Cross-curricular subject

Comunicación Profesional en Inglés

Unit 5. Relative sentences, discourse markers and formal letters

Unit 5. Relative sentences, discourse markers and formal letters........................................... 3

1. Content ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.1. Relative sentences ................................................................................................. 4

1.1.1. Relative pronouns and relative adverbs ............................................................... 4

1.1.2. Use ................................................................................................................. 6

1.1.3. Relative clauses: types ...................................................................................... 7

1.1.4. When to omit the relative pronoun in defining relative sentences ............................ 8

1.2. Independent / Dependent Clauses ............................................................................ 9

1.2.1. What is a clause? .............................................................................................. 9

1.2.2. Independent Clauses ....................................................................................... 10

1.2.3. Dependent Clauses ......................................................................................... 12

1.3. Discourse markers ............................................................................................... 12

1.4. Formal letters: cover letters or letters of application ................................................. 15

1.4.1. Layout ........................................................................................................... 17

Layout (II) .............................................................................................................. 19

Layout (III) ............................................................................................................. 20

2. Summary ................................................................................................................. 22

3. Conceptual map ........................................................................................................ 23

4. References ............................................................................................................... 24

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Unit 5. Relative sentences, discourse markers and formal
letters
This unit includes the following contents:

• Relative sentences
• Discourse markers
• How to write a cover letter

In this unit you will learn:

• How to link independent and dependent sentences in English.

• How to improve your writing skills in English in order to make a text more readable and
attractive.
• General tips to write a good formal letter in English.

As usual, along with the unit, you will find examples and activities to help you take in all the
content dealt with in this unit.

Language is the blood of the soul into which thoughts run and out of which they
grow.

Oliver Wendell Holmes

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1. Content

1.1. Relative sentences

Relative sentences are sentences including a relative clause; that is, the part of a sentence
introduced by a relative pronoun. Relative clauses are used to join two related sentences together,
usually to define or to provide additional information about something.

Figure 1. Grammar.

1.1.1. Relative pronouns and relative adverbs

Relative pronouns and relative adverbs are used to link sentences or clauses. The resulting
structure contains a main clause and a subordinate clause:

This is the house that Jack built.

Main clause: This is the house…

Subordinate clause: …that Jack built.

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They are pronouns because they replace a noun:

This is the house that Jack built. = Jack built the house.

Figure 2. House.

The RELATIVE PRONOUNS and their function within the sentence (that is, the function the name
they are replacing would have) are:

Subject Object Possessive

Who Whom, Who Whose

Which Which Whose

That That

WHO and WHOM are used to refer to people:

I told you about the woman who lives next door.

I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.

WHICH is used to refer to people, animals or things:

The book, which I read last night, was exciting.

THAT is used to refer to people, animals or things.

I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.

The person that I told you about.

WHOSE indicates possession:

Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?

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RELATIVE ADVERBS provide information about time, place and reason or cause. They replace the
more formal structure PREPOSITION + WHICH used to introduce a relative clause:

Adverb Meaning

When Time

Where Place

why reason, cause

The day when we met him…The day in which we met him…

The place where we met him…The place at/in which we met him…

The reason why we met him…The reason for which we met him…

1.1.2. Use
Relative pronouns are used to introduce relative clauses.

Find below some rules to use them correctly:

• After a noun, to clarify which person, animal or thing we are talking about:

The book that Mary wrote.

The first woman who travelled into space.

This is the dog that barked all night long.

• To provide additional information about a person, animal or thing:

My brother, who was born in Mexico, has always been enthusiastic about Mexican food.

We had paella, which is my favourite meal.

• THAT can never be used as a subject in this kind of relative clauses:

We had paella, that is my favourite meal.

• WHOSE is the possessive form of WHO:

This is Mary, whose mother was my teacher in primary school.

• WHOM can be used as the object of a verb or preposition:

This is Barbara’s sister, with whom I went to school.

• But nowadays this use of WHOM is considered to be rather formal and WHO is normally
used instead:

This is Barbara’s sister, who I went to school with.

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 • When WHOM or WHICH are together with a preposition, the preposition can be placed at
the beginning of the sentence…

I had an aunt in Spain, from who[m] I inherited a bit of money.

We bought an axe, with which we cut up all the wood.

• … or at the end of the sentence:

I had an aunt in Spain, who I inherited a bit of money from.

We bought an axe, which we cut up all the wood with.

• We can use THAT at the beginning of the sentence:

I had an aunt in Spain that I inherited a bit of money from.

We bought an axe that we cut up all the wood with.

