STUDY THE DEVIATION OF KILN & COAL FEED TO

KILN ON DAILY BASIS AND UNDERSTAND

FACTORS INFLUENCING THIS

Midterm report

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
Chemical Engineering
Submitted by

Kailas nath KR
190903196
Under the guidance of

M.P Siva Kumar Internal Guide Name

(signature)
Designation
Production manager Department of Chemical Engineering
Kalburgi cement Pvt. Ltd Manipal Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERINGANIPAL

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(A constituent unit of MAHE). Manipal, Karnataka, India - 576104.

MARCH 2023
 I. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my privilege to express a sincerest gratitude towards Kalburgi cement private limited,

Vicat India for providing me the opportunity to become a part of the Internship Programme-
2023 and for giving me a platform to learn about cement industry. I would like to recognize
and thank the following.

First and foremost, I would want to express my heartfelt thanks and obligation to Mr. Anoop
Saxena, CEO-VICAT INDIA, for enabling me to complete my project. and giving me
essential encouragement, recommendations, and support from the beginning of this project
and for presenting me with exceptional experiences throughout the work. Above all, his
invaluable and rigorous monitoring at every stage of work inspired me in many ways.

Secondly, I would like to thank my Project mentor [M.P Siva Kumar], for providing me with
valuable guidance, insights, and feedback throughout the project. Your expertise and support
have been crucial to the success of this project. I am grateful for the time and effort you have
invested in me and my project.

I would like to thank the faculty and staff of Kalburgi cement, for providing me with the
necessary academic support, resources, and facilities. Your guidance, mentorship, and
dedication have been instrumental in my academic growth and development. I am grateful for
the opportunities and experiences that this institution has provided me.

I would like to acknowledge the support and encouragement of my friends and. Your
unwavering support, encouragement, and constructive criticism have helped me stay
motivated and focused throughout the project. I am grateful for the countless hours you spent
with me brainstorming ideas and reviewing my work.

I would like to acknowledge the contributions of my family, for their understanding, patience,
and support during the project. Your unconditional love and encouragement have been the
driving force behind my success. I am grateful for the sacrifices you have made to support me
in pursuing my academic goals.

At last, I would like to acknowledge the contributions of various online resources, books, and
journals, which have provided me with valuable information and insights that have helped me
complete my project. I am grateful for the efforts of the authors, editors, and publishers of
these resources, which have helped me expand my knowledge and understanding of the
subject matter.

i
 II. SYNOPSIS

Cement quality is typically assessed by its compressive strength development in mortar and
concrete. The basis for this property is a well-burned clinker with consistent chemical
composition and free lime. The main reason for the clinker free lime to change in situation
with stable kiln operation is variation in the chemical composition of the kiln feed. This
variation in chemical composition is related to raw mix control and the homogenization
process. To ensure a constant quality of the product and maintain a stable and continuous
operation of the kiln, the attention must be paid to storage and homogenization of raw
materials and kiln feed. Due to variations in the kiln feed chemical composition that affect its
burnability and the fuel consumption. Coal is the one the mostly used fossil fuels that is
utilized to fire kiln and pre calciner. coal is still kept more valuable because of there are lots
of reserves of it, it is easy to use, has a high calorific value, and our utilities have experience
using it. coal might be a very efficient fuel that is less expensive than most of the other fuels,
and numerous industries.

Methodology:
 Baselining: Literature study related to Variation in Kiln and Coal mill.
 “AS IS” situation: To study process parameter related to kiln and coal mill.
 Design & Development: Data collection and interpretation
 Implementation & Learning: Implementation of action plan, reduction of standard
deviation
 Tracking And Sustenance: Result and Discussion

Variations in the kiln feed chemical composition affect its burnability and eventually the fuel
consumption. that minimum value of LSF is 100.21 and maximum value is 102.94 with an
average of 101.15 so deviation was 0.739 is respectively. from fig it was observed that
minimum silica ratio is 2.05 and maximum value is 2.26 with an average value of 2.15 so
deviation was 0.06. The minimum alumina ratio is 1.06 and maximum value is 1.29 with an
average value of 1.16 so deviation was 0.04 observed. It might be due to fuel penalty for
burning to an average of 2.21 free lime. more amount of free lime means burning is not
proper due to which more fuel is consumed. Ash variation is lowest in December and highest
in February. February month variations are high due to shortage of high-grade coal and due to
usage of black carbon instead of high-grade coal.

