Dielectric Materials

and Insulation

Dr. Sumaiya Kabir

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronic
Engineering
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
Rajshahi-6204, Bangladesh
Email: sumaiyakabir_09@yahoo.com 1
Dielectric materials
➢ A dielectric material is an insulator which
contains electric dipoles, that is where positive
and negative charge are separated on an
atomic or molecular level
➢ When an electric field is applied, these dipoles
align to the field, causing a net dipole moment
that affects the material properties
➢ Dielectric materials have two important
functions;
➢ They have the ability to increase the capacitance
➢ They have insulating ability.

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Dielectric constant & Electric dipole
moment
➢ The familiar parallel plate capacitor equation with free space as an insulator is given
by

where εo is the absolute permittivity, A is the plate area, and d is the separation
between the plates.
➢ If there is a material medium between the plates, then the capacitance, the charge
storage ability per unit voltage, increases by a factor of εr, where εr is called the
dielectric constant of the medium or its relative permittivity.
➢ The increase in the capacitance is due to the polarization of the medium in which
positive and negative charges are displaced with respect to their equilibrium positions.
➢ The opposite surfaces of the dielectric medium acquire opposite surface charge
densities that are related to the amount of polarization in the material. An important
concept in dielectric theory is that of an electric dipole moment p, which is a measure
of the electrostatic effects of a pair of opposite charges +Q and −Q separated by a
finite distance a, and so is defined by

➢ The relative permittivity is a material property that is frequency dependent.

➢ Although the net charge is zero, this entity still gives rise to an electric field in space
and also interacts with an electric field from other sources.

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Dielectric polarization
➢ Molecules can be grouped into two categories:
➢ Polar- have electrical poles. The molecules in which the arrangement or geometry of the atoms is such that
on end of the molecule has a positive charge and the other end has negative charge, are polar molecules.
e.g. H2O
➢ Non-polar- electrons are distributed more symmetrically and does not have an excess of charges at the
opposite sides, i.e. electric poles are absent. e.g. H2, O2, N2 etc.
➢ Dielectric polarization: When insulators are placed in an electric field, no current flows in
them, unlike in metal. Instead in some dielectrics, electric polarization occurs. The charges
in dielectric does not move but only shifts slightly from the equilibrium position resulting in
dielectric polarization.
➢ The following types of polarization are commonly observed in dielectrics:
➢ Electronic polarization
➢ Ionic polarization
➢ Orientational (dipolar) polarization
➢ Surface charge/interfacial polarization

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Electronic polarization
➢ Though nonpolar dielectrics lack in dipole, an induction of electrical field
still affect them.
➢ In an electric field, the positive and negative charges in a nonpolar
dielectric experiences forces in opposite directions as a result of their E
opposite polarities.
➢ This force causes electron clouds to be displaced in the direction of the
attraction. This displacement goes on until the attraction by the electric field
is balanced by the internal forces of the molecule. Thus, a nonpolar
molecule experiences an induced dipole moment.
➢ The induced dipole moment depends on the electric field causing it. We
define a quantity called the polarizability α to relate the induced dipole
moment p induced to the field E causing it,
Electronic polarization

where α is a coefficient called the polarizability of the atom. It depends on the

polarization mechanism.
➢ This polarization increases with the increased volume of atoms
➢ Independent of temperature.

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Ionic polarization
➢ This type of polarization occurs in ionic crystals such as
NaCl, KCl, and LiBr.
➢ The ionic crystal has distinctly identifiable ions, for example,
Na+ and Cl−, located at well-defined lattice sites, so each
pair of oppositely charged neighboring ions has a dipole
moment, which get cancelled due to the symmetry of the
crystal.
➢ An external electric field leads to small displacement of the
ions from their positions and hence, induce a net dipole
moment.
➢ It is a slower process compared to electronic polarization.
➢ It is independent of temperature.

