Energy Reports 7 (2021) 1757–1764

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Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

Evolution of kinetic and hydrothermal study of refused derived fuels:

Thermo-gravimetric analysis
∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
Muhammad Hamid Siddiqi a,b , , Xiao-min Liu a , , Muhammad Asif Hussain b,c , ,
Tayyab Qureshi d,e , Muhammad Waqas e , Muhammad Farooq e , Tanveer Iqbal b ,
Saba Nawaz a , Saher Nawaz f
a
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, China
b
Centre for Energy Research and Development, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
c
Department of Metallurgical and Material Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
d
Department of Technology and Development, University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
e
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
f
Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: With the increase in municipal-solid-waste (MSW) production, energy usage, and the curb of the
Received 4 April 2020 landfill, it has developed the need of our society to use local MSW under the vision of waste-to-
Received in revised form 25 February 2021 energy (WTE). WTE conversion is an environment-friendly way for disposing of MSW around the
Accepted 14 March 2021
globe, in this study examining the usage of plastic, wood, and cloth for the refused derived fuels
Available online 31 March 2021
(RDFs) production. RDF is solitary of MSW energy yields, whose reliability and superiority are analysed
Keywords: in the current work. Three different RDFs had been assumed from diverse waste streams accessible
Combustion at the plant site to propose the best RDF based on energy-efficiency. Plastics, wood, and cloth are
Kinetics the principal constituents in the method of occupied RDFs like RDF-I, RDF-II and RDF-III, respectively.
RDFs The results demonstrated that the RDF-I holds a high amount of carbon as-well-as hydrogen content
Activation energy
and adequate calorific value, which leads to a better fuel-quality and have better activation energy.
TGA
Thermogravimetric analysis had shown, with the increase in the volatile matter fraction of RDFs, the
retention time under the combustion atmosphere has remained increased accordingly and kinetic
analysis showed the great activation energy value as compared to the other samples. Regarding all
results, RDF-I was recommended to be a good option for energy applications and can be used as a fuel
for numerous combustion reactions.
© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction capita (Statista, 2018). The production of MSW of each capita of

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is numerously substantial of
various wastes, produced through our society. MSW is produced
either through production methods or arises as of the local or
commercial sectors from waste matters or constituents (Haydar
and Masood, 2016). A huge volume of MSW is produced continu-
ously in diverse ways from daily activities. Numerous varieties
of wastes like plastics, wood, glass, metals, cloth, and paper
remain dumped into landfill sites daily. Waste production has
increased every year with the increase of population. Meanwhile,
In European, daily waste production approaches to 1.48 kg of each
∗ Corresponding author at: School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an
Jiaotong University, China.
∗∗ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: hamidsiddiqi@stu.xjtu.edu.cn (M.H. Siddiqi),
liuxm@xjtu.edu.cn (X.-m. Liu), asif.hussain@uet.edu.pk (M.A. Hussain).
multiple countries over the world, shown in Fig. 1.
Appropriate solid waste management (SWM) is significant to
lessen the harming effects of dangerous solid waste on the atmo-
sphere (Haydar and Masood, 2016; Šuhaj et al., 2019). Integrated
waste-management strategies might be devised for solid waste
management. An enormous quantity of solid waste is produced
daily in the urban along with rural areas. SWM is a crucial
problem over the world, as landfill locations are depleting with
the time. Along with, because of environmental pollution, some
sustainable solutions should be applied to lessen this critical
issue. Waste managers, as well as decision makers in advanced
and emerged countries, must reply to these different challenges.
The waste-to-energy (WTE) strategy has been observed progres-
sively as a solution to the difficulties derived since growing waste
amounts in expanding cities and hurriedly rising energy de-
mands. According to the International Energy Agency, the waste
production rate will be double or more over the next 20 years

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.03.010
2352-4847/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M.H. Siddiqi, X.-m. Liu, M.A. Hussain et al.
Fig. 1. Municipal solid waste generation per capita worldwide.
in low-income countries (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). The
abandoned dumping locations creating the serious hazard for the
atmosphere as well as surroundings in the densely populated
zones, hence, affecting the community health adversely (Farooq
and Kumar, 2013) . WTE policies, is a sustainable method to man-
age the municipal solid and in the new energy power solutions
for under-developed countries. MSW can convert the opportunity
to mitigate this matter through adapting the waste into valuable
energy as well as electricity.
