buffers between sidewalks and roads in both neighborhoods. The
results of an independent sample t-test also show that there was no significant difference in the

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availability of buffers near sidewalks in the two neighborhoods. The number of sidewalks covered
by trees was significantly higher in the NDT. It was also noticed that there were ramps at the kerbs
in both neighborhoods. The independent sample t-test also shows that there was no significant
difference in having ramps at kerbs in both neighborhoods.

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Built Environment Indicators/Space Syntax Analysis
This section presents street connectivity and street integration for old and new zones in the street
network of Dubai downtown. The street connectivity of each zone shows the different character

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of pedestrian movement, which reflects the walkability of the zones. The street integration

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indicates the influences of streets to create the patterns that are walkable for pedestrians according
to the planning of the zones.
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Street Connectivity of the NDT: The
street network of the NDT (Fig. 5) has a
high street connectivity, notably at Al
Asayel St (C = 817). The connectivity of
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Al Asayel St is in a linear form with 14

intersections. Observation of Al Asayel
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St indicates that the design of the street

is mainly intended for vehicular
movement rather than pedestrian. The
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low intersection numbers, compared

with the old zone, is consistent with
connecting vehicles to other roads and destinations.
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Figure 5: Map of connectivity for NDT

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 Street Integration of the NDT: Street integration for the new downtown (Fig. 6) features two main

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streets, namely, Al Mustaqbal St (I = 3.43), and Burj Khalifa Blvd (I = 3.56). The results indicate
that both streets are significant in
influencing movement within the

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NDT’s street network. In addition, both
streets are the main ways of connecting
two world significant points, the tallest
building in the world – the Burj Khalifa,

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and, arguably, the largest shopping mall
in the world – the Dubai Mall.
Moreover, other attraction points such

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as The Dubai Fountain, Dubai Opera,
and Souk Al Bahar indicate the
possibility of heavy traffic occurring in
the adjoining streets, thereby
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inconveniencing the pedestrian when walking these streets.

Figure 6: Map of integration HH for new zone

The new zones within Dubai downtown indicate that the urban design approach aims to
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accommodate a vehicular mode of transportation rather than that of walking. High connectivity at
Al Asayel St moves vehicles into the town, while the Al Mustaqbal St and Burj Khalifa Blvd - the
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most significant streets in the street network - direct vehicles to the well-known and internationally
famous attraction points.
Street Connectivity of the ODT: Three streets of the old zone (Fig. 6) feature high connectivity
at Al Maktoum Rd (C = 1343), 18th St
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(C = 1256), and 27th St (C = 1124). Al

Maktoum Rd is significantly the highest
connected thoroughfare in the old zone’s
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street network. The connectivity of the

street is laid out in linear form with 52
intersections. Meanwhile, 18th St and
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27th St present high street connectivity

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 with both connected to each other by an intersection (X-junction). The connection of both streets

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indicates high pedestrian movement resulting from a total of 50 street intersections from 18th St
(42) and 27th St (8).
Figure 7: Map of connectivity for ODT

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Street Integration of the ODT: The street network of the old zone contains street integration
involving the three most influential streets, namely Omar bin Al Khattab St (I = 4.45), Al Rasheed
Rd (I = 4.35), and Naif St (I = 4.38). The
intersection of these significant streets at

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an X-junction indicates walkability
within the street network, centralized and
connected with other attraction points in

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the town. The influential streets become
the reference streets during pedestrian
movement. During travelling in the ODT
and when encountering these streets,
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pedestrians reconstruct their familiarity
with the urban environment, which then
influences them to select accordingly by
walking in the correct direction, thereby leading to their destinations.
Figure 8: Map of Integration HH for ODT
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Accordingly, high street connectivity at Al Maktoum Rd and continuing to 27th St and 18th St
creates the ODT’s street network which is centralized at the junction of three streets: Omar Al
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Khattab St, Al Rasheed Rd, and Naif St. This finding indicates that the junction and the six streets
are the significant features to influence walkability for pedestrians. Walkable street design for
pedestrians is a required feature in creating a better environment to experience the street.
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Social Environment Indicators:

Comparative Analysis: The social environment indicators which were calculated through NEWS
were compared through an independent sample t-test and results show that gender-wise, there were
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more female participants in the ODT when compared with the NDT area. Furthermore, the age
group of 18-30 was larger in number in the ODT; while a greater number of South Asian people,
whose education is at graduate level mostly, operate their own businesses more in the ODT than
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in the NDT area.