In next phase of the project design method will be studied in order to learn raw mix design.
So, once raw mix is designed, next part of study will be carried out in fuel mix design. All the
designing equation will be calculated using Ms excel.

ii
 III. LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No Figure Title Page No

1 Fig. 1.1. Plant layout 1
2 Fig. 1.2.1. Stacker and Reclaimer 2
3 Fig. 1.2.2. Roller press 3
4 Fig. 1.2.3. Vertical coal mill 3
5 Fig. 1.2.4. Rotary Kiln 4
6 Fig. 1.2.5. cement plant process flow diagram 5
7 Fig. 2.1. Schematic diagram of kiln 10
8 Fig. 2.3.1. phase formation 12
9 Fig. 2.4.1. wall temperature of the kiln in burning zone 14
10 Fig. 2.4.2. Temperature profile of kiln 15
11 Fig. 2.5.1. Heat balance for the dry process kiln 16
12 Fig. 2.7.1. Direct firing system for coal 17
13 Fig. 2.7.2 Indirect firing system for coal 17
14 Fig. 4.1. LSF VS Time 23
15 Fig. 4.2. Ratio of SM & AM Vs Time 24

iii
 IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No
Acknowledgement i
Synopsis ii
List of Figures iii
Table of contents iv

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 About Kalburgi Cement Plant 1
1.2 Overview of plant 2
1.3 Overview of Indian Cement Industry 6
1.4 Project Objective 9
1.5 Project Methodology 9
1.6 Project Outcome 9

Chapter 2 BACKGROUND THEORY

2.1 Rotary cement kilns 10
2.2 Heat transfer in rotary kiln 11
2.3 Heat profile 11
2.4 Heating the feed 12
2.5 Heat balance 15
2.6 Coal as fuel 16
2.7 Coal firing system 17

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Stages of Cement Manufacturing 18
3.2 Calculation of raw Mix Compositions 19
3.3 Raw Mix Design Method 21
3.4 Calculation of Coal Ash and Calorific Value 21

Chapter 4 RESULT AND DISSCUSION

4.1 Effect of kiln feed 23
4.2 Coal ash Standard Deviations 24

Chapter 5 WORK TO BE DONE

5.1 Raw Mill Process 26

Chapter 6 REFERENCES 27

iv
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 About Kalburgi Cement Plant

Established in 2008 as JV with Sagar Cement, known as Vicat-Sagar
In 2015, Vicat took 100% stake and renamed as “Kalburgi Cement Pvt Ltd.” now 100%
owned subsidiary of Vicat Group in India.
Located at Chatrasala Village, in Kalaburagi district of Karnataka state.
Plant has total extent of around 2600 + acres with 2 mining lease having 520+ million tons
reserves.
 Proposed Capacity: 8.75 MTPA (3 lines)
 Existing Capacity: 2.75 MPTA Cement (established)
: 3.60 MPTA Cement (enhanced with in house modification)
Plant layout

Figure 2.1. Plant layout

2
1.2 Overview of plant

1.2.1 Crusher
Limestone for Kalburgi cement is mined at their captive limestone mine and crushed in the
jaw crusher. the crushed limestone is stacked in the limestone stockpile using a stacker. once
a suitable grade of limestone pile is layer, the stacker is shifted to lay another pile. the
completed pile is reclaimed by a reclaimer and the limestone is transported for grinding in the
raw mill.

Specifications:
Capacity: 1200 TPH
Feed size: 1 metre
Product size: 50 mm

Figure 1.2.1. Stacker and Reclaimer

1.2.2 Raw mill

The main purpose for milling is to reduce size up to 90 microns with a size of 15-20% and
212 microns with a size of 4-5%, to increase burnability. Milling is done by impaction and
attrition forces. So, the limestone and with other additives like Red mud, Feldspar, Laterite,
etc. are used. The equipment used in milling is roller mill, in which one of the roller is static
and other is dynamic. The material is milled due to impact of the static and dynamic rollers.
The fine dust in the air is collected in Bag Filters. The collected dust is mixed with raw meal
and pumped to Silo.

3
Specifications:
No. of Raw mills: 2
Raw mill dia: 2050mm
Raw mill capacity :300 TPH
product size: 90 mic 15 to 20%, 212 mic 4 to 5 %
Raw mill speed: 16.75 RPM

Figure 1.2.2. Roller press

1.2.3 Coal mill

The main purpose of using coal in Cement Industry is to produce heat. Coal is imported from
other countries, like South Africa, America, etc. Generally, PET coke is used for heat
production. The equipment used for coal grinding is vertical raw mill, which has 3 rollers and
a table.
Material is crushed by impaction and attrition forces, which will ground material to 90
microns and 212 microns.