1.1. Method of waste-to-energy
The energy from waste materials can be directly derived by
converting waste into biogas, syngas, or heat. The technolog-
ical method for converting energy from waste materials have
three categories that are physical, thermal and biological tech-
niques (CPCB, 2004; World Bank, 1999).
Physical method: In the physical method, waste is producing
additional appropriate, durable, and hand-able form that remains
as a fuel for more dispensation. Samples of mechanically derived
form are pellets, wood chips, as well as wood briquettes (re-
cycling increases the regular energy content of waste used to
produce electricity).
Thermal methods: In this procedure, the waste remains pre-
served as to produce heat that remains in the varied method.
Biological method: Biological behaviour is a method in which
microbes produce fuel by waste. Herein technique, waste remains
treated by the microorganism which interrupted the material in
the lack of oxygen.
From the last few decades, to resolve the problem of energy
and waste instantaneously, formed of refused derived fuel (RDF)
has become the area of interest for the researchers as one of the
WTE methods (Rada and Andreottola, 2012). It is more suitable
and well-organized to store, transport as well as handle RDF
than its parent MSW (Garg et al., 2007). Furthermore, a well-
segregated RDF has higher calorific value as well as excellent
combustion performance for its application as a fuel (Porsh-
nov et al., 2018). The usage of RDF in ‘mass burn’ technology
(incineration) and in ‘conversion’ technology (gasification and
pyrolysis) held full attention in the world (Çepeliogullar et al.,
2016). The usage of technology mentioned above is an effective
way to tackle with the MSW eco-friendly. Some of the earlier
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Energy Reports 7 (2021) 1757–1764
studies defined the thermal behaviour of numerous RDFs on the
basis of ultimate as well as proximate analysis and the outcomes
from these studies revealed that RDF samples contain the higher
volume of volatile matter as well as low fixed-carbon contents
than their parent MSW (Gug et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2013; Akdag
et al., 2016). Being a separated method of MSW, RDF releases the
inferior volume of destructive matters through decay progression
than raw MSW. The surrounding of the RDF production lines
perceived no toxic gases like HCl and SO2 on the production
site (Qin et al., 2004). The attentiveness of poisoning emissions
in RDF ignition was inferior to that for rural waste (Chyang
et al., 2009). These results encouraged to examine the thermal
behaviour as well as combustion features of the RDFs through the
solid-waste streams from diverse parts of Pakistan, to determine
their possible energy claims.
The aim of this study remains to examine the quality, environ-
mental as well as thermal behaviour of numerous RDFs based on
their configuration via Thermo-Gravimetric Analyzer (TGA) and
estimation of the energy potential of solid waste. The combustion
study of numerous samples was conceded to classify the best
configuration to achieve the objective. All data were observed to
find kinetic results from different methods — furthermore, energy
content realized by the calorific values of the RDF samples.
2. Methodology
2.1. Sample formation
Three RDF samples were selected from the Lahore, Pakistan.
The samples were named as RDF-I, RDF-II, and RDF-III and having
composition as follows, plastic/wood by 60/40%, plastic/cloth by
55/45% and plastic/wood/cloth by 40/30/30%, respectively. RDFs
are prepared using grinding mill and sieving in order to ensure
the homogeneity. The samples were first milled and then sieving
was done to obtain 0.3 mm size sample in powder from the pellet
of 38 mm diameter.
At the facility, MSW was treated in three lines. In the begin-
ning, the collected MSW was separated based on organic as well
as in-organic portions through transitory over trammel. The or-
ganic waste was used for composting, while the inorganic waste
was directed to the recovery unit for the exclusion of recyclable as
well as non-recyclables. Non-recyclable waste remained for fur-
ther processing to RDF. The Non-recyclable waste was crumpled
into small-sized elements subsequent the mixing zone. Diverse
M.H. Siddiqi, X.-m. Liu, M.A. Hussain et al.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of sample formation.
types of wastes were mixed in various extents to gain anticipated
qualities. In conclusion, the pellet of RDFs was moulded by adding
the molasses to attain the durable binding of the pellets. Fig. 2
shows the schematic diagram of making sample.
2.2. Apparatus and procedure
While doing proximate study, it was expected that fuel was
composed of fixed-carbon contents as well as volatile matters.
