TEXTILES 11

3 TEXTILES
T. Gries, A. Roye, ITA at RWTH Aachen University, Germany
P. Offermann, T. Engler, ITB at Dresden University, Germany
A. Peled., Structural Engineering Department at Ben Gurion University, Israel

ABSTRACT: In this chapter a general survey of the productions processes is given. Beginning with
typical fibres used, the yarn and textile manufacturing processes are named. The textile structures
which will be found in most usual applications are shown, as they are mainly two-dimensional bi-axial
oriented warp knitted textiles. Additionally the relatively new approach of using three-dimensional
textiles is mentioned. Finally, the common testing and characterising procedures are described for
single filament yarns, for multi-filament yarns as well as for entire textile structures.

3.1 Textile fibre

3.1.1 Suitable materials

The properties, the amount and the arrangement of the used fibre materials have a great influence to
the characteristics of the composite the textile reinforced concrete. Therefore the fibre material and its
textile make up have to meet various demands. The preconditions for an effective reinforcement are
beside high fibre tenacity and breaking elongation a modulus of elasticity much higher than that of the
concrete matrix. Otherwise, occurring cracks would drastically reduce the stiffness of the building
component. To ensure a life-long reinforcing effect, the fibre material has to withstand the alkaline
medium permanently and without losing its properties. Further requirements on the fibber are: small
relaxation under permanent load, a good and constant adhesion between reinforcement and concrete,
low cost and the possibility of processing them easily on textile machinery.

The use of alkali-resistant man-made glass fibres (AR-glass), carbon and aramid for the design and
fabrication of textile reinforcements essentially meets these requirements (Fig. 3.1). The make-up and
typical properties of these fibre materials are described in the following paragraph. Fig. 3.2 compares
the most important mechanical parameters of these fibre materials. By varying the yarn fineness (see
Section 3.1.2, make-up of yarns) the volumes of the examined filament yarns are approximately the
same.

Further, at least partly suitable polymers like polypropylene, polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene, and
polyacrylnitrile are already known as short fibre reinforcements for concrete. Basalt fibres can also be
used for this purpose. Reinforcing fabrics made of metal yarns (steel fibre yarns) are also possible, but
they have a bad cost-performance-ratio. Short steel fibres are nevertheless widely used in steel fibre
concrete.
12 STATE OF THE ART REPORT – TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Fig. 3.1. System of fibre material [ITP, TU Dresden].

Fig. 3.2. Mechanical properties of selected high-performance filament yarns (see relevant yarn and
textile fabric properties) [ITP, TU Dresden].

3.1.2 Make-up of yarns

High-performance fibres made of AR-glass, carbon and aramid can be made up as filament or twisted
yarns. For reinforcing purposes filament yarns are the better choice because they possess only a small
structural elongation.
TEXTILES 13

a) b) c)
Fig. 3.3. Yarn construction: a) filament yarn, b) bundled yarn, c) foil fibrillated tape [ITP,
TU Dresden].

Filament yarns are a bundle of elementary fibres, so-called filaments (Fig. 3.3 a). One yarn consists of
several hundreds up to thousands of single filaments. Therefore, the fineness of the yarn, indicated as
tex (gram per 1000 meters), depends on the number of filaments, the average filament diameter and
the fibre density.

The stress-strain relations of the filament yarns are significantly influenced by the location of the
single filament in the yarn and by the interactions between the filaments. Ideally all filaments in the
yarn should be parallel and drawn, divergences however may occur depending on the method of
fabrication, quality and intended use. The method of fabrication divides the yarns into assembled and
non-assembled yarns. Assembled yarns are made in a two-step process and consist of several
combined ropes of filaments, whereas non-assembled yarns include only elementary fibres.

