Definition:

 Bone is the hard part of the body providing dynamic framework to it.

Properties:

 Bone is a living tissue.

 Bone is supplied by arteries and nerves.
 Bone is drained by veins.
 Bone grows with age.
 Bone is subject to disease.
 Bone regenerates when damaged.
 Fractured bone heals leading to Union.
 Bone can undergo remodelling.
 Bone can withstand strains and stresses.
 Bone can atrophy or hypertrophy.

Functions:

 Bones provide framework to body.

 Bones accord shape to the body.
 Bones act as levers for muscles and therefore help in the movements of body.
 Bones provide protection to number of viscera. Eg. Brain, lungs, and heart.
 Bone is site of blood formation (hematopoiesis, G. Hemato, blood, +poiein, to form).
 Bone plays important role in the immune responses of body by producing cells of
reticuloendothelial system.
 Bones are store houses of calcium and phosphorus.

Classification of bones:

Bones may be classified according to their development, shape or location.

 Phylogenetic classification:
From comparative anatomy point of view skeleton may be classified into:-
o Exoskeleton ( dermal bone) :
 Nails and enamel of teeth are the only remnants observed in human being.
 Bones developing in membrane (eg. Clavicle) may also be considered as dermal
bone.
o Endoskeleton:
 It includes most of the bones.
 Developmental classification:
o Developmentally bones are classified as,
 Cartilaginous bones.
 Membranous bones.
 Morphological classification:
o According to shape the bones may be classified as,
 Long bones – femur, humerus.
  Short bones – carpal and tarsal bones.
 Miniature long bones – metacarpal & metatarsals.
 Flat bones – parietal bone.
 Irregular bones – hip bone.
 Pneumatic bones – maxilla, ethmoid, sphenoid and frontal bone.
 Regional classification:
o Bones may be classified regionally as follows,
 Axial bones: it includes 80 bones as shown below.
i. Skull bones-22
ii. Vertebrae-26
iii. Ribs-24
iv. Sternum-1
v. Auditory ossicles-6
vi. Hyoid-1
 Appendicular bones: it includes 126 bones which are further subgrouped as.
i. Upper limb bones-64
ii. Lower limb bones-62

Total number of bones is 206.

 Miscellaneous classification:
o Accessory bones:-
 An accessory bone is a small piece of bone which develops from a separate
centre of ossification but fails to unite with the main mass of bone.
 Eg. Sutural(wormian) bones and interparietal bones.
o Sesamoid bones:-
 A sesamoid bone is a bone usually small, developing in the tendon of a muscle,
ligament or joint capsule.
 They ossify after birth and are devoid of periosteum.
 Sesamoid bones possibly resist pressure, they alter the direction of pull of
muscle and minimise the friction.

Sesamoid bone Tendon of muscle

Patella Quadriceps
Pisiform Flexor carpi ulnaris
Fabella Lateral head of
gastrocnemius
Rider's bone Adductor longus
Some example of sesamoid bones.

Parts of a young bone:

 Epiphysis (G.epi, upon + physis, growth) :-

o At birth both the ends of a long bone are cartilaginous, known as cartilaginous
epiphyses. After birth these ends undergo ossification resulting into formation of bony
epiphysis.
  Pressure epiphysis – located adjacent to articulation. Eg. Talus.
 Traction epiphysis(Apophysis) – located at the site of attachment of tendon. Eg.
Lesser trochanter.
 Atavistic epiphysis – located in that part of a developing bone which was
phylogenitically an independent bone. Eg. Coracoid process of scapula, os
trigonum Or posterior tubercle of talus.
 Diaphysis(G.dia, in between) :-
o It is the region between the two epiphyses of a developing long bone.
o It corresponds to the shaft of a long bone.
 Epiphyseal plate:-
o The cartilaginous plate between epiphysis and diaphysis is called the epiphyseal plate.
 Metaphysis:-
o The epiphyseal end of diaphysis is called metaphysis.

Blood supply of bones:

 Long bones:
Following arteries supply a long bone,
o Nutrient artery:-
 It enters the nutrient foramen and runs in the nutrient canal to reach the
medullary cavity where it divides into ascending and descending branches
(nutritiae).
 It supplies medullary cavity, inner 2/3rd of the compact bone and metaphysis.
 It is tortuous to allow the movement of bone.
o Periosteal arteries:-
 Several periosteal arteries supply the periosteum and outer 1/3 rd of compact
bone of diaphysis.
o Epiphyseal arteries:-
 These are derived from periarticular vascular arcades (circulusvasculosus
articuli).
 These supply the epiphysis.
o Metaphyseal arteries:-
 These are derived from neighbouring systemic vessels to supply the metaphysis.
 Short bones:-
o These are supplied by numerous periosteal vessels.
 Vertebrae:-
o The body of vertebra is supplied by the anterior and posterior vessels.
o The vertebral arch is supplied by large vessels entering through the bases of transverse
processes.
 Ribs:-
o These are supplied by nutrient and periosteal vessels.
 Flat bones:-
o These are supplied by nutrient and periosteal vessels.

Nerve supply of bones:

  Nerves accompany the blood vessels of bone.
 Periosteal nerves are sensory (carry pain) while others are vasomotor in nature.

Lymphatic drainage of bones:

 Lymph vessels are abundant in periosteum.