The moisture content of the RDF samples (one gram for each
sample) was determined through the oven, EYELA NDO 450-
ND (Tokyo) conferring to ASTM standard E790-08. Subsequently,
samples were oxidized in a muffle furnace, Lenton (South Korea)
at 550 and 750 ◦ C for two hours, in order to determine the volatile
and ash content respectively. These analyses were carried out
by following ASTM standard E897-88 and E830-87, respectively.
Finally, the fixed carbon was obtained by subtracting the propor-
tions of moisture, ash contents, and volatile from total amount of
samples.
The calorific values of the samples were recorded by bomb
calorimeter, LECO AC 500 (Germany). The technique assumed in
this study followed the ASTM E711-87 standard. Sample subse-
quently placing inside the steel-bath, was adjusted in the adi-
abatically insulated combustion chamber. The calorimeter was
calibrated by benzoic acid pellets process before preforming the
analysis.
The contents of C, N, O, S, and H in RDFs were determined
through the LECO 628 CHN-X analyser (Germany) following the
ASTM D-3176 standard. The samples were plunged in combustion
chamber at a temperature of around 950 ◦ C to determine C,
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Energy Reports 7 (2021) 1757–1764
H, and N simultaneously. In this analyser, there was an add-on
choice in order to examine the sulphur contents. To measure sul-
phur contents, the temperature of the chamber remained higher
up to 1350 ◦ C. The contents of O were determined by deducting
the C, H, N as well as the ash contents by the following using
Eq. (A).
C % + H% + N% + O% + Ash% = 100% (A)
Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out accord-
ing to ISO 11358-1 technique through SDT q600 TGA apparatus
(America). It provides the continuous measurement of sample
weight-loss as a function of temperature as well as time. This
tool also delivers differential thermo-gravimetric (DTG) spectra.
Samples considering around 15 mg were positioned in a pottery
crucible. Primarily, temperature was elevated and maintained at
25 ◦ C for 1 min. Afterward, the samples were heated to 950 ◦ C
through the heating-rate of 10 ◦ C /min and the dry-air flow of 40
ml/min.
2.3. Kinetic study
A comprehensive inspection of the individual thermal disin-
tegration results determines that the RDF-I describes the single
deep peak and reduce the extreme total of carbon contents. RDF-II
as well as RDF-III demonstrates the peak with an extensive range
of temperature owing to volatile matters. Generally, the thermal
deterioration is conveyed by the following equation:
dα
= kf (α ) (1)
dt
M.H. Siddiqi, X.-m. Liu, M.A. Hussain et al. Energy Reports 7 (2021) 1757–1764

Table 1
Proximate analysis of given and literature samples.
Sample Moisture content Volatile matters Fixed carbon Ash content References
Units % % % % –
Current data –
RDF-I 1.80 76.40 7.80 10.30 –
RDF-II 6.50 64.50 9.10 18.90 –
RDF-III 6.30 64.80 9.40 20.50 –
Literature data
RDF-1 25.00 90.00 1.15 10.00 Abdul et al. (2011)
RDF-2 4.29 61.94 7.49 26.29 Ahn et al. (2013)
RDF-3 4.00 77.80 9.90 12.30 Cozzani et al. (1995)
RDF-4 1.48 70.70 11.20 16.60 Fernandez et al. (2003)
RDF-5 8.10 79.20 12.70 9.10 Ferrer et al. (2005)
RDF-6 3.30 83.40 11.70 2.30 Khongkrapan et al. (2014)
RDF-7 41.67 46.26 2.37 9.70 Salamanca (2013)
RDF-8 30.40 46.10 7.30 16.20 Wang et al. (2014)

The dependent of temperature at the continuous rate is defined Mixing Eq. (4), then Eq. (8) is formed:
through the Arrhenius equation. ∫ a ∫ T
da A E
E
−( RT ) = g (a) = e− RT dT (8)
k = Ae (2) 0 fa β T◦

where ‘A’ is defined as the pre-exponential or frequency factor. Takings the logarithm of Eq. (8) and gives Eq. (9) as under,
The activation energy ‘E’ and ‘R’ is defined as universal gas con- (
β
) (
AR
)
E
stant as well as T represents an absolute temperature. Inserting ln = ln − (9)
Eq. (2) into Eq. (1) gives the following expression. T2 Eg (a) RT

dα By plotting the graph between the ln(β /T2 ) vs. 1/T , E could be
( )
E
− RT
= −Ae f (α ) (3) found by the function of the alteration or conversion degree.