The properties of the filament yarns are decisively influenced by the applied size, a device to improve
the processing behaviour. Relevant for building purposes is the differentiation between water
dispersing and integrated sizes. The size has a great influence on the quality of the adhesion between
the filaments and it influences the load bearing performance Therefore, intensive research is aiming at
the development of new yarn sizes and coatings. The objective of it is to better exploit the high
mechanical potential of the elementary fibres. Another way to maximise the fibre effectiveness is the
combination of different materials, see section 3.1.6. Fig. 3.3 b shows an example for such a combined
yarn. Further yarn types like polypropylene foil fibrillated tape (Fig. 3.3 c) are used to replace
expensive fibre materials only if needed for manufacturing purposes. For processing on textile
machinery the yarns are stored on bobbins. A typical bobbin for glass filament yarns (roving) is the
roving bobbin, where the yarn is pulled off from inside (Fig. 3.4 a). As a result one twist per round is
applied on the yarn. Cross-wound bobbins with a cylindrical core ensure an almost twist-free
tangential pull-off (Fig. 3.4 b). These bobbins are used for carbon and aramid filament yarns.

a) b)
Fig. 3.4. Bobbin make-up: a) pull-off from inside, b) twist-free tangential pull-off [ITP,
TU Dresden].
14 STATE OF THE ART REPORT – TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

3.1.3 AR-glass filament yarns

AR-glass filament yarns are designed especially for the reinforcement of concrete made of standard
cement. To resist the corrosive alkaline solution in the concrete, AR-glass contains more than 15 %
(mass) of zircon. Another cement resistant glass is Z-glass, which includes higher shares of silicon
dioxide and zircon oxide.

Glass-fibre development is relatively mature. It was clear from the first incarnations of glass-FRC that
E-glass fibre (as used by the FRP industry) would be chemically unstable in the highly alkaline cement
matrix. Alkali-resistant (AR) glass was developed in the 1970s by Pilkingtons, based on silica-soda-
calcia glass with the addition of about 16 % zirconia, and marketed as Cem-FIL. Glass-RFC made
from AR fibres was not immune to degradation, however, and further developments were made to the
soluble coating or ’size’ applied to the fibre (originally applied for manufacturing purposes). For
further details concerning durability aspects see section 6.3.4.

The basic materials silica sand, clay and limestone are melted at temperatures up to 1350 °C and
pulled off the spinning nozzle with a speed between 25 and 150 m/s and diameters ranging from 9 to
27 µm. After spinning a size (0.5 to 1.5 mass-% of the fibre) of organic polymers dispersed in water is
applied on the filaments, 400 to 6600 of whom are combined to yarn without twisting.

The size is important for the subsequent processes and improves the yarn properties as well as the
adhesion and the stress transfer between filaments and matrix material. The basic mechanical
properties of AR-glass are - depending on the yarn fineness - tenacity up to 1400 N/mm² linear elastic
elongation up to 2 % with modulus of elasticity between 70 and 80 kN/mm². The density of
2.8 kg/dm³ is relatively high compared to carbon or aramid. Regarding the good adhesion to concrete
AR-glass shows a good cost-performance-ratio. Table 3.1 compares commercially available AR-glass
filament yarns.

Table 3.1. Selected commercially available alkali-resistant glass fibres

Product type Producer [tex] Diameter [μm] Number of filaments
AR310S-800/DB 310 13.5 800
AR620S-800/TM Nippon Electric Glass, 620 13.5 1600
AR1100S-800/TM Japan 1100 16 2000
AR2500S-800/DB 2500 24 2000
LTR ARC 320 5325 320 14 800
LTR ARC 640 5325 Saint-Gobain Vetrotex, 640 14 1600
LTR ARC 1200 5325 Spain 1200 19 1600
LTR ARC 2400 5325 2400 27 1600

3.1.4 Carbon filament yarns

With its use by Thomas Alva Edison in electric light bulbs the carbon fibre was born. Today’s carbon
fibres, however, were developed in the 1960s by choosing PAN as basic material instead of cellulose.
Now carbon fibres of very high tensile strength could be produced for aviation, automobiles and sports
goods.

Basic materials are polyacrylnitrile and meso phase pitch. They can be made spinnable by
polymerisation and thermal treatment. The anisotropic PAN or pitch fibre from the spinning process
becomes unmeltable in an oxidation procedure at temperatures of 200 to 300 °C. The carbonisation
defines the properties of the carbon fibres. Fibres of high tenacity (HT-fibres) are created from PAN at
1500 to 1700 °C and fibres of high modulus of elasticity at 2200 to 3000 °C by graphitisation
incandescence. The tenacity of HT-fibres lays between 3000 and 5000 N/mm², the modulus of
elasticity between 200 and 250 kN/mm². HM-fibres range from 2000 to 4500 N/mm² in tensile
TEXTILES 15

strength and 350-450 kN/mm² in modulus. Tests on commercial carbon fibre yarns have shown a yarn
tenacity of more than 2000 N/mm² depending on the fineness.