Specifications:
No. of Rollers: 3
Roller dia: 1800mm
Roller width: 600mm
Coal mill capacity: 75 TPH
Speed: 32.6 RPM

Figure 1.2.3. Vertical coal mill

4
1.2.4 Kiln

The kiln feed is preheated and partly calcined by hot kiln exit gases in a tower of heat
exchange cyclones called preheater. The heat exchange between gas and the material takes
place in the cyclone, in suspension of material and gas. At 2nd stage, feed gets 55% to 65%
of the fuel required for clinkerisation is fed along with hot air recouped from cooler called
tertiary air. By the time feed enters the kiln, the kiln feed attains about 80 to 95% of degree
of calcination.

Specifications
Kiln length: 74 m
Kiln Dia: 4.75 m
Speed: 4.4 – 5.0 RPM
Capacity: 8250 TPD

Figure 1.2.4. Rotary Kiln

1.2.5 Cement mill

There are two cement mills at KCPL. Both cement mills have 4 hoppers (one for clinker,
second for slag, third for gypsum and fourth for fly ash). Like limestone, Gypsum is also
stacked and reclaimed and the composition is same for all grades. In OPC grade, no additives
are present. In PPC, fly ash is added by 33-35% and Ultra-fast cement is manufactured by
adding Fly ash by 23-25%.

5
Specifications
No. of mills: 2
Cement mill dia: 2050 mm
Cement mill speed: 17.5 RPM

1.2.6 Packing plant

Packing in bags is done automatically and continuously with the packers. Packing is done
automatically after manual placing of bags on the nozzles.
KCPL has 6 silos for stocking the cement. There are packers, for packing cement and loading
into trucks.

Figure 3

Figure 1.2.5 Cement plant process flow diagram

6
1.3 Overview of Indian cement industry

India is the second-largest producer of cement in the world, accounting for more than 7% of
the global installed capacity. In FY 2022, domestic production of cement stood at 356 million
tons, up from 296 million tons in FY 2021.

In terms of volume, cement consumption reached 355.46 million tons in FY 2022 and is
expected to reach 450.78 million tons by the end of FY 2027. The spurt in demand from
sectors such as housing, commercial construction, and industrial construction will lead to an
increase in consumption.

The cement industry is mainly driven by the consequential number of construction activities
with the growing demand and a surging need for residential complexes of urbanised
population. Furthermore, the construction of various infrastructure projects such as airports
and roads, undertaken by the government in recent times, propels the growth of the market.

1.3.1 Challenges for the Indian cement industry

The traditional cement industry has undergone a number of changes since the industrial
advancement. The cement industry in India has come to its present stage with such a
systematic and gradual advancement that it cannot be witnessed in terms of a revolution like
situation. However, it has become imperative to implement reforms that will reshape the
cement sector as a result of new business models.

 Decreasing CO2 emissions:

High levels of CO2 emissions are related to the cement manufacturing process. In
compliance to global understanding in this regard the cement companies of India have
started deliberations. The most important step must be taken is to switch to the
carbon-neutral model. “An example of the Spanish cement industry's roadmap is to be
considered seriously which involves five inter-related industries clinker, concrete,
cement, re-carbonation and construction has made an aim to become climate neutral
by 2050”. Hydrogen, electrification, and the utilisation of biomass fuels can minimise
this problem to a great extent.

 Clean energy usage in logistics:

This is the most discussed and relevant challenge, which is encountered in the
industrial arena, world over. For cement industries sustainable alternatives are to be
adopted for inland transportation which will help in achieving the goal of reducing
carbon emissions. Internal neutral transportation that are powered by electricity or
hydrogen are a good alternative which will help not only the cement but other
industries also. Beyond production, the objective is to reduce non-fossil fuel usage.

7
  Traceability and use of digital identity:
When cement is used as a by-product, so it has no longer its original form. The ability
to recognise cement's digital identification must be improved in order to assurance the
product's traceability as well as its environmental performance and freight. This
`makes it possible for adequate, agent-free and at the time tracking at any point in the
chain.

1.3.2 Future prospects of cement industry

Demand for the cement industry is closely related to the overall economic expansion,
particularly with regard to housing and infrastructure growth. The demand for cement is
anticipated to increase manifold in the coming years and the central government is placing
great emphasis on housing, express way and infrastructure construction etc. Some of the
points which are indicative of the reasons for its growth are given as follows

 Due to the increasing demands from various sectors, including housing, commercial
development, road construction and industrial construction, the demand for cement is
expected to reach 550-600 million tonnes annually by 2025.

 Areas of east and central India are identified specifically to be in the forefront of the
country's growth. Which is expected to be driven mostly by the Construction of
affordable housing, laying of rural road network, expansion of urban road network,
speedy construction of express ways and infrastructure development, are the factors
due to which the cement industry is expected to gain the most.