dt
Hence Eq. (3) can be able to rewrite in non-isothermal condition,
3. Results & discussions
as under
dα A E 3.1. Ultimate and proximate analysis
= e−( RT ) (1 − α )n (4)
dT β
Consequently, Eq. (4) in particular, the material expands in the The TG and DTG curves demonstrated the behaviour of sam-
given time. Throughout this work, the activation energy (E) stood ples with noticeable parts for moisture contents release, de-
found as of the iso-thermal TGA. The processes used to calculate volatilization, as well as the degradation of char as shown in
kinetic features like the pre-exponential factor, activation energy Fig. 3(A). The pattern gives the moisture contents, the fixed-
as well as order of reaction was Arrhenius method and integral carbon, volatile matter, as well as ash contents. The ultimate and
method (Coats and Redfern) (Coats and Redfern, 1964). proximate outcomes are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The proxi-
mate analysis of RDFs demonstrated that volatile matter (VM)
Direct Arrhenius Method and ash were the key ingredients of entire samples. The volume
Here indirect method took natural logarithm of Eq. (4) then of volatile matter in RDF-I, RDF-II, and RDF-III was found to
subsequent expression is found to be: be 76.4, 64.5 and 64.8%, while ash content was measured as
dα 10.3%, 18.9%, and 20.5% respectively. The unusual volatile matter,
{ }
1 A E
ln × = ln − (5) fixed carbon and low ash in RDF-I than other RDFs; might be
(1 − α )n dT β RT
because of the presence of high content of plastics than other
where constituents (Qureshi et al., 2021). RDF-I showed the lowermost
1 dα 1 volume of gripping components in its configuration. Since, RDF-
Y = ln × , and X = I comprises of high concentration of volatile matters as well as
(1 − α )n dT T
minor moisture content, that effects in low-ignition temperature
Put in Eq. (5), then the expression will be and ignition can be done at a comparatively lower temperature
E than RDF-II as well as RDF-III (Ferrer et al., 2005; Li et al., 2017).
Y = ln A − X (6)
R All samples were display the different behaviour from each other
that have infrequent performances and consumed the valued
Freeman–Carroll method measure of fixed-carbon, oxygen contents, reasonable heating
Based on Eq. (4), a differential method for producing dynamic value, and outsized volatile matters (Siddiqi et al., 2020a). The
aspects is recognized. For simple and less time consumption, the results showed that these ingredients used the suitable heating
method frequently used to calculate the common kinetic factors value with higher volatiles, carbon as well as oxygen content. The
of polymer deterioration. Taking the log on each side of Eq. (1), proportional nitrogen contents, sulphur contents, and chlorine
the Freeman–Carroll equation is as under: remain marginal (Mehdi et al., 2020).
∆ ln
( dα )
∆
(1) The contents of hydrogen in all RDF samples remained rela-
dT E T
=− × +n (7) tively lower than the earlier described RDFs as shown in Table 2.
∆ ln(1 − α ) R ∆ ln (1 − α) Nevertheless, slightly innovative hydrogen contents were exist-
Through illustration the graph among ∆ln(dα /dT)/∆ln(1 − α ) ing in RDF-I. Hydrogen produced water through ignition that
with ∆(1/T )/∆ln(1 − α ), the ‘E’ and ‘n’ would be the intercept wants to be removed from the furnace (Beckers, 2010). Nitrogen
and slope of the regression line, consistently, later the Arrhenius oxide (NOX ) is the primary source of pollution, acid rain and
factor ‘A’ can be extracted from Eq. (4). the creation of particulate matter (PM) in atmosphere (Porshnov
1760
M.H. Siddiqi, X.-m. Liu, M.A. Hussain et al.
Fig. 3. (A) TG Profile on the thermal degradation, where Combustion TG and
DTG profile (B) RDF-I (C) RDF-II (D) RDF-III.
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Energy Reports 7 (2021) 1757–1764
et al., 2018). Consequently, its attention in RDFs would be as low
as abundant likely for the health-friendly atmosphere (Siddiqi
et al., 2020b). The ultimate analysis exposed that all the RDFs
used in current study have minor nitrogen content as compared
to the other described RDFs samples from literature in Table 2.
However, RDF-I has a lower volume of nitrogen and lesser chance
of generating NOX for the duration of ignition than other RDFs.