Further positive properties for technical uses are low density (1.8 kg/dm³), very little creeping, good
vibration reduction, low heat expansion and conductivity, good electric conductivity and furthermore
low X-ray absorption as well as high resistance to acid, alkaline and organic solvents. The most
common matrix materials are duroplastic and thermoplastic polymers. Mineral matrix systems like
concrete are special cases for the use of carbon.

The adhesion to concrete is not as good as that of AR-glass. Special sizes have to be implied to
improve the use of filament properties in the yarn, the fabric and the building component. Having
solved this problem carbon will have an increasing importance for reinforcing concrete despite its high
cost, which is very much depending on the fibre properties. Carbon fibres are much more difficult to
process without deterioration than other fibre materials. Due to the sensitivity to lateral pressure
filament breaks occur more often despite large-scale modifications of the thread-guides. Since the
broken fibres are electrically conductive, all electronic devices and machine parts have to be shielded.
Modern fabrication technology, however, allows the economical production of carbon fabrics with
reproducible and predictable properties.

Table 3.2. Selected commercially available carbon fibres

Product type Producer [tex] Diameter [μm] Number of filaments
Tenax HTA 5131 400 tex 400 7 6000
Tenax HTS 5631 800 tex Tenax Fibres 800 7 12000
GmbH
Tenax STS 5631 1600
tex 1600 7 24000

T300J-3000 Toray Industries. 198 7 3000

T300JB-6000 Inc. Japan 396 7 6000

3.1.5 Aramid filament yarns

By definition of the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) aromatic polyamides (polyaramids) are
long-chain synthetic polyamides of which at least 85 % of the amide groups are directly linked to the
amide bridges. Up to 50 % of the amide linkages can be replaced by imide linkages. This definition
shows the difference between conventional polyamides and aramids.

Aramid filaments are made by polycondensation of dichloranhydrides of aromatic dicarbon acids with
aromatic diamines. The resulting polymer is isolated by precipitation with water, dried and solved in
concentrated sulphuric acid at a temperature of 80 °C for spinning. The hot spinning solution is pulled
off the nozzle, carried a short way through air into a precipitation bath. Beside filament yarns staple
fibre products are produced.

Du Pont began to sell aramid fibres in 1966. It is mostly used for fibre reinforced polymers, electric
insulation, protective clothing as well as for cables, ropes and belts.

Because of their excellent tensile strength and modulus of elasticity aramid fibres also belong to the
high performance fibres. Concerning their properties two types can basically be differentiated: meta-
aramid and para-aramid. Since it provides better mechanical stability, para-aramid is especially
interesting for reinforcements. It exists as normal (N), high tenacity (HT) and high modulus (HM)
version and is easily distinguishable from the white meta-aramid by its golden color. The tenacity is
about 3000 N/mm², the modulus of elasticity between 60 kN/mm² (N-version) and 130 kN/mm² (HM-
version).

Compared to carbon and glass fibres aramid offers a lower density (1.4 kg/dm³), a lower brittleness
and a higher impact resistance. The cost depends on the yarn fineness. Another problem is the negative
16 STATE OF THE ART REPORT – TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

heat expansion. If the heat expansion of reinforcing material and concrete are different, tensions arise
in the adhesion zone of both components. The use of such composites is therefore very limited.

A disadvantage is its low resistance against alkaline solutions. But the comparatively new fibre type
Technora® (Table 3.3) offers a much better performance and even show a higher tenacity of about
3500 N/mm².

However, only a few studies in the field of structural engineering have investigated aramid fibres with
regard to their microstructure. The work of [Vil2003] gives a detailed overview on what aramid fibres
are, how they deform, and especially what makes them different from solid fibrous materials such as
glass or carbon. Understanding their basic deformation mechanism allows the utilisation of
mechanical preconditioning to greatly reduce tension losses caused by relaxation. This finding will
also be of importance to conventional pre-stressing applications where aramid fibres are used as FRP.

Table 3.3. Selected commercially available aramid fibres.