 The rapid demand from north, east, and central India will make a manufacturer of
Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh to raise their production from the
present production of 6.7 million tonnes per annum.

8
1.4 Project objective

 The propose of the project is to Study the variation of kiln and coal field to kiln on a
daily basis and understand the factor influencing these variations.
 To study Coal ash variations on daily basis
 To design Raw mix and fuel mix

1.5 Project methodology

 Baselining: Literature study related to Variation in Kiln and Coal mill

 “AS IS” situation: To study process parameter related to kiln and coal mill.
 Design & Development: Data collection and interpretation
 Implementation & Learning: Implementation of action plan, reduction of standard
deviation
 Tracking And Sustenance: Result and Discussion

1.6 Project outcome

 Achieving the desired chemical and mineralogical composition of clinker by

designing the raw mix design
 Bring down kiln and coal mill fluctuations to minimum level.

iv
 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND THEORY

2.1 Rotary Cement Kilns

Rotary kilns are commonly used in cement industry to convert calcaneus raw meal to cement
clinkers. Typically, rotary kilns are used in cement industry, which are slightly inclined to
facilitate forward moment of the solids. The kilns are revolved at pre-decided RPM to ensure
uniform mixing of products. Schematic of a rotary cement kiln is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 2.1. Schematic diagram of kiln

Partially calcined feed from calciner is fed slowly at velocity of ~ 0.05 m/s from one end. The
solid charge moves in a complex manner in the kiln due to a combined translational and
rotational motion. The solids in cement kilns are generally filled up to 10-15% of fill to
ensure a uniform mixing. This part forms the bed region of the kilns. In the remaining part
called as freeboard region of the kiln, hot air is passed in a counter current mode with respect
to solids. Primary air and fuel are supplied in appropriate quantities through burner nozzles
with high velocities along with secondary air and swirling air to produce a stable flame in the
freeboard region. The flame is result of several number of combustion reactions involving
large number of components. The flame in the freeboard region is the direct source of heat
for endothermic reactions occurring in the bed region.[1]

10
2.2 Heat transfer in rotary kiln

There are three types of heat transfer.

Radiation

Which is the transfer of heat from one body to another by means of heat waves without the
two bodies being in actual contact with each other.

Flame -------------------------- feed bed

Hot kiln wall-------------------feed bed

Conduction

Another type of heat transfer is by conduction, where the vibration of molecules of solid
bodies collides with adjacent molecules and thus transfer energy between each other while in
contact.

Heat from kiln interior ------------------kiln shell

Kiln chains--------------------------------feed bed

Convection (in heat exchangers)

The third type of heat transfer is known as convection which occurs in gaseous and liquid
fluids. In this type of heat transfer, the molecules, after having collided with each other, are
free to move and circulate and thus are able to transmit more energy to other. Molecules
having different temperatures.

Super-heated steam ------------------------oil in tubular pipes

Hot kiln exit gases -------------------------steam in boiler tubes

In a rotary kiln, the largest amount of heat transfer occurs by radiation and conduction
whereas heat transfer by convection occurs only in small amounts.[2]

2.3 Heat profile

Temperatures differ throughout the kiln and a very important factor is the temperature
difference between the material and the gases at any given point in the kiln. A recorder chart
of the gas temperature shows gas temperature only, and this temperature never corresponds to

11
the temperature of the material in the same location; Also, conditions could change in such a
way that the gas temperatures would show a considerable change hut the material
temperature remains unchanged for several minutes after. this applies to the feed-bed
behaviour within the rotary kiln itself since the rotary cylinder in itself is a relatively poor
heat exchanger.

Figure 2.3.1 Phase Formation

2.4 Heating the feed.

Radiation of heat from the hot gases to the feed bed occurs only at the surface of the bed that
is exposed to the gas. Thus, the temperature of the bed is lowest in the centre and highest on
the surface. In the burning zone the kiln feed, being now in a rather sticky condition, is in a
constant state of agitation as, aided by the rough and uneven kiln coating, it rises along the
upward-moving side of the kiln, then tumbles back. Because of this tumbling action, the
surface layer is constantly being folded back into the mass of the feed, where the hot particles
then transfer heat to the colder particles by conduction. Meanwhile, new particles are being
exposed to radiation from the hot gas and the process is continuously repeated. In the
calcining zone and toward the back end of the kiln, where Ll, e surface of the lining is much
smoother and the feed still in a more or less fluid state, the ·bed is turned over very little, as it

12
slides in a zig-zag course down the kiln. The bed is first lifted up the kiln wall, then when it
reaches a certain height, it slides down and forward without turning over to any extent.
However, the turnover is larger in kilns with pelletized feed, such as wet or semi wet process
kilns.
Heat exchangers, in the form of chains, steel cylinder chambers, or cross section, are
employed in all wet-process kilns and are now being used in dry-process kilns also. When
exposed to the hot gases they rapidly reach a high temperature and, once they come into
contact with the feed bed, transfer heat to the material by conduction.