Ionic polarization 6
Orientational polarization
➢ Also called dipolar or molecular polarization
➢ Certain molecules possess permanent dipole moments.
For example, the HCl molecule has a permanent dipole
moment po from the Cl− ion to the H+ ion. In the liquid or
gas phases, these molecules, in the absence of an
electric field, are randomly oriented as a result of thermal
agitation.
➢ When an electric field E is applied, E tries to align the
dipoles parallel to itself. The Cl− and H+ charges
experience forces in opposite directions. But the nearly
rigid bond between Cl− and H+ holds them together,
which means that the molecule experiences a torque
about its center of mass.
➢ It is a slower process compared to ionic polarization.
➢ It is highly dependent on temperature.
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Surface charge/interfacial polarization
➢ This involves limited movement of charges resulting in
alignment of charge dipoles under applied field.
➢ This usually happens at grain boundaries or any other
interface such electrode-material interface.
➢ This can also occur in compound dielectrics,
amorphous and polycrystalline solids
➢ interfacial polarization affects free charges

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Contribution to polarizability

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Frequency dependence

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Dielectric loss
➢ There are two factors opposing the immediate alignment of the dipoles with the
field.
➢ First is that thermal agitation tries to randomize the dipole orientations.
Collisions in the gas phase, random jolting from lattice vibrations in the
liquid and solid phases, for example, aid the randomization of the dipole
orientations.
➢ Second, the molecules rotate in a viscous medium by virtue of their
interactions with neighbors, which is particularly strong in the liquid and solid
states and means that the dipoles cannot respond instantaneously to the
changes in the applied field. If the field changes too rapidly, then the dipoles
cannot follow the field and, as a consequence, remain randomly oriented. At
high frequencies, therefore, αd will be zero as the field cannot induce a
dipole moment. At low frequencies, of course, the dipoles can respond
rapidly to follow the field and αd has its maximum value.
➢ When the relaxation time and the frequency of the applied electric field are
similar, a phase lag occurs, and energy is absorbed. This is called dielectric loss
and it is normally quantified as

Where ε′r and ε′’r are real and imaginary parts of dielectric constant,
respectively. 11
Frequency dependence of dielectric
loss

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Ionic polarization and Ferroelectricity
➢ Most dielectric materials are insulating (no conductivity of either
electrons or ions) dense solids (no molecules that can reorient).
Therefore, the polarizability must come from either ionic or electronic
polarizability. Of these two, ionic polarizability can make the largest
contribution, particularly in a class of solids called ferroelectrics. The
ionic polarizability will be large, and a ferroelectric material will result,
when the following two conditions are met:
➢ Certain ions in the structure displace in response to the application of an external
electric field. Typically, this requires the response of certain types of ions such as
d0 or s2p0 cations.
➢ The displacements line up in the same directions (or at least they do not cancel
out). This cannot happen if the crystal structure has an inversion center. The
displacements do not disappear when the electric field is removed.
➢ BaTiO3, PbTiO3, Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT), Triglycine Sulphate, PVDF,
Lithium tantalite etc. are ferroelectric materials.
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What is Ferroelectricity?
➢ A ferroelectric material develops a spontaneous
polarization (builds up a charge) in response to an
external electric field.
➢ The polarization does not go away when the external
field is removed.
➢ The direction of the polarization is reversible.
➢ All the ferroelectric materials exhibit a
piezoelectric effect. Piezoelectricity is a
spontaneous polarization develops under the
application of a mechanical stress and vice versa.
e.g. Quartz.
➢ Applications: Multi-layer capacitors, Non-volatile
FRAM (Ferroelectric Random Access Memory),
Thermistors, Oscillators etc.

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What is Pyroelectricity?
➢ Pyroelectricity can be described as the ability of certain materials to
generate a temporary voltage when they are heated or cooled.
➢ The change in temperature modifies the positions of the atoms slightly
within the crystal structure, such that the polarization of the material
changes.
➢ This polarization change gives rise to a voltage across the crystal.
➢ If the temperature stays constant at its new value, the pyroelectric
voltage gradually disappears due to leakage current. The leakage can
be due to electrons moving through the crystal, ions moving through
the air, or current leaking through a voltmeter attached across the
crystal.
➢ The pyroelectric coefficient may be described as the change in the
spontaneous polarization vector with temperature:

where pi (Cm−2K−1) is the vector for the pyroelectric coefficient.

