Electrical Measurement and Instrument: Lecture 4 - P1 - Electromechanical Instruments and Analogue Electronic Meters

Electrical Measurement and Instrument
Lecture 4 – P1 – Electromechanical Instruments

and Analogue Electronic Meters
Content of Lecture 4
 4.1 Introduction
 4.2 Classification of Analog Instruments
 4.3 Principle of Operation
 4.4 Operating Torques
 4.5 Constructional Details
 4.6 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instrument
 4.7 Extension of Range of PMMC Instruments
 4.8 Moving-Iron Instruments
 4.9 Electrodynamometer-Type Instruments
 4.10 Electrostatic Instruments
 4.11 Induction-type Instruments
 4.12 Electrothermal Instruments
 4.13 Rectifier-type Instruments
2 23.12.2021 VGU I VIETNAMESE-GERMAN UNIVERSITY

4.1 Introduction
 An analog device is one in which the output or display is a continuous

function of time.
 Three principles of the operation of analog meters: (i) electromagnetic (the
magnetic effects of electric circuits); (ii) electrostatic (the forces between
electrically charged conductors); and (iii) electro-thermal (the heating effects).
 Electromechanical meter: electrical signal  mechanical force or torque as
an output  voltmeter or ammeter
 Permanent magnet moving-coil (PMMC) instrument: is the most common
used instrument

4.2 Classification of Analog Instruments
Analog instruments may be classified into two ways:

 Absolute instruments (t/b đo lường trực tiếp): no comparison with another
instrument being required (the constants of the instruments and its deflection 
no calibration of the instrument is required)
 Secondary instruments (t/b đo lường thứ cấp/gián tiếp): (being calibrated
by comparison with either an absolute instrument or one which has already
been calibrated), classified by:
1. Indicating instruments: to indicate the magnitude of a quantity being
measured
2. Recording instruments: to give a continuous record of the quantity being
measured over a specified period.
3. Integrating instruments: to record the totalized events over a specified
period of time

Real Instruments (1)
 Voltage transformers for the measuring purpose.
 Current transformers for the measuring purpose.

Real Instruments (2)

4.3 Principle of Operation
 1. Magnetic effect
 2. Heating effect (thermocouple and hotwire instruments)
 3. Electrostatic effect
 4. Electromagnetic effect (e.g. Wattmeter)
 5. Hall effect

4.4 Operating Torques (1)
 Deflecting torque/force: depending upon the electrical signal to be measured

 helps in rotating the instrument movement from its zero position.
 Controlling torque/force: spiral springs or gravity used to produce the
controlling torque (from the controlling system)
Function of the controlling system:
Controlling
torque
Deflecting
torque

4.4 Operating Torques (2)
 Damping torque/force: to bring the moving system to rest at the final deflected
position quickly.
(Deflecting torque > Controlling torque)
(Deflecting torque < Controlling torque)

4.5 Constructional Details (1)
4.5.1 Moving system:

+ Properties:
- The moving parts should be light (proportional to the weight of the moving part)
- The frictional force should be minimum (opposite to the movement)
+ Supports:
- Suspension (hệ thống giảm xốc)
- Taut Suspension (hế thống giảm xốc hai bên dùng dây)
- Pivot and Jewel bearing (chốt quay và ổ bi loại Jewel)
Spring-loaded jewel bearing; Jewel bearing; Pivot

Taut Suspension

4.5.2 Controlling system  Controlling torque :
 Spring control
a) Spring control
b) Spring control in an actual instrument

4.5.2 Controlling system (cont.):
 Spring control (cont.)
L (m) – a total length of strip (chiều dài duỗi thẳng của lò xo)
t (m) – the radial thickness
b (m) – the depth/width
E (N/m2) – Young’s modulus for the material of the spring (suất đàn hồi của lò xo)
 (radian) - the deflection of the moving system
Tc – controlling torque (Nm)
The controlling torque    instrument deflection

4.5.2 Controlling system (cont.):
 Gravity control  Gravitational Force
0 X
is the control weight
is the distance of the
moving system
 (radian) - the deflection
 of the moving system

TD is the deflecting torque, which is directly proportional to the measured current I.
If the instrument is spring-controlled, the controlling torque being TC, when the
deflection is .
The deflection is proportional to the current through the scale.

TD is the deflecting torque, which is directly proportional to the current I.
If the instrument is gravity-controlled, the controlling torque being TC, when the
deflection is .

4.5.3 Damping system
 Air-friction damping
 Fluid-friction damping
 Eddy-current damping

4.5.3 Damping system (cont.)
 Air-friction damping
A light aluminum piston is attached to the moving system
and moves in an air chamber closed at one end.