Product type Producer [tex] Diameter [μm] Number of filaments
Technora T-240 167 tex 167 12 1000
Technora T-241J 167 tex Teijin Twaron 167 12 1000
Twaron T3200 BV 322 12 2000
Twaron 2520 2520 12 k. A.

3.1.6 Combined yarns

Besides the man-made fibre yarns, which have been described above, combinations of them are also
used for reinforcing fabrics. Today these are mostly friction spinning yarns. The yarns have a hybrid
structure and consist of different materials. For reinforcing concrete friction spinning hybrid yarns are
made of AR-glass or carbon filament yarns as core and AR-thermoplastics as mantle. The
thermoplastic material can be melted in an additional process providing stabilised textile structures.

Other combined yarns can be manufactured by co-extruding. This means that the core yarn is spray-
coated with another polymer. These yarns have a very smooth surface which reduces the adhesion
with concrete. To improve this, additional yarns can be wound around the reinforcing yarn
(Fig. 3.3 b).

3.2 Fabrication of textile reinforcement

3.2.1 Introduction
There are several advantages of reinforcing concrete by means of fibrous materials in the shape of
textile fabrics. Positive from a technical point of view is the suitability of textiles for reinforcement of
even and curved components near to the surface in different load directions. The easy and reproducible
positioning of yarns in the shape of textile fabrics is furthermore an economic profit.

From the variety of textile fabrication processes are only a few left which can be used for concrete
reinforcements. The most important criterion is the possibility to create open structures with high
displacement stability. A good permeability and complete envelope with the concrete is provided by
an open grid structure. To ensure satisfactory handling there must be no displacement of the threads.
Certain manufacturing methods (e.g. warp knitting with insertion of reinforcing threads) are therefore
better suited than others (e.g. braiding).

Fig. 3.5 systematically shows the most common textile fabrics for reinforcing concrete. The largest
amount of fabrics are bi- or multi-axial warp knits since they offer a great flexibility of properties and
are suited for many uses. For a complete overview of textile fabrics and structures see [Ber2000].
TEXTILES 17

Fig. 3.5. Overview about the commonly used semi-finished reinforcement products for the
application in concrete [ITA, RWTH Aachen University].

3.2.2 Scrims

3.2.2.1 Plane scrims

Scrims are defined as textile fabrics produced by superposing thread systems with or without fixing
the crossing points. If the reinforcing threads are exactly positioned and drawn in load direction, the
highest stiffness and tenacity can be reached. Two thread systems form a bi-axial scrim, three or more
systems a multi-axial scrim.

Multi-axial scrims offer a broad variety of properties: drawn threads, any combination of angles
between the layers, any design of layers and a free choice of the weight per unit area. The structure of
a multi-axial scrim consists of several layers of reinforcing thread systems with different orientations
and a knitting thread structure – the warp knit. The knitting thread bonds the thread layers and forms a
warp knitted scrim. By varying the reinforcing thread systems and the mesh structure (fringe, tricot
etc.), the character of the scrim can be adapted to its use.

Fig. 3.6 shows an exemplary lay-up of a multi-axial warp knit. It consists of up to eight layers which
can be adjusted in almost any direction (e.g. 0°, 90°, +45°, -45°). The 0° direction is the machine
direction, the so-called warp direction. The threads laid in other angles are called weft thread systems.
18 STATE OF THE ART REPORT – TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Fig. 3.6. Exemplary lay-up of a multi-axial warp knit [ITP, TU Dresden].

3.2.2.2 Circular scrims

Circular scrims (Fig. 3.7) are tubular textiles. The manufacturing is divided into a laying and a
bonding section. Several bonding principles, like warp knitting, gluing and welding, can be used.

Materials used for ultrasonic welding must contain at least one thermoplastic component. One system
of threads with a thermoplastic element is enough. The other tread system can be made of alternative
polymers. The thermoplastic component is melted by ultrasonic waves. By applying these ultrasonic
waves and pressure the yarn crossings are welded and fixed. The diameter of the textile fabric is
determined by the diameter of the welding unit. Circular scrims are used for reinforcing hollow
sections (tubes, cable pits), cut as planes or formed as tee-sections.