A similar action takes place when heat transfers from the kiln wall to the feed. The flame
radiates heat to the coating adhering to the kiln. Part of the heat then radiates to the bed, and
part is transferred to the feed by conduction when the wall turns into the bed. Fig. 7.1 shows
that the wall temperature is lowest when it emerges from the bed and highest immediately
before it comes into contact with the feed bed. The slower the kiln speed and the smaller the
cross-sectional loading (feed) of the kiln, the larger will be the temperature difference
between these two points.

Other things being the same, there is an important relationship between the wall effect
described above and the rotational speed of the kiln, as higher kiln speeds are more
favourable than slow speeds for the heat exchange because of the smaller temperature
difference between kiln wall and feed bed. These details must be taken into consideration by
the kiln operator in deciding whether the kiln speed can be increased at any time.

In the preheater vessels this material-to-gas temperature relationship works differently. Here
the heat exchange takes place more readily and thus the temperature difference between these
two is much smaller. When discussing heat transfer in a kiln attention must be focused upon
the decarbonation rate of the kiln feed for this requires by far the largest amount of heat in the
entire process. In dry- and wet-process kilns, the total amount of heat for decarbonation must
be transferred to the feed within the rotary kiln itself. Since these cylinders are so inefficient
in accomplishing this heat transfer, these types of kilns must be extremely long and wide. In
a preheater kiln, the feed is calcined up to 30-35% in the preheater tower and thus the heat
required, in terms of kcal/kg clinker, within the rotary kiln proper, is much less, This makes it
possible to obtain either higher pro duction rates on kilns of equal size or to maintain the
same production rate by sizing the kilns much smaller.

13
 Figure 2.4.1. Wall temperature of the kiln in the burning zone, reaching a
maximum just before it comes in contact with the feed bed as the kiln
turns.

With the advent of the Precalciner kiln this heat transfer efficiency has been taken a step
further. On these kilns, the kiln feed is up to 90% calcined when it enters the kiln, in other
words, most of the thermal work is done in the preheater tower. Theoretically, it would be
possible to achieve even higher calcination rates in the Precalciner, but this is practically not
possible as this would lead to the formation of viscous clinker phases and subsequent plug-
ups in the lower stage of the preheater. Most operators therefore limit their Precalciner to a
maximum of 90% calcination prior to the feed entering the rotary kiln to prevent the material
from sticking to the walls of the preheater tower.

Preheaters and Precalciner have the advantage that the heat transfer is different from the
transfer conditions found within the rotary kiln itself. In the kiln, the material bed runs
practically undisturbed along the bottom of the kiln where the hot gases primarily heat only
the surface layer of the bed. Hence, the contact between gas and material, i.e., the heat
exchange, is relatively inefficient and takes a long time to complete. In the preheater and
Precalciner, the material is in suspension resulting in an immediate contact of feed particles
with the hot gases.[3]

14
 Figure 2.4.2. Temperature Profile of Kiln

2.5 Heat balance

Heat balances are the foundation for an engineer to identify the oppo1tunities for possible
heat savings. There are. several areas where heat could possibly be saved to make a kiln
operate more efficiently in matters of energy consumption. Some of these potentials are:

1. Lower kiln exit gas losses by

 on dry kilns: using the high exit gases to produce steam and generate electrical power
or using this excess heat for drying raw materials.
 on preheater kilns: adding additional preheater cyclones or improving the heat
exchange between gas and solids within existing cyclones.
 reducing the clinkering zone and extending the length of the calcining zone.

2. Lower the heat losses associated with evaporating the free water from the kiln feed in wet-
process kilns by:
 using slurry thinners.
 grinding the slurry consistently to the lowest possible moisture
content.
 using filter presses to dewater the slurry before it enters in the kiln.[4]

15
 Figure 2.5.1. Heat balance for the dry process kiln

2.6 Coal as fuel

Coal is the main fuel for manufacture of cement in India, due to high cost and inadequate.
availability of oil and gas. The consumption of coal in dry process system ranges from 20-
25% of clinker production. That means 0.20-0.25 t of coal is consumed to produce one tonne
of clinker. Cement industry consumes about 10 million tonnes of coal annually. Since
coalfields like Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL), Central Coalfields Limited (CCL)
supply poor quality of coal, the industry has to blend high-grade coal with it; imported coal
attracts a customs duty. The power sector is the largest consumer of coal followed by the iron
and steel and cement industry.