Sulphur is a critical constituent of RDFs and accountable for the
scaling as well as fouling. The existence of sulphur content in
RDF-II & RDF-III may be owing to the textile and wood waste in
the configurations of these RDFs (Grammelis et al., 2009). RDF-I
might present the cost-effective and eco-friendly solutions for the
waste-to-energy adaptation in a way that no sulphur productions
control will be needed.
Calorific values for RDF-I, RDF-II & RDF-III are 5278, 4845,
and 4598 Kcal/Kg, respectively. Meanwhile, plastics have more
considerable heat of ignition owed to their steady assembly of
chemical bonding and inferior oxygen content (Salamanca, 2013).
In addition, the increased calorific value of RDF-I is perhaps due to
the occurrence of plastics (Salamanca, 2013). From Tables 1 and
2, it is clear that all the RDFs used in recent study and specially
RDF-I has the specific caloric value (as per industrial level) when
relating to the literature data. The maximum calorific value of
RDF-I supports the full ignition that results in valuable heat
production as compared to the RDF-II and RDF-III. The ultimate
and proximate analysis results are reliable concluded that noted
by Sanchez-Silva et al. (2012), Yang et al. (2016) who recognized
that once the significant ash contents reduced, then their volatile
contents altered. Furthermore, elimination of ash eliminates the
severe problems related to the existence of unusual inorganic
matters. For example, slagging, agglomeration, deposition as well
as heated erosion in the thermo-chemical method.
3.2. Combustion characteristics
Thermal stability, as well as decomposition of samples, are
determined with thermo-gravimetric analysis to understand the
modification in mass. Deformation of RDF samples is shown in
Fig. 3(B, C, D). The DTG curves of RDFs contain peaks and carries
for the mass-loss in different sections. As of 0 ◦ C to 150 ◦ C, the de-
hydrating stage, in which entirely the moisture and low number
of volatile matters, were removed. Subsequently, the vaporization
of the moisture content, the first zone initiates where the de-
volatilization of RDFs acquired up to 380 ◦ C. In the next zone,
carbon degradation happened because of char-combustion. From
the TG curve, it was examined that RDF-I has the lowermost
moisture contents and can endure more significant time to con-
sume massive heat to volatile, because of the sharpness of the
curve is smaller than that of RDF-II and RDF-III.
These outcomes strengthen the results founded through the
proximate analysis. Throughout the combustion, the main disin-
tegration of RDFs remained between 200 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C. Primarily,
the constituents of RDFs having lower melting-point alike cel-
lulose were cooked monitored through the complex organics
as identical to lignin Li et al. (2017, 2015). From DTG analysis
of RDFs, it can be perceived that the peak and its period rise
because of the considerable number of plastic contents in the
RDF. It can be realized that RDF-I has further noticeable DTG
curve at 200 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C than other RDFs, possibly caused by the
general exclusion of hemicellulose (Grammelis et al., 2009; Yang
et al., 2016). RDF-II & RDF-III had revealed sharp peaks at specific
temperatures although while RDF-I was activated constantly. In
addition, it was observed that the creation of peaks and shoulders
are smaller in quantity than formerly described RDFs (Akdag
et al., 2016; Li et al., 2017, 2015). The presence of the shoulders as
well as peaks, recognize the existence of various volatile matter
M.H. Siddiqi, X.-m. Liu, M.A. Hussain et al. Energy Reports 7 (2021) 1757–1764

Table 2
Ultimate analysis of given and literature samples.
Sample Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen Sulphur Nitrogen N.C.V References
Units % % % % % K.cal/Kg –
Current data –
RDF-I 54.22 19.42 4.42 0.00 0.64 5278 –
RDF-II 39.56 34.61 3.52 0.24 1.80 4845 –
RDF-III 35.12 40.00 3.69 0.22 1.40 4598 –
Literature data
RDF-1 60.00 30.00 1.50 0.10 4.00 4200 Abdul et al. (2011)
RDF-2 28.04 21.51 3.68 0.12 0.78 5211 Ahn et al. (2013)
RDF-3 45.90 33.70 6.80 n.d 1.10 3922 Cozzani et al. (1995)
RDF-4 43.50 31.30 6.10 0.60 0.90 4491 Fernandez et al. (2003)
RDF-5 54.20 37.00 8.00 0.15 0.67 4923 Ferrer et al. (2005)
RDF-6 48.10 45.40 6.30 n.d 0.21 4971 Khongkrapan et al. (2014)
RDF-7 57.06 18.00 7.60 32.67 1.64 4875 Salamanca (2013)
RDF-8 44.00 31.14 6.80 0.06 1.00 6429 Wang et al. (2014)

Table 3
Kinetics parameters calculated by given method.