Fig. 3.7. Machine for the manufacturing of circular laminated fabrics by means of ultrasonic
welding at the ITA, textile cross section diameter 120 mm [ITA, RWTH Aachen
Universtiy].
TEXTILES 19

3.2.3 Warp knits

3.2.3.1 Plane warp knits

The textile fabric of plane warp knits consists of the mesh forming thread systems themselves. Up to
36 guide bars lay the thread systems around moving needles and form different mesh patterns.
Structures with closed or very open surfaces can be produced that way. It is possible to insert a parallel
and drawn weft thread and to create a warp knit similar to scrims. The only difference of these warp
knits, bi-axially reinforced in warp and weft direction, to bi-axial scrims is, that the weft threads are
inserted according to the mesh pattern. They are inserted in the moment of mesh formation. The
insertion according to the mesh pattern reduces the deterioration of the reinforcing threads because
they are not pricked as it is the case with the manufacturing of scrims. The warp knits can be better
draped, but have lower displacement stability.

3.2.3.2 Three-dimensional spacer warp knits

With a double needle bar raschel machine, for the manufacturing of spacer warp knits (Fig. 3.8), two
textile fabrics can be produced at the same time with a defined space and be linked to each other.
Common fabric-fabric spaces for concrete reinforcements are between 15 and 100 mm. Both fabrics
are reinforced by bi-axial weft threads and pile threads maintain a defined space in-between.

These 3-dimensional spacer warp knits are used to reinforce thin concrete elements, whereas both
fabrics are positioned near to the surface.

To produce textile structures with a certain contour, the space between the both fabrics can be
variable. Both fabrics can be manufactured independently. That means that every side can consist of
different materials and have different mesh patterns as well as different weft thread densities
(Fig. 3.9).

Fig. 3.8. Spacer fabrics bi-axial weft insertion on both sides [ITA, RWTH Aachen Universtiy].
20 STATE OF THE ART REPORT – TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

25 mm 20 mm 25 mm

Fig. 3.9. Spacer fabrics bi-axial weft insertion on both sides and variable fabric distance.

3.2.3.3 Circular warp knits

Tubular textiles can be manufactured by the warp knitting technology using circular needle bars. On
this way regular warp knits as well as warp knits with additional weft insertion can be produced.
Especially suited for the reinforcement of concrete are bi-axial circular warp knits.

Fig. 3.10 shows a circular warp knit with a bi-axial reinforcement in 0° and 90° direction. By that the
0°-threads are enveloped by a skipped fringe pattern and the crossing points are fixed. With this
method all reinforcing threads are tied up according to the mesh pattern. The diameter of the warp knit
is determined by the size of the needle bar. The diameter in this example is 80 mm.

Fig. 3.10. Circular warp knits with bi-axial weft insertion.

3.2.4 Woven fabrics

According to DIN 60 000 a woven is defined as a fabric manufactured by shedding two rectangular
crossing thread systems, warp and weft. The kind and crossing of warp and weft is called weaving
pattern. The weaving pattern influences the fabric properties and design very much. It decides how
often a thread is crossing threads of the other system on a certain length. This length is called floating.

There are three basic weaving patterns – plain, twill and satin weave (Fig. 3.11). Plain weave has the
shortest floating and a very high displacement stability. The floating grows from twill to atlas whereas
the displacement stability decreases which may cause the threads to skip from their position in later
process steps. There is a tendency, however, that with a larger floating the fabrics can be draped more
easily.

For reinforcing concrete elements with woven fabrics technical wovens like flat wovens as well as
multi-layer ones can be interesting. Flat wovens of full or half cross weave are mostly used to stop
TEXTILES 21

crack propagation in plaster mortar. Other fields for woven fabrics are the reinforcement of foam,
gypsum and wood elements as well as noise and heat insulating sandwich structures.

Because it is necessary to have an open structure with drawn reinforcing threads the stability of the
cross weaves has to be improved by an anti-displacement finish. Commercially available reinforcing
woven fabrics are made of AR-glass filament yarn. The structure is stabilised by impregnation with a
plastic matrix which also increases the chemical resistance. The fabric can be individually designed
for its use.

Multi-layer woven fabrics consist of several layers linked by a binding warp thread. This warp ensures
a defined space between the layers. The pattern of the layers is variable and can be constructed for
every layer separately. Multi-layer wovens have thread systems in every dimension.

Plain weave Twill weave Satin weave

Fig. 3.11. Different weaving patterns [ITA, RWTH Aachen Universtiy].