Typically, Indian coal is characterised by the following quality aspects:

 Lower to medium grade
 High ash
 Low moisture
 Low sulphur

The major issues faced by the coal industry since last few decades, leading to further quality.
deterioration, are as follows:

 Increased production from lower seams

 Lower liberation size (coal is required to be reduced to relatively small size to
improve yield)
 Low washability index (coal is difficult to wash when the index is low)
 Enhanced production from mechanical open cast mines consisting of larger dirt
particles and foreign materials.
 Depletion of good quality coal seams (coking as well as thermal coal)

16
2.7 Coal firing system

There are two types of firing system.

2.7.1 Direct firing

Coal firing systems have evolved over the years. In early days of wet process 'direct firing'
was common. In it coal ground in mill was fired straight into kiln .

Figure 2.7.1. Direct firing system for coal for cement kiln

Major disadvantage of direct firing was that it used up too much primary air. With reduced
specific fuel consumption, the difference became more pronounced. Secondly, if the fan in
the system was after the mill, wear of impeller due to high ash coal was excessive.

2.7.2 Indirect firing

In 'indirect system’, grinding system and coal firing systems are separate and each can be
designed according to its need. For instance, when multi-channel burners are used, quantity
of primary air is very small. Hence this is the system now prevalent.[5]

Figure 2.7.2. Indirect firing system for coal for cement kiln.

17
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 FOUR STAGES OF CEMENT MANAFUCTURING

3.1.1 crushing and grinding the raw materials.

All except soft materials are first crushed, often in two stages, and then ground, usually in a
rotating, cylindrical ball, or tube mills containing a charge of steel grinding balls. This
grinding is done wet or dry, depending on the process in use, but for dry grinding the raw
materials first may need to be dried in cylindrical, rotary dryers.
Soft materials are broken down by vigorous stirring with water in wash mills, producing a
fine slurry, which is passed through screens to remove oversize particles.

3.1.2 Blending

A first approximation of the chemical composition required for a particular cement is

obtained by selective quarrying and control of the raw material fed to the crushing and
grinding plant. Finer control is obtained by drawing material from two or more batches
containing raw mixes of slightly different composition. In the dry process these mixes are
stored in silos; slurry tanks are used in the wet process. Thorough mixing of the dry materials
in the silos is ensured by agitation and vigorous circulation induced by compressed air. In the
wet process the slurry tanks are stirred by mechanical means or compressed air or both. The
slurry, which contains 35 to 45 percent water, is sometimes filtered, reducing the water
content to 20 to 30 percent, and the filter cake is then fed to the kiln. This reduces the
fuel consumption for burning.

3.1.3 Burning

The earliest kilns in which cement was burned in batches were bottle kilns, followed by
chamber kilns and then by continuous shaft kilns. The shaft kiln in a modernized form is still
used in some countries, but the dominant means of burning is the rotary kiln. These kilns—up
to 200 metres (660 feet) long and six metres in diameter in wet process plants but shorter for
the dry process—consist of a steel, cylindrical shell lined with refractory materials. They
rotate slowly on an axis that is inclined a few degrees to the horizontal. The raw material
feed, introduced at the upper end, moves slowly down the kiln to the lower, or firing, end.
The fuel for firing may be pulverized coal, oil, or natural gas injected through a pipe. The
temperature at the firing end ranges from about 1,350 to 1,550 °C (2,460 to 2,820 °F),
depending on the raw materials being burned. Some form of heat exchanger is commonly
incorporated at the back end of the kiln to increase heat transfer to the incoming raw

18
materials and so reduce the heat lost in the waste gases. The burned product emerges from the
kiln as small nodules of clinker. These pass into coolers, where the heat is transferred to
incoming air and the product cooled. The clinker may be immediately ground to cement or
stored in stockpiles for later use. Modern cement plants are equipped with elaborate
instrumentation for control of the burning process. Raw materials in some plants are sampled
automatically, and a computer calculates and controls the raw mix composition. The largest
rotary kilns have outputs exceeding 5,000 tons per day.