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 Results showed significantly more satisfaction with the NDT regarding: highway access,

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transportation, commuting to schools and work on a daily basis, access to shopping, ease and
pleasantness of neighborhoods. Similarly, cycling, ease and availability of entertainment such as
restaurants and cinemas, treelined streets providing welcome shading to the pathways, freedom

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from litter, crossroads, and pedestrian signals that help people to safely cross the roads and no
crime rate in the NDT, each underscores this satisfaction. Furthermore, the availability of friends,
an ease and pleasantness that characterize neighborhoods when walking, the perception of
neighborhood as a good place to raise children and a good place to live, a variety of interesting

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features that can be appreciated when walking such as attractive buildings and landscaped sites all
contribute to such satisfaction. Nevertheless, traffic volumes sometimes make it difficult to walk
but the speed of traffic is generally slow, and people can interact with each other. These

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characteristics are significantly higher in the ODT. On the other hand, there is no significant
difference in road traffic volume in both downtowns, while the number of walkers and bikers in
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both neighborhoods, indicate that it is easy to walk either by day or at night largely due to a
nonexistent perception of crime. The comparative analysis results are given in Table 4.
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Table 4: Data for sense of satisfaction, sense of interest and sense of safety for respondents (404 responses)

Variables Sig. 95% Confidence Interval of

the Difference
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Lower Upper

.026 -.19021 .01302

Gender
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-.19030 .01311
.025 -.40424 -.10117
Age
-.40412 -.10128
.000 -1.84091 -1.26229
Origin
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-1.83550 -1.26769
.025 -.47716 -.23866
Education
-.47747 -.23835
.000 -.21865 .10465
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To what extent are you Satisfied with the highway access from your home?
-.21969 .10569
To what extent are you Satisfied with the access to public transportation in your .000 -.83684 -.50120
neighborhood? -.83747 -.50057
.000 -.36644 -.03645
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To what extent are you Satisfied with your commuting time to work/school?
-.36753 -.03535
To what extent are you Satisfied with the access to shopping in your neighborhood? .000 -.30587 -.00177

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 -.30700 -.00064

ed
To what extent are you Satisfied with the availability of your friends in your .000 .05159 .38790
neighborhood? .05051 .38898
To what extent are you Satisfied with the ease and pleasantness to walk in your .000 .07997 .38942

iew
neighborhood? .07775 .39164
To what extent are you Satisfied with the ease and pleasantness to bicycle in your .000 -.17920 .17805
neighborhood? -.18011 .17896
To what extent are you Satisfied with the access to entertainment places in your .000 -.13229 .19345
neighborhood (restaurants, movies, clubs, etc.)? -.13327 .19443

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To what extent are you Satisfied that your neighborhood is a good place to raise .000 .27766 .60067
children? .27526 .60307
.000 .01271 .28690
To what extent are you Satisfied with your neighborhood as a good place to live.
.01062 .28899

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.000 .05416 .30016
There are many interesting things to look at while walking in my neighborhood.
.05229 .30204

My neighborhood is generally free from litter.

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There are trees along the streets which provide shade to the sidewalks in my
neighborhood.
.000

.000
-.31133
-.31275
-.25403
-.02819
-.02677
-.02368
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-.25536 -.02235
There are many attractive natural sights in my neighborhood (such as landscaping, .000 .09091 .36512
views). .08966 .36637
.000 .32415 .56438
There are attractive buildings/homes in my neighborhood.
.32247 .56606
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.000 .01123 .28012

Traffic volume makes it difficult or unpleasant to walk in my neighborhood.
.01037 .28098
.003 .18269 .39160
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The speed of traffic on the street I live on is usually slow (30 mph or less).
.18249 .39180
There are crosswalks and pedestrian signals to help walker’s cross busy streets in my .000 -.18386 .01426
neighborhood. -.18426 .01466
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.026 -.10429 .09761

The crosswalks in my neighborhood help walkers feel safe crossing busy streets.
-.10466 .09798
.000 -.05264 .18945
I can interact with other people when I am walking in my neighborhood.
-.05392 .19073
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.001 .15971 .45184

There is no high crime rate in my neighborhood.
.15893 .45261

Physical activity Variables:

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 Comparison Analysis: The comparative analysis of physical activity variables (i.e., walking and

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cycling) show that there is a significant difference in cycling between the old and new downtowns
of Dubai. The results are given in Table 5.
Table 5: Comparison of physical activity (PA) in old and new downtowns of Dubai