3.2.5 Structural stabilisation

To secure the geometry of the reinforcing fabric beyond the manufacturing process it is absolutely
necessary for ensuring good handling and utilising the whole potential in the building component. In
order to realise these benefits an additional fixing may be advisable [Off2003].

The textile structures have to be fixed in their ideal position, which is best done during the production
process. Coating, impregnating and the insertion of an additional backing are possibilities of
implanting suitable binding agents. Fig. 3.12 describes the influence of a supplementary fixing on a bi-
axial scrim (weight: 8 g/m², distance between reinforcing threads 7.2 mm). The test was carried out
with the bending test device described in section 3.2.7. During thermo-bonding, the warp knitting
threads made of polypropylene are melted under pressure and heat. Coating and impregnating are
based on self-interlacing carboxyl styrene-butadiene copolymers dispersed in water [Mäd2003].
22 STATE OF THE ART REPORT – TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

width related flexural-strength [Nm]

Fig. 3.12. Width related bending stiffness for different structural strengthening processes yarn and
textile properties relevant for practical use [ITP TU Dresden].

3.2.6 Tensile strength

Principally, the forces occurring in the composite material are transmitted from the matrix system to
the bond between matrix and filament respectively between filament and filament (inner friction). The
properties of the composite material are influenced by the applied sizing of the filament yarn. The
mechanical properties of the textile fibres, yarn and fabrics are not only used for modelling and
developing textile pre-forms but also for the further development, optimisation and quality assurance
of raw materials and textile fabrics.

The diameter of a single filament that is needed to determine the mechanical composite properties, e.g.
tensile strength, can be measured by Vibromat ME using the vibration method. The yarn fineness is
determined using a gravimetric method according to DIN EN ISO 2060. The hydrometer is used for
measuring the material density (ambient conditions). The stress-strain-behaviour of the single filament
is measured by the tensile test machine Fafegraph ME made by Textechno Herbert Stein GmbH & Co.
KG. The tensile test is performed according to DIN EN ISO 5079.

The scatter of filament properties and of the ensemble structure greatly influences the tensile strength
of fibre bundles as documented by classical results [Dan1945], [Pho1974] both for short and for long
fibres. These issues must be accounted for in the targeted design of yarn structures in order to assess
their performance in the crack bridges appropriately.

The determination of the stress-strain-behaviour of alkali-resistant glass filament yarns is based on the
international standard ISO 3341. The modified test set-up for the determination of tensile strength and
breaking strain of glass filament yarns has been developed at the Institute of Textile and Clothing
Technology, see Fig. 3.13.
TEXTILES 23

radiussed clamp Test conditions

- climate: (20 ± 2) °C;

(65 ± 2) % R.H.

free gauge length

- clamp: wire clamp/ vulcanised flat
(with cleaning)
yarn
ligth beam mark - clamping length: 500 mm

- test speed.: 200 mm/min

- initial load: 0.5 cN/tex

- strain measuring: optical extensiometer

moving grip
- test: 20 per bobbin

Fig. 3.13. Test set-up and test conditions for the determination of stress-strain-behaviour of filament
yarns [ITP TU Dresden].

This experimental set-up allows tensile tests on all high-performance filament yarns. The test is
performed at the Zwick material testing machine, type Z100 with special return clamps and external
strain measuring equipment. The significant advantages of the test set-up and the test realisation
(Fig. 3.13) are:

• high sensibility

• no time consuming specimen preparation

• no slipping and breaking in the clamp

• direct measurement of the strain

• high number of tests

• low statistic spread

• good reproducibility.

Tensile tests on wetted alkali-resistant glass filament yarns can also be performed under the same test
conditions without the adjustment of the reference atmosphere (relative humidity). In order to wet the
yarns completely the specimens are laid in water for at least one hour. After this, the wetted yarn is
clamped and the wet tensile strength is determined in a standard tensile test. The test set-up is equally
suitable for short-term continuous and alternating loads.

Other sorts of high performance filament yarn can be tested with this method as well. Main advantages
of this test are high sensitivity, easy sample preparation, no clamping problems, direct elongation
measurement, great number of tests reproducible results with little straggling.