3.1.4 Grinding

The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are ground to a fine powder in horizontal
mills similar to those used for grinding the raw materials. The material may pass straight
through the mill (open circuit grinding), or coarser material may be separated from the
ground product and returned to the mill for further grinding (closed-circuit grinding).
Sometimes a small amount of a grinding aid is added to the feed material. For air-entraining
cements (discussed in the following section) the addition of an air-entraining agent is
similarly made.
Finished cement is pumped pneumatically to storage silos from which it is drawn for packing
in paper bags or for dispatch in bulk containers.[6]

3.2 RAW MIX COMPOSITIONS CALCULATIONS

For a long time, cement was manufactured on the basis of practical experience collected from
the process of production. When comparing chemical analyses of Portland cement (Feed raw
materials and/or clinker) it was found that certain relations exist between the percentage of
lime on the one hand and the combination of silica, alumina, and iron oxide on the other

3.2.1 Lime Saturation Factor (LSF)

It is the ratio of the actual amount of lime to the theoretical lime required by the other major
oxides in the raw mix or clinker. When LSF>100% the ordinary clinker will always contain
some free lime. When firing a kiln with coal containing ash the LSF of the raw meal can be
higher than 100%. The incorporation of ash into the clinker lowers the LSF because of silica,
alumina &iron content of the ash. To monitor the burning process the amount of unreacted
Cao free in the clinker is analysed. The lower the free lime the closer the reactions are to
completion; however too low free lime can also indicate too hard & uneconomic burning.
The free lime target is normally about 0.5-1.5%CaO free.

LSF is calculation and range are following.

Range 102 ±1

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3.2.2 Silica Moduli (SM)

The amount of melt phase in the burning zone is a function of SM. When SM is high the
amount of melt is low & vice versa. Therefore, when the SM is too high the formation of
nodules & the chemical reactions may be too slow making it difficult to operate. The higher
the SM the harder it is to burn. When SM is too low there may be too much melt phase & the
sulphur coating can become too thick.

Silica Moduli or Silica ratio can calculate as

Range 2.20±0.05

3.2.3 Alumina Moduli (AM)

The temperature by which the melt form depends on the AM. The lowest temperature is
obtained when the AM is approximately 1.6 which is the optimum regarding formation of
clinker minerals & modulization. The AM also affects the colour of clinker & cement. The
higher the AM the lighter the colour of the cement.

Range 1.30±0.05

3.2.4 Hydraulic Moduli (HM)

It was found that with increasing HM, more heat is required for clinker burning: the
strengths, especially the initial strengths step up and also the heat of hydration rises and the
resistance to chemical attack decreases.

Range 1.7-2.3

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3.3 RAW MIX DESIGN METHOD

3.3.1 Calculation based on the hydraulic modulus.

This method is applicable to two raw material components, with the hydraulic module
selected for clinker. To simplify the following calculations symbols are used for the
designations of clinker components. Applying these symbols, the hydraulic moduli for
clinker and raw mix are calculated.

3.3.2 Calculation based on lime saturation factors (LSF)

This method is applicable to two raw material components, with the LSF selected for clinker.
To simplify the following calculations symbols are used for the designations of clinker
components. Applying these symbols, the hydraulic moduli for clinker and raw mix are
calculated.[7]

3.4 CALCULATION OF COAL ASH AND CALORIFIC

VALUE

3.4.1 Calculation of ash%

 Initial weight of crucible is measured.
 Sample of 0.5000g is weighed and taken in crucible.
 Crucible is placed in muffler furnace at 900℃ for 30-45 min.
 Final crucible weight is measured.
 ASH%= ((Initial wt.-final wt.) ÷sample wt.) *100

3.4.2 Calculation of calorific value (CV)

 CV is measured using automatic bomb calorimeter (AC)
 A known quantity of sample is taken in crucible and placed in bomb.
 Weight of sample is entered in system.
 The heat released is proportional to calorific value of substance.

Automatic bomb calorimeter

The LECO AC500 Automatic Calorimeter is a Windows"-based instrument, developed to

measure the calorific content of various organic materials such as coal, coke, and fuel oil. The
calorific value of a sample is determined by combustion of the sample in a controlled
environment. The heat released is proportional to the calorific value of the substance. In the
AC500 Automatic Calorimeter, the sample is placed in a high- pressure atmospheric
environment called a Combustion Vessel. The Combustion Vessel is surrounded by water
and the sample is ignited. The temperature of the water is measured by an electronic
thermometer with a resolution of 10,000 of a degree.

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During analysis, the fan speed is modulated to control the jacket temperature. In this
Isoperibolic system, there may be some energy exchange between the outside environment
and the water surrounding the combustion vessel. This is accounted for by continuously
monitoring the bucket and jacket temperatures during analysis and by applying a correction
to the result.