Items Symbol Units Combustion analysis
RDF-I RDF-II RDF-III
First zone Second zone First zone Second zone First zone Second zone
Activation energy E KJ/mol 92.19 112.71 71.08 93.94 68.87 89.24
Frequency factor A 1/min 25.25 22.74 25.21 22.70 24.55 28.59
Co-relation R2 0.99924 0.99861 0.99829 0.99952 0.99799 0.99942
co-efficient

portions in RDF samples during decay as well as combustion.
While the temperature and rate of ignition of altered forms of
volatile matters in RDFs are close to each other, fewer peaks stand
formed, which might be the situation apparent in all the RDFs
used in the present study (Piao et al., 2000; Siddiqi et al., 2018;
Mehdi and Siddiqi, 2020).
Additionally, the peak appeared to be the thermal poverty of
RDFs in the combination (Yuzbasi and Selçuk, 2011). The break-
ing of plastic particles was simulated by high temperatures be-
cause of its volatile matters as well as durable bonding of carbon
atoms. Similarly, the degradation leads to a shift in the low-
temperature section as displayed in DTG curves as a significance
of high volatiles and weak bonding energy (Mehdi et al., 2020;
Siddiqi et al., 2020b). The section to weight degradation, the
configuration and CO2 creation acts like diluting gas at low tem-
perature (Yuzbasi and Selçuk, 2011). The formation of carbon
dioxide, the environment motivated to the low-temperature zone
as oxygen controlled speedily burning and having chance to the
creation of carbon dioxide. The higher quantity of char ignition in
the oxygen atmosphere with more than 99% volume, is overdue to
the accessibility of carbon dioxide in the red-hot environment (Li
et al., 2009). Slightly Sulphur holding gases like SO2 and COS are
also produced in the oxygen atmosphere.
On the other hand, the diluting gases of plastic had not any
effect on combustion. The results of combustion performance
of all samples lie in the range of combustion performances of
literature fuel. Frequently, combustion outlines, establish the par-
allel trend by slight distinction as a result of alteration in the
configuration of the given samples — the weighted poverty trend
practical earlier than as expected which presented the favourable
impression to integration. Furthermore, results are fluctuating in
distinctive temperatures like burn-out and ignition temperature,
that showed the interface of the fuel constituents as shown in
Fig. 3(B, C, D). TGA showed that ignition of RDF with plastic–
cloth–wood sawdust happens in two phases, relating preliminary
ignition of volatile constituents, after that ignition of residual and
made char at high temperature (Mehdi and Siddiqi, 2020). By
adding of constituent’s alike plastic, cloth and wood, give varied
sludge fuels that enhanced the ignition profile and burnout fea-
tures of the RDF and condenses their SO2 production, convoyed by
1762
a rise in NOx production. Interfaces between discrete constituents
support ignition of volatiles, subsequent in an increased discharge
of SO2 and NOx (Siddiqi et al., 2020a).
The higher amount of weight-loss was noted for RDF-I with
temperature, which means that under similar circumstances for
combustion, RDF-I has more thermal degradation than RDF-II
and RDF-III. Thermal degradation describes the energy content
of the burning fuel; as higher the thermal degradation ratio,
additional heat will be formed through combustion (Siddiqi et al.,
2020b; Wang et al., 2014). Throughout TGA analysis, the lower-
most ash content of RDF-I was detected because of its extreme
weight-loss under assumed ignition conditions. Ash is unsolicited
& un-avoidable by-product, and its lower quantity might upsurge,
the heat transfer efficiency of the boiler.
3.3. Kinetic analysis
The consequence estimation of constituent’s mixture on the
ignition structures, the Freeman–Carroll procedure was adopted
to develop for complete understanding of the kinetic behaviour of
RDFs. The weight drops for the proposed samples was measured
with, Arrhenius kinetic factors of the combustion method, as
shown in Table 3. First and second zone illustrate in Table 3,
the activation energy values were depended to the weight drop
segments of volatile as well as char-combustion, consistently.