 Fluid-friction damping
A light vane attached to the spindle of the moving system, dips into a pot of
damping oil and should be completely submerged by oil. The frictional drag in the
disc is always in the direction opposing motion.
(Front view) (Top view)

 Eddy-current damping
When a sheet of conducting material moves in the magnetic field  cut through
lines of force  create eddy currents in the material  induce the damping force
against the motion of moving system.
The damping force is proportional to the magnitude of current and the strength of
the field.
The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the moving system and is
ZERO in case of no movement of the system.

i) Eddy-current damping torque of a metal former
Angular
(bề ngang của former)

i) Eddy-current damping torque of metal former (cont.)
Dynamically generated EMF (Ee) in the former:
=2

ii) Eddy-current damping torque of a metal disc

ii) Eddy-current damping torque of metal disc (cont.)

4.6 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument (1)
A deflecting force;
A controlling force;
A damping force;
(left-hand rule)
(deflecting force)
N S
(deflecting force)
(left-hand rule)




to reduce the friction


rotor

 Deflecting torque equation of PMMC instrument
C – the coil;
F – a rectangular aluminum
former;
b – the breadth of the coil;
S – a spindle;
J1, J2 – jewel bearings;
S1, S2 - springs;
PM – permanent magnet;
P – poles;
IC – a fixed soft-icon
cylindrical core;
PR – a pointer;
Y – a soft-iron yoke;


 Force on one side of the coil is:

 Torque on each side of the coil:
 Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil: xB

 Control torque: The control torque of springs is proportional to the angle 

through by the coil.

 Damping torque (using eddy-current damping):

 Advantages of PMMC instruments:

 Disadvantages of PMMC instruments:
(mỏng manh)

 Example 1:

 Example 2:
 Solution:

 Example 3:
resistivity
20 ℎ ↔ 120 ↔ 100

 Example 3 (cont.):

 Example 4:
1 /
I is considered as the max allowable current of the PMMC Imax = If.s

 Example 4 (cont.):
1 ↔
100 ↔ 100

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4.7 Extension of Range of PMMC Instruments (1)
4.7.1 Ammeter Shunts:
- The PMMC instrument can carry only few mA safely to give a full-scale deflection.
- For measuring the higher current, a shunt resistor (Rsh) is connected in parallel to
the instrument.
Equivalent model
PMMC
!" !#.%

4.7.1 Ammeter Shunts (cont.):
with m is the multiplying power of shunt

4.7.2 Voltmeter Multipliers:
- For measuring higher voltages, a high resistance is connected in series with
the instrument to limit the current in the coil to a safe value.
- The limit value of current should never exceed the current required to produce
the full-scale deflection.
Rsc
Rm

4.7.2 Voltmeter Multipliers (cont.):
- Without the series resistor:
- With the series resistor:
- Now, the multiplying

factor for multiplier:
Rsc
Rm


Examples:
(1V  100 div)

Examples:
10
!" 2 '
5
51 VGU I VIETNAMESE-GERMAN UNIVERSITY
Examples:
500
!" 0.5 '
1000
1000  0.5V
400  0.2V
1000  0.5V
3000  1.5V
Examples:
500
!" 0.5 '
1000
Solution (cont.):
1,000  0.5V
10,000  5V

Examples:
A
! () *. + 5 '
!* . + 100,'
Solution:

Examples:
A
(the accurate value of

the shunt resistor)
the required value of the shunt resistor

Examples:

Examples:
!" 10 '
" 100
" 1000
Rsc
Rm

Examples:
Apply current divider rue:

Relax!!!

4.8 Moving-Iron (MI) Instruments (1)

4.8 Moving-Iron Instruments (2)
4.8.1 Attraction-type Moving-iron Instruments:
If the current in the fixed coil is reversed, the field produced
by it also reverses. The polarity induced on the vane
reverses. Whatever be the direction of the current in the
coil, the vane (i.e. an eccentrically mounted vane) is always
be magnetized in such a way that it is attracted in the coil
 used for both AC and DC measures.
A soft
iron vane

4.8.1 Attraction-type Moving-iron Instruments (cont.):

4.8.2 Repulsion-type Moving-iron Instruments:
 There are two vanes inside the coil.

 One is fixed and the other is movable.
 When the current flows through the coil and there is a force of repulsion
between the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving vane.

4.8.2 Repulsion-type Moving-iron Instruments (cont.):
As the current flows through the coil, the generated magnetic field induces identical
polarities on both the fixed and moving vane. Thus, even when the current
through the coil is alternating (for AC measurement), there is always a repulsion
force acting between the poles of fixed and moving vane.