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Physical Activity Variables
Sig. 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
Lower Upper
.759 -16.25086 -.47365
Sum of walking minutes
-16.25124 -.47327
.053 -3.25021 8.77290

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Sum of Cycling Minutes
-3.26077 8.78345
.921 -15.55001 4.34818
Total PA Minutes
-15.55472 4.35290

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Association of neighborhood environment with Total physical activity: The results of linear
regression between streetscape features and total physical activity are given in table 6. The results

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show that there is a significant positive relationship only between public transport stops,
designated bike lanes and covered sidewalks (i.e., trees and awnings) with total physical activity.
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The other indicators have no significant relationships with total physical activity. Similarly, the
results of linear regression between Social Environment indicators and total physical activity are
also given in table 6. The results show that there is a significant positive relationship between the
satisfaction of people with: commuting time to work/schools, the availability of friends and
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relatives in their neighborhoods, the pleasantness and an ease of walking inside the neighborhood,
many attractive nature-themed features and landscaping, and the availability of crosswalks and
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signals with total physical activity. The other indicators have no significant relationships with total
physical activity.

Table 6: Association of streetscape features with total physical activity

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Model/Methods Neighborhood Environment Indicators Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.

Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
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(Constant) -14.074 97.595 -.144 .886

Streetscape Public Transit stops 50.946 19.207 .964 2.652 .010
Facilities Designated bike lanes 33.559 17.846 .449 1.880 .065
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(Observational Sidewalk covered by trees, awnings,

-46.815 27.434 -.430 -1.706 .053
data) or other overhead coverings

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 Social To what extent are you Satisfied with

ed
-8.801 3.981 -.143 -2.211 .028
Environment your commuting time to work/school?
Indicators To what extent are you Satisfied with
(Subjective the availability of your friends in your -9.253 3.874 -.155 -2.389 .018
Data)

iew
neighborhood?
To what extent are you Satisfied with
the ease and pleasantness to walk in 15.623 4.556 .253 3.429 .001
your neighborhood?
There are many attractive natural
sights in my neighborhood (such as 9.819 5.681 .134 1.728 .055

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landscaping, views).
There are crosswalks and pedestrian
signals to help walkers’ cross busy 22.067 9.395 .202 2.349 .020

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streets in my neighborhood.
The crosswalks in my neighborhood
help walkers feel safe crossing busy
streets. er
-21.534 8.789 -.208 -2.450 .015
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Association of Neighborhood Environment Indicators with dichotomized MET: The total

physical activity was multiplied with MET values and dichotomized into two categories; people

who get more than 300 MET in a week and less than 300 MET in a week. Binary logistic regression
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was applied to check the association of built environment indicators with total MET in a week.

The results of total MET with streetscape indicators are given in table 7. The results show that the
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availability of parks, transit stops and buffers along the sidewalk has a positive association with

total physical activity. Because of these indicators, this means that people tend to attain 300 MET
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in a week through walking and cycling only. The results of total MET with social environment

indicators are also given in table 7. The results show that people who are satisfied with commuting
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times to school/work are also satisfied with ease and pleasantness of the neighborhood. While

traffic volume sometimes makes it difficult to walk, cross walks and low crime rates associate
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 positively with total physical activity. That means that, because of these indicators, people can

ed
achieve 300 MET in a week through walking and cycling only.

Table 7: Association of Neighborhood Environment indicators with total MET in a week

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B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B)
Streetscape -
Parks .922 2.977 1 .054 .204
Facilities 1.590
Transit stops 2.477 1.136 4.759 1 .029 11.906
Buffer 2.359 1.218 3.754 1 .053 10.584

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Social To what extent are you Satisfied with your commuting time to
-.357 .184 3.756 1 .053 .700
Environment work/school?
Indicators To what extent are you Satisfied with the ease and pleasantness to
.531 .224 5.622 1 .018 1.701
walk in your neighborhood?