Intended for the ignition, the weight drop ensues in two zones,
e.g., for volatile as well as char-combustion and later two zones
of activation energy values by finding the slope between ln(β /T 2 )
and 1/T as shown in Fig. 4(A, B, C) for RDF-I, RDF-II and RDF-III, re-
spectively. Usually, kinetic studies are carried under iso-thermal
conditions. Similar to this situation, can be obtained overheating
on a constant-rate and through efficient operational settings in a
thermo-gravimetric analyser (Arenillas, 2001). A modern kinetic
study was completed presuming the single-step method, to settle
reactivity differences.
From the DTG performance curve, the adaptability in the sec-
ond zone as relates to the first zone affected which conceited
the weight degradation rate, and thus affected the interval of
temperature used in designs. Some researchers had investigated
M.H. Siddiqi, X.-m. Liu, M.A. Hussain et al.
Fig. 4. Graph between (1/T ) and (ln(β /T 2 ) (A) RDF-I (B) RDF-II (C) RDF-III for
combustion at n = 1.
the activation energy values depend on the various factors, such
as, the interval of temperature, the procedure of mathematical
analysis, ignition performances, and numerous others. Thus, the
literature proposes an extensive diversity of activation energy
results. Table 3 validates the conclusion of kinetic factors and
the comparable correlation factor R2 proposed by the Freeman–
Carroll procedure (Siddiqi et al., 2020b). The results showed that,
the ignition of samples and the weight decay might be complete
in two sections through E about (68.866 to 92.188) kJ/mol for
the first zone as well as (89.242 to 112.71) KJ/mol for the second
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Energy Reports 7 (2021) 1757–1764
zone, respectively. As shown in the results, the RDFs can drop
the rate of E through the early phase of ignition, while it can
recover the value of E over the crucial ignition phase. These
results reinforced improved ignition structures and the overdue
ignition procedure (as publicized in Table 3). Also, an enhanced
percentage of volatiles in the sample was associated with an
advanced consistent of E (Mehdi and Siddiqi, 2020).
The kinetic process revealed the presence of plastic leads to
higher activation energy compared to both cloth and wood, there-
fore a representative of rise in the energy barrier for ignition of
RDFs. The iso-thermal study showed that the ignition procedures
of RDFs could be separated into three intervals, i.e., diffusion, in-
terfacial reaction and nucleation methods, which occur mutually,
or separately. The current research applied the TG methodology
to demonstrate that ignition of sludge-based RDF is a smart
choice for biowaste co-disposal, which might agree to for energy
retrieval as well as drop-in gas impurities. It is the first time that
micro-reactions arising throughout the ignition procedure have
been examined using iso-thermal method to disclose complete
kinetics triplets for RDFs composed of plastic, wood and cloth.
4. Conclusion
Main purpose of this study was to use the local municipal solid
waste in the form of RDF for possible energy generation with
low emissions. For all RDFs, decay happened in the preliminary
phases (gas phase) because of the high volume of volatile mat-
ter as associated with the fixed-carbon contents. Nevertheless,
RDF-I had the maximum volatile portion as well as lower ash
content as compared to other samples. The potential of RDF-I
to be envisioned for energy application was enhanced because
of the existence of the advanced sum of carbon and hydrogen.
Furthermore, no sulphur content was present in RDF-I which is
encouraging from environmental perspective. The high calorific
value obtained which attribute to additional carbon content as
compared to the other samples. However, calorific values of en-
tirely RDFs inspected in recent research had the appropriate for
industrial ignition applications. RDF-I had the maximum retain-
ing time and have activation energy under the pre-determined
conditions for the perseverance of incineration as well as weight
loss respectively.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Muhammad Hamid Siddiqi: Conceptualisation, Methodology,
Writing - original draft. Xiao-min Liu: Supervision, Writing -
review & editing. Muhammad Asif Hussain: Experimental help,
Writing - review & editing. Tayyab Qureshi: Data curation, Inves-
tigation. Muhammad Waqas: Data curation, Validation. Muham-
mad Farooq: Experiment supervision. Tanveer Iqbal: Supervi-
sion. Saba Nawaz: Validation. Saher Nawaz: Sample formations.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Department of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiao-
tong University, Xi’an, China, is acknowledged for their techni-
cal and financial support. University of Engineering and Tech-
nology, Lahore, Pakistan, NIBGE-Faisalabad, Pakistan, are also
acknowledged for their technical and experimental support.
M.H. Siddiqi, X.-m. Liu, M.A. Hussain et al.
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