To evaluate the impact of characteristic influences on the tensile strength like length or waviness of
the filaments, the load can be passed into the filament yarns through resin blocks. By this method a
very short and exactly defined free clamping length can be realised (Fig. 3.14).
24 STATE OF THE ART REPORT – TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Fig. 3.14. Defined specimen length through embedding in epoxy matrix [ITA, RWTH Aachen
University].

Using this test set up it is possible to systematically study the influence is imperfections in the yarn
that gets amplified for short effective lengths in crack bridges [Chu2005].

The highest tensile strength of the filament yarn is significantly lower than the total tensile strength of
all single filaments contained (Fig. 3.15). One of the reasons for this is the unequal loading of the
single filaments within the yarn and the existing material defects [Cur1999].

As mentioned earlier, the results of the yarn tests and the tests performed on the composite material
depend on the bond properties between the filaments. The yarn test uses special wire clamps to initiate
loads through friction between yarn and deflection roller or to achieve adhesion between the filaments.
The initiation of loads is realised according to the mechanism of the initiation of tensile loads in
reinforced concrete specimen [Off2001]. This confirms the consistency of the results that are obtained
by both methods, see Fig. 3.15.

Fig. 3.15. Dependence of tensile strength on the filament diameter or the yarn fineness in alkali-
resistant glass filament yarns made by Nippon Electric Glass (NEG) [ITP, TU Dresden].

3.2.7 Test methods for the determination of the structural stability

To evaluate the influence of an additional stabilisation method on the fabric, it is necessary to develop
and adopt testing methods for the quantitative characterisation of shape accuracy.

To examine the bending behaviour of the open grid structures a specially developed bending test with
vertical specimen arrangement is used (Fig. 3.16). The specimen is clamped perpendicularly, and the
bending edge is situated in the centre of rotation. The bending results from the rotation of the
specimen against a fixed bar. The pressure load on the bar is measured as a turning moment. Any
influence of gravity is practically avoided by this arrangement. According to Engler et al. 2004
[Eng2004] this new method can display the differences between open grid reinforcing textiles better
TEXTILES 25

than the usually applied Cantilever test (DIN 53362). To reduce as much outside influence as possible
an electronically controlled testing device is currently being developed at the ITB.

Fig. 3.16. Bending test with vertically placed specimen.

3.2.8 Fibre fineness and volume

The filament diameter, necessary for the calculation of strength, is dependent on the filament fineness
which can be measured with the vibration test on a Vibromat ME testing device. The yarn fineness is
evaluated according to ISO 2060 with a gravimetric method.

The weight per unit area is described in DIN 53884. The weight of the warp knitting thread can be
measured with the amount of thread being delivered to the warp knitting machine. To calculate the
area related fibre volume, the glass density of the filament yarn is measured with a hygrometer at
20 °C.

3.2.9 Dimensional stability

For the evaluation of the dimensional stability special testing devices have been developed during this
research. They allow a quantitative measurement and control of the textile properties. They are the
basis for the evolution of textile reinforcements. A special vertical bending test is used to examine the
bending behaviour of open grid structures. The influence of gravity is nearly eliminated with this
sample arrangement.

Another wax to evaluate the handling qualities of textile reinforcing structures is the examination of
the displacement stability (Fig. 3.17). A circular clamp is rotated in the sample which is fixed in its
position by a needle bed and two circular rubber coated clamps. This takes account of the area
character of the textile fabric. The resistance is measured as the moment of torsion at a defined angle.

Recent tests have shown that the displacement test can describe structural differences resulting from
the textile construction and from the bonding properties of the yarns.
26 STATE OF THE ART REPORT – TEXTILE REINFORCED CONCRETE

a) b)
Fig. 3.17. Experimental determination of the displacement stability, a) non-deformed structure,
b) deformed structure.

REFERENCES

[Ber2000] Bernd, E., Geuer, M., Wulfhorst, B., Dreidimensionale Textilstrukturen zur Herstellung
von technischen Textilien (Three-dimensional Textile Structures for the Manufacturing of
Technical Textiles) - Stand 2000. In: Technische Textilien 44 (2001) 4.
[Chu2005] Chudoba, R., Vořechovský, M., Konrad, M., Stochastic modeling of multi-filament
yarns: I Random properties within the cross section and size effect, International Journal
of Solids and Structures, accepted for publication, 2005.
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