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Traffic volume makes it difficult or unpleasant to walk in my
.547 .296 3.410 1 .055 1.728
neighborhood.

unpleasant to walk in my neighborhood. er

Traffic volume along nearby streets makes it difficult or

The crosswalks in my neighborhood help walkers feel safe

-.451

-
.249 3.271 1 .070 .637
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.432 7.170 1 .007 .315
crossing busy streets. 1.156
There is no high crime rate in my neighborhood .738 .357 4.266 1 .039 2.091

Discussion/ Conclusions
The descriptive and comparative analysis results of observational survey (inventory) show that
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there were significant differences between the old and new downtowns of Dubai. The differences
were concentrated in the number of public transit stops, availability of street benches, maintenance
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of buildings, availability of bike lanes, sidewalks and shaded sidewalks, which were significantly
higher in the NDT. These reflect the steps taken towards sustainability by the newly developed
Dubai city and is in line with the study of Hochmair (2009) who states that, currently, public policy
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makers are trying to increase walking and cycling as sustainable travel modes due to growing
concerns over environmental pollution, traffic congestion and the dramatic increase in obesity
during recent years. The comparative analysis results of the subjective method, which were
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collected from 404 respondents, show significantly more satisfaction with regard to a variety of
factors that include highway access, transportation, commuting to local schools and work on a
daily basis, access to shopping, ease and pleasantness of neighborhoods while cycling, ease and
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availability of entertainment such as restaurants and cinemas were appreciated. In addition,

connecting to Nature through trees planted along the streets that provide welcome shade and air

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 quality for the pathways, a notable freedom from litter, the provision of crossroads, and pedestrian

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signals that help people to safely cross the roads and no crime rate in the new downtown of Dubai,
each contributed to the level of satisfaction. The descriptive and comparative analyses highlight
that good urban design strategies have been used in the new downtown to make the newly

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developed city operate as a sustainable city in line with the previous studies which showed the
current policy makers are focusing more on people-oriented urban areas instead of transport-
oriented cities in new developments.
The result of street connectivity and integration in both zones of Dubai city show high street

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connectivity. ODT street connectivity is formed from 50 (18th St and 17th St) to 52 intersections
(Al Maktoum Rd) whereas NDT street connectivity is created from the length of the street (Al
Asayel St). The finding means the connectivity in the ODT allows pedestrians to travel from and

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to various directions and destinations. Moreover, the ODT offers a quality streetscape that is
attached to shops, hotels, and facilities accessible for pedestrians. Meanwhile, the relatively long
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distance of Al Asayel St. (2.8 km) in the NDT is designed for high-speed movement of a vehicular
mode. The intersections in the street are at the entrances to the attraction points and accessible to
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vehicles. The differences between the old and new zones of Dubai downtown indicate that
planning in the ODT focused on pedestrians to move in and through while NDT planning aims to
move vehicles into the attraction points or buildings. Accordingly, street environments in the old
zone were more walkable for pedestrians compared to the new zone environment. Furthermore,
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findings of street integration illustrate that the ODT’s street network contains higher street
integration compared to the NDT’s street network. The ODT’s street network centralizes
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pedestrians in the town toward three main streets which are Omar Al Khattab St, Al Rasheed Rd,
and Naif St. The junction of the three streets becomes the center of pedestrian movement in the
zone. The NDT’s street network facilitates tourists to identify the streets (Al Mustaqbal St and
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Burj Khalifa Blvd) that are connected to two world-level iconic places, Burj Khalifa and The Dubai
Mall. Finally, both zones of Dubai downtown demonstrate their purpose according to the character
of the zone. The old zone as a traditional place in Dubai is enriched by the cultural identity of
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people and positively influences pedestrians to experience the street environment more. In
contrast, the new zone reflects the modern era of Dubai with its greatness or emphasis offered in
the form of experiencing the attraction point more than, thereby supplanting, the street as the initial
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intention of tourists when visiting the zone.

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 The results of association of neighborhood environment (NE) with physical activity (PA i.e.,

ed
walking and cycling) show that significant relationships exist between NE and PA in both the old
and new downtowns of Dubai city. Different indicators have been investigated including those of
neighborhood-built environment, social environment (safety indicators) and streetscape facilities

iew
and their association with total physical activity, namely the combination of walking and cycling.
The descriptive analysis results show that the number of parks, public transport stops and buffers
between walking and biking tracks have positive associations with total physical activity. This
result is in line with the previous studies of Bento et al. (2003) and Kitamura et al. (1997) who

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found that the distance to the nearest transit stop had an impact on the choice to walk. The result
of the positive relationship of walking and bike lane with physical activity is in line with the studies
of Broach, Dill, & Gliebe, (2012),Pucher, Dill, & Handy, (2010), Dill & Carr, (2003); Kelly, Tight,