➢ Pyroelectric effect are observed in: Tourmaline, bone and tendon,
GaN, Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) (both piezoelectric and pyroelectric
effect), doped HfO2 .
➢ Applications: Heat sensors, detection of IR radiation, pyroelectric
nanogenerator, intruder alarms, and gas sensors. 15
Pyroelectricity vs Thermoelectricity
➢ The electrocaloric effect is the phenomenon in
which the material shows the reversible
temperature change on the applied electric field.
Hence pyroelectricity is different from
thermoelectricity.
➢ Pyro crystal changes temperature from one
degree to another resulting in a temporary
voltage across the crystal.
➢ Whereas in the case of thermoelectricity the two
ends of the device are subjected to two different
temperatures resulting in a permanent voltage in
the device resulting in as there is the
temperature difference.
Thermoelectric effects

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Piezoelectricity vs Pyroelectricity vs Ferroelectricity
Parameters Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric materials
Function generate electricity whenever
mechanical stress is applied.
Examples Quartz, crystal, Ammonium,
Phosphate
Non-centrosymmetric,
Non-polar dielectric,
Properties
Presence of Piezoelectric
effect where P= dσ.
Acts like a transducer,
Used in microphones,
Applications
It generates ultrasonic waves.
Oscillators, filters etc.
Pyroelectric Ferroelectric
Ferroelectric material exhibits
Pyroelectric material generates
electric polarization even in
electric potential whenever heated or
the absence of an electric
cooled.
field.
Quartz crystal,
Lithium niobite,
Ammonium,
Barium Titanite
Phosphate.
They are easily polarized,
They are unidirectional polarization, They exhibit dielectric
non-centrosymmetric, hysteresis,
It exhibits pyroelectricity when T >= Tc They are both pyro and
piezoelectric in nature.
Ultrasonic transducers
IR detectors, They are pressure transducer
Image tubes, It acts as a memory device
Temperature sensing elements. like a random access
memory.
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Assignment 3
Q1. Derive CLAUSIUS–MOSSOTTI equation for electronic, ionic, and orientational polarization.
Q2. State GAUSS’S LAW. Suppose, you are given a dielectric slab containing a cavity. By applying boundary
condition prove that the electric field in the cavity is higher than the field in the solid. (consider the figure below)

Submission due date: 20/12/2022

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Dielectric strength and insulation
breakdown
• Dielectric materials are widely used as insulating
media between conductors at different voltages to
prevent the ionization of air and hence current
flashovers between conductors.
• If the voltage across a dielectric material is increased
beyond certain limit, a substantial current is flown
between electrodes, which appears as a short
between the electrodes and leads to what is called
dielectric breakdown.
• In gaseous and many liquid dielectrics, the
breakdown does not generally permanently damage
the material. This means that if the voltage causing Dielectric breakdown between two electrodes
breakdown is removed, then the dielectric can again
sustain voltages until the voltage is sufficiently high to
cause breakdown again.
• In solid dielectrics the breakdown process invariably
leads to the formation of a permanent conducting
channel and hence to permanent damage.

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Examples of dielectric breakdown

Lightning Corona discharge

Dielectric breakdown in Tesla coil 21

Dielectric breakdown in CRT
Dielectric strength
➢ Dielectric strength is the maximum field that can be applied to an
insulating medium without causing dielectric breakdown.
➢ Dielectric strength of a solid depends on:
➢ The molecular structure
➢ Micro structural defects
➢ Sample geometry
➢ Nature of the electrodes
➢ Temperature
➢ Ambient condition
➢ Duration and frequency of the applied field
➢ Aging
➢ Thickness of the insulation layer
➢ Dielectric strength is different under dc and ac conditions.

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