4.8.3 Torque Equation of Moving-Iron Instruments:
The applied voltage, e, is:

4.8.3 Torque Equation of Moving-Iron Instruments (cont.):
Because ! and - are very small, neglecting the second and higher order terms in
small quantities,
66
4.8.3 Torque Equation of Moving-Iron Instruments (cont.):
 The deflection is proportional to square of the

RMS value of the operating current.
 Therefore, the deflection torque is unidirectional
whatever may be the polarity of the current.

 Advantages:
- Robust construction and relatively cheap
- Suitable for measuring both DC and AC
- Can withstand the overload momentarily

 Disadvantages:

 Examples:
90 ↔ 1.5'
70
 Examples:

 Examples:
(H)
72
 Examples:

Relax!!!

4.9 Electrodynamometer-Type Instruments (1)
 The electrodynamometer-type instrument is a transfer-type instruments.
 Have the same accuracy for both DC and AC (without modification to
measure AC) because of a unidirectional torque produced for both
pos. and neg. half of the cycle.
 Structure: a moving-coil for the moving system, and the magnetic field
provided by two fixed coils instead of the permanent magnet. The two fixed
coils are symmetrically situated.

Torque Equation of Electrodynamometer-type Instruments:
(hỗ cảm cuộn 2 lên cuộn 1)
(hỗ cảm cuộn 1 lên cuộn 2)

Torque Equation of Electrodynamometer-type Instruments (cont.):
77 23.12.2021 VGU I VIETNAMESE-GERMAN UNIVERSITY / 01

 Operation with DC:

 Operation with AC:
Ti is the instantaneous torque with the rapid variations, therefore, the average
deflecting torque over a complete cycle is:

 Operation with AC (cont.):
If the pointer scale is calibrated in terms of square root of this value, i.e. the square
root of the mean of the square of current value, then RMS value of the AC quantity
can be directly measured by this instrument.

 Sinusoidal current:
t

 Electrodynamic Ammeter:
- The fixed and moving coils are connected in series;
- A shunt is connected across the moving coil for limiting the current;
- The reactance-resistance (X/R) ratio of the shunt and the moving coil is kept
nearly the same for independence of the meter reading with the supply frequency.
- The deflecting torque is proportional to the mean square value of current  the
scale is calibrated to read the RMS value.

 Electrodynamic Voltmeter:
- By connecting a large non-inductive resistance (R) of low-temperature
coefficient in series with the instrument coil.

 Electrodynamic Wattmeter:
- CCs are the current coils, which carry the full-load current
or a fraction of full load current.
- PC is the voltage coil in parallel with the load.

 Advantages:

 Disadvantages:

 Examples:

 Examples:

 Examples:
(không thay đổi khi vượt qua full scale )
the DC current or RMS current
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 Examples:
DC reading  only consider

AC reading  consider 2

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4.10 Electrostatic Instruments (1)
 Linear motion of electrostatic instruments:

- One type involves two oppositely charged electrodes. One of them is fixed and
the other is movable. Due to the attraction force, the movable electrode is
drawn towards the fixed one.

 Rotary motion of electrostatic instruments:

- There is force of attraction or repulsion between the electrodes which causes
rotary motion of the moving electrode.

 Force and Torque Equation

4.10.1 Linear motion:
(electric field energy)

 Force and Torque Equation (cont.)

4.10.1 Linear motion (cont.):

 Force and Torque Equation (cont.)

4.10.2 Rotational motion:

 Advantages

 Disadvantages

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4.11 Induction-type Instruments (1)
 Used only for AC measurement (Ammeters, voltmeters, or wattmeter);

Two coils are wounded in

the opposite direction.
100 23.12.2021
(ngang qua, vượt qua )


2m


4.12 Electrothermal Instruments (1)
 Hot-wire and thermocouple meter movements: Use the heating effect of

current flowing through a resistance to cause meter deflection;
 Used to measure both direct and alternating currents of any frequency on a
single scale;

 Hot-wire Instrument:
- The hot-wire meter movement deflection: depending on the expansion of a
high-resistance wire caused by the heating effect of the wire when the current
flows through it.
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Advantages of hot-wire type instruments:

Disadvantages of hot-wire type instruments:
(chậm)

 Thermocouple-Type Instrument:
- When two metals having different work functions are placed together, a voltage
is produced at the junction which is nearly proportional to the temperature of
the junction  Thermocouple (convert heat energy to electrical energy at the
junction of two conductors).
- The thermocouple produces an EMF (induced voltage) at its output terminals.