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& Hodgson, (2011), Forsyth & Krizek, (2010), Li, Wang, Liu, & Ragland, (2012) and Dill J. ,(
2009) who concluded in their studies that walking and cycling facilities are important influencing
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factors for non-motorized trips and physical activity. Similarly, the satisfaction of respondents with
the commuting time to work and schools, satisfaction of ease and pleasantness while walking, the
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provision of crosswalks and walking signals making it easy to walk; while more traffic making it
difficult to walk and a negligible crime rate are overall positive indicators for physical activity.
These are all higher in the old downtown. This result is in line with the study of Weigand, (2008)
who concluded that traditional cities had no facilities set aside for walking and cycling but the new
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urban areas focus more on facilitating walking and cycling. The results of perception of crime and
perception of traffic hazard are consistent with the existing literature that there is a negative
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association with physical activity. There was virtually no perception of crime but the traffic hazard
inversely affects walking; this result is consistent with the previous research that neighborhood
safety encourages walking at neighborhood level (Oyeyemi, et al., 2013). The researchers
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investigated the effects of neighborhood safety with physical activity in Nigeria. Their study
examined associations between perceived neighborhood safety and physical activity among
Nigerian adults. The present study also concludes that perception of traffic hazards has a
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significant impact on walking. If there is less perception of traffic hazards, there will be more
practical walking. The overall results of the present study are consistent with the studies of Black,
et,at., (2001), McMillan, et,al., (2006), Jonnalagadda, et,al., (2001), Handy, et, al., (2010), and
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Gul, et, al., (2018) who concluded in their studies that the perception of crime and transportation
system factors are important for walking.

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3978987
 ed
On the other hand, the results of socio-demographics are different than some of the other studies.
There was no relationship of socio-demographics such as age, gender, income level, education
level and employment with physical activity. These results were opposite to the previous studies

iew
of Gul, et, al., (2019) which reported overall physical activity levels decreased with increasing age.
The reason for having no apparent relationship of age with physical activity in Dubai can be
explained that Dubai is a ‘city of youngsters’. Most of the population is of working age in this city.
The second important socio-demographic factor of this study was gender, and the results are again

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opposite to the other studies that females are less physically active especially in developing
countries (McMillan, Day, Boarnet, & Alfonzo, 2006). The results of this study showed no
significant relationship. That is probably because the crime rate is almost zero in Dubai, therefore,

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there is no relationship of gender with physical activity. The results of employment status had no
significant relationship with physical activity in both downtowns of Dubai city. This study is not
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consistent with the previous research, that measured employment status through self-reporting and
reported that unemployed people are more physically active. This is probably because the
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employed people are physically active at their office places or somewhere else instead of at
neighborhood level. The comparison of physical activity such as walking, cycling in the old and
new downtowns of Dubai show that people do significantly undertake more cycling in the new
downtown but there is no significant difference in the total physical activity in both neighborhoods.
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This shows that the provision of cycling tracks in the new downtown and walking tracks in the old
downtown are both important streetscape features to be applied in future improvements for making
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cities walkable and sustainable.

The strength of this study is that it has investigated the relationships of neighborhood environment
indicators with walking and cycling in the old and new downtowns of the newly developed city of
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Dubai. This study has investigated the most important neighborhood environment indicators for
encouraging physical activity at neighborhood level through which one can achieve a
recommended level of PA in a week. The use of two methods i.e., objective, and subjective with
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a large sample size is a strength of this study. The combination of the two methods can provide
suggestions to the city policy makers and planners for incorporating appropriate facilities for
physically active neighborhoods in future.
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It can be concluded that there is a significant association between neighborhood environment and
physical activity. The streetscape facilities such as shading along walking paths, bike lanes,

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3978987
 crosswalks, pedestrian signals and buffers between sidewalks and roads, should each be

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encouraged in the future urban areas. At the same time, the ease and pleasantness of an
environment, the availability of parks and interesting street and urban features, and access to
companions at neighborhood level also encourage people to walk. In addition, the perception of

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traffic hazards has a negative relationship with walking and cycling that should be discouraged in
future urban areas of the city. Therefore, it can be concluded that new policies for urban areas such
as downtowns should focus on implementing the required facilities for walkers and cyclists. It is
no exaggeration to state that the results will help ensure sustainable streets for all users.

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Acknowledgement:
This study is the outcome of a research grant from Al Ghurair University, Dubai.

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pe
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perceive. International Journal of Geographical Information Science , "Volume 24, Issue 4.
Black, C., Collins, A., & Snell, M. (2001). Encouraging Walking: The Case of Journey-to-School Trips in Compact
Urban Areas. Urban Studies, 38(7), 1121-1141.
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This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3978987