The microprocessor measures the temperature of the water surrounding the combustion
vessel every six seconds. The analog to digital converter converts this output into a binary
number that is stored in memory. The difference in water temperature between pre- fire and
post-fire is processed by the computer where the result is corrected for spiking (if used) and
the heat of the combustion fuse. Additional corrections can be made for nitrogen, sulphur,
hydrogen, moisture, and ash content of the sample. contents were entered incorrectly.[8]

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 CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Effect of kiln feed

Figure 4.1 LSF Vs TIME

Figure 4.2 Ratio of SM & AM VS Time

Variations in the kiln feed chemical composition affect its burnability and eventually the fuel
consumption. To determine the effect of kiln on the formation LSF and SR and AR are
shown in. from the fig it 4.1 was seen that minimum value of LSF is 100.21 and maximum
value is 102.94 with an average of 101.15 so deviation was 0.739 is respectively. from fig 4.2
it was observed that minimum silica ratio is 2.05 and maximum value is 2.26 with an average
value of 2.15 so deviation was 0.06. The minimum alumina ratio is 1.06 and maximum value
is 1.29 with an average value of 1.16 so deviation was 0.04 observed. It might be due to fuel
penalty for burning to an average of 2.21 free lime. more amount of free lime means burning
is not proper due to which more fuel is consumed. When the kiln is operated on the hot side,
alkalis and sulphate become more volatile. This, in turn, might increase the possibility for

23
build-ups in the cooler parts of the kiln system. In severe cases, controlling the kiln may
become difficult because of surges of the material through the kiln. Hard burning tends to
cause low clinker porosity, large crystals of Alite, and often contributes to generation of dust
instead of good, nodular clinker.

4.2Coal ash standard deviations

Figure 4.2 ash std dev

Figure 4.3 February month ash variations

Ash variation is lowest in December and highest in February. February month variations are
high due to following reasons.

 13th February ash std. dev is 10.23, on that day black carbon was used instead of high-
grade coal. black carbon was used in 70% by volume due to which ash variation
increased.

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  15th February ash std. dev is 8.58, because on that day high ash coal is used with 70%
and pet coke is used in 30% by volume.

 22nd February ash std. dev 9.78, ratio of pet coke and high ash coal was used in 50:50
ratio. Due to which ash variation increased.

In above mentioned date there was a shortage of high-grade coal. due to which ash variation
increased rapidly.

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 CHAPTER 5. WORK TO BE DONE

5.1 Raw Mill Process

Raw mill is used for grinding and drying of raw material. It contains rotating table on which
four rollers are pressed by hydraulic pressure with a certain clearance required for grinding.
The ground product is called raw meal. The purpose of this equipment is drying and grinding
of cement raw material. Material is transported to constant feed weigh from hopper and to
vertical roller mill through belt conveyors, triple gate and ground and dried with exhaust gas
from the rotary kiln. Ground material is conducted to separator located in the upper part of
the mill, grinding on the ventilating current generated by exhaust fan, and classified by the
centrifugal force of a rotor into fines and coarse. In addition, coarse material is fallen on the
table and ground again.

5.1.1 Effect of raw mill mixing

Purpose of calculating the composition of the raw mix is to determine the quantitative
proportions of the raw components, in order to give the clinker, the desired chemical and
mineralogical composition. For this, there are many methods of calculations.

1) Allegation Alternate Method

2) Calculation based on the Hydraulic Modulus
3) Calculation based on Lime Saturation Factor
4) Calculation based on Lime Saturation Factor and silica ratio.
5) Calculation based on Lime Saturation Factor Silica Ratio and Alumina Modulus

In next phase of the project above mentioned method will be studied in order to learn raw
mix design. So, once raw mix is designed, next part of study will be carried out in fuel mix
design.

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 CHAPTER 6. REFERENCES

[1] V.C. Johansen, L.M. Hills, F.M. Miller and R.W. Stevenson, "The Importance of Cement
Raw Mix Homogeneity", International Cement, Chicago, USA, (2002), online on America's
Cement (2003).

[2] L.M. Hills, V.C. Johansen and F.M. Miller, "Solving Raw Materials Challenges",
Conference Record of IEEE-IAS/PCA 2002 Cement Industry Technical Conference, May
2002, pp. 139-151.

[3] G. Frigionea, F. Zanonia and M.V. Esposito, "The effect of chemical composition on
Portland cement clinker grindability", Cement and Concrete Research, 13 (4): 483-492,
(1983).

[4] P. C. Hewlett, "Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete", 4th edition, Arnold Publishers,
London, Great British, (1998).

[5] Operation datasheet of Al-Mergheb cement plant, Alahlia Cement Company, Al-Khoms
city, Libya, July (2010).

[6] F.M. Miller, "Dusty Clinker and Grindability Problems: Their Relationship to Clinker
Formation", Rock Products, April (1980), pp. 152-157.

[7] V. Johansen, "Cement Production and Cement Quality", Materials Science of Concrete,
Vol. 1, Edited by Jan Skalny, American Ceramic Society, (1990).

[8] W.H. Duda, "Cement data Book", Vol. 1, International Process Engineering in the
Cement Industry, 3rd ed., Baubella GMBH, Berlin (1985).

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