- The PMMC meter is used to measure this EMF.
- The EMF value is proportional to the temperature and hence to the RMS value of
the current.
The scale of the PMMC instrument

can calibrate to read the current value
through the heater.

 Thermocouple-Type Instrument (cont.)

- Be used for both AC and DC applications;
- Be used for measurement of currents and voltages at very high frequency
(very accurate well above a frequency of 50MHz)

Disadvantages of thermocouple-type instruments:

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4.13 Rectifier-type Instruments (1)
 The basic arrangement of a rectifier-type instrument is to use a full-wave
rectifier circuit to convert AC signal to DC signal.
 The PMMC instrument is used to measure the DC signals.
 The multiplier resistance Rs is used to limit the value of current not exceeding
the current rating o the PMMC meter.

4.13.1 Sensitivity of Rectifier-Type Instruments
a) Sensitivity of a Half-wave rectifier circuit:
(the average value of voltage, Vav)

a) Sensitivity of a Half-wave rectifier circuit (cont.)

b) Sensitivity of a Full-wave rectifier circuit

b) Sensitivity of a Full-wave rectifier circuit (cont.)

4.13.2 Extension of Range of Rectifier Instrument as Voltmeter
For DC operation, the values of series resistance (multiplier) needed can be

calculated as:
Half-wave rectifier circuit
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4.13.2 Extension of Range of Rectifier Instrument as Voltmeter (cont.)
For AC voltmeter operation, we have:


4.14 True RMS Voltmeter (1)
 The commonly available multi-meters are average or peak reading instruments.

 The RMS values are calculated by multiplying some factors with the average
value  only suitable for sinusoidal signals.
 A true RMS voltmeter is designed to directly measure the RMS value of the AC
signals.
 Conventional RMS voltmeters:
i) Moving-iron voltmeters (its deflection is proportional to the square of current
passing through its coil  the square root of the measured value is used to
determine the RMS value of any signal, independence of its wave shape) 
the frequency bandwidth of this true RMS voltmeter is limited.
ii) Similarly, electrodynamometer-type instruments

 Modern-day RMS voltmeters:

- To measure RMS value of any arbitrary waveform signal, the input signal is fed
to a heating element; the thermocouple is placed very close to it.
- The junction of two dissimilar metals is a function of the temperature of
the junction.
- The output voltage  the temperature  the power delivered to the heater by the
input signal  the square of current (P = RI2) under measurement  the output
voltage of the thermocouple can be properly calibrated to indicate the
RMS value of the input signal.

 Modern-day RMS voltmeters (cont.):
Determination of true RMS value

of an unknown signal of any
arbitrary waveform.
Bandwidth can be up to 50MHz or beyond
123 23.12.2021
4.15 Comparison among different types of instruments (1)

4.15 Comparison among different types of instruments (2)

HOMEWORK (1)

HOMEWORK (2)

HOMEWORK (3)

HOMEWORK (4)

HOMEWORK (5)

HOMEWORK (6)

HOMEWORK (7)

HOMEWORK (8)

HOMEWORK (9)

VIETNAMESE-GERMAN UNIVERSITY
Bui Minh Duong

Lecturer in Electrical Power System
EEIT program, Faculty of Engineering
Email: duong.bm@vgu.edu.vn
Mobile phone: 0918163356

Electrical Measurement and Instrument: Lecture 4 - P1 - Electromechanical Instruments and Analogue Electronic Meters

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Electrical Measurement and Instrument

Lecture 4 – P1 – Electromechanical Instruments

2 23.12.2021 VGU I VIETNAMESE-GERMAN UNIVERSITY

 An analog device is one in which the output or display is a continuous

3 23.12.2021 VGU I VIETNAMESE-GERMAN UNIVERSITY

Analog instruments may be classified into two ways:

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 Voltage transformers for the measuring purpose.

 Current transformers for the measuring purpose.

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 Deflecting torque/force: depending upon the electrical signal to be measured

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(Deflecting torque > Controlling torque)

(Deflecting torque < Controlling torque)

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4.5.1 Moving system:

Spring-loaded jewel bearing; Jewel bearing; Pivot

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b) Spring control in an actual instrument

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The controlling torque    instrument deflection

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TD is the deflecting torque, which is directly proportional to the measured current I.

The deflection is proportional to the current through the scale.

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TD is the deflecting torque, which is directly proportional to the current I.

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(Front view) (Top view)

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(bề ngang của former)

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to reduce the friction

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 Force on one side of the coil is:

 Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil: xB

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 Control torque: The control torque of springs is proportional to the angle 

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 Damping torque (using eddy-current damping):

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 Advantages of PMMC instruments:

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 Disadvantages of PMMC instruments:

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