1.1.3. Relative clauses: types

There are two types of relative clauses: DEFINING and NON-DEFINING.

• Defining relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun.

Look at this example:

The man who lives next door works in a hospital.

‘Who lives next door’ is a DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE. It provides essential information about
the man we are talking about. We would not know what man it is if we didn’t have that
information.

Have a look at some more examples:

Look there! There’s the cat that bit my brother.

The documentary that we saw last week was amazing.

The defining relative sentences here tell us which cat, and which documentary we are talking
about.

• NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES provide additional information on something but

do not define it. We use WHO, WHOM, WHOSE, and WHICH (but not THAT) in non-defining
relative clauses to give us more information about a person or thing.

Here you have some examples:

Nicholas’s mother, who lives in Ireland, has 6 grandchildren.

Gorillas, which originate in Uganda, are on the verge of extinction.

I’ve just come back from the Netherlands, where my parents live.

If the non-defining relative sentence were omitted from the sentence, it would still be
grammatically correct and the meaning would remain the same. Non-defining relative clauses are
written between commas or parentheses.

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Never use THAT in non-defining relative sentences.

Figure 3. English.

In short:

In defining relative sentences, the information given is essential to understand the sentence:

They helped a girl who was injured. (If we omit the relative sentence we will miss a
fundamental part to understand the meaning of the whole sentence).

In non-defining relative sentences, the information is not vital to understand the sentence, it
just gives extra information. This information appears between commas:

The Parliament, which was built in the 16th century, is an important national
monument. (We can omit the sentence between the commas without losing any vital
information).

1.1.4. When to omit the relative pronoun in defining relative sentences

In some situations, you can find defining relative sentences without the relative pronoun.

• When the relative pronoun is also the subject of the relative clause, it must appear in the
sentence:

That is the girl that got the award.

(The relative pronoun THAT relates to THE GIRL and it is the subject of the relative sentence).

We visited our grandmother who was in hospital.

(The relative pronoun WHO relates to OUR GRANDMOTHER and it is the subject of the relative
sentence).

• When the relative pronoun is not the subject of the relative sentence (there is a different
subject), it can be omitted:

That is the girl that he married - That is the girl X he married.

(The relative pronoun THAT relates to THE GIRL, who is not the subject of the relative clause
in this sentence. HE is the subject of the relative sentence and therefore, THAT can be
omitted).

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 The man whom I met yesterday is 99 years old - The man X I met yesterday is 99 years old.

(The relative pronoun WHOM relates to THE MAN, who is not the subject of the relative
sentence. The sentence of the subject is I and, therefore, WHOM can be omitted).

Figure 4. W-questions.

1.2. Independent / Dependent Clauses

1.2.1. What is a clause?

A clause is a part of a sentence. There are two main types of clauses: independent or main clauses
and dependent or subordinate clauses.

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1.2.2. Independent Clauses

Note

Conjunctive adverbs can be used to link sentences or as adverbs:

Joe had an upset stomach. Accordingly, he took antacid tablets.

(Here ACCORDINGLY links both sentences).

I knew the test would be hard, so I planned accordingly to study for several hours.

(Here ACCORDINGLY is used as an adverb because it does not link sentences. SO is the
conjunction linking the two sentences here).

An INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is a complete sentence: it contains a subject, a verb and maybe some
complements. It is a whole unit of meaning.

Two or more independent clauses can be joined by a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION or a

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB to form compound sentences.

• If we take two independent clauses we can join them like this:

Clause 1: The window opened abruptly.

Clause 2: The baby got scared.

Compound sentence: The window opened abruptly AND the baby got scared.

• The following chart lists the most common types of conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs:

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 Coordinating conjunctions

Conjunctions Conjunctive adverbs

And Accordingly

But Again

For In fact

Nor Instead

Or Also

So Likewise

Yet, etc. Besides

Consequently

Moreover

For example

However

Then

Otherwise, etc.

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1.2.3. Dependent Clauses

Remember

Relative pronouns and adverbs also link independent and dependent sentences.

A dependent or subordinate clause is part of a sentence, it contains a subject and a verb but it is
not a complete unit of meaning. It needs to be joined to the main sentence in order to have
complete meaning:

The door closed BECAUSE it was very windy.

SUPPOSING that I said “yes”-would that surprise you?

THOUGH it was dark outside, they went for a walk.

She brings flowers WHENEVER she comes to see us.

I don't know HOW to understand her comments.

Dependent clauses usually need a subordinate conjunction. The following chart lists some of the
most common subordinating conjunctions:

Subordinating conjunctions

After Since Unless

Although So that Whenever

As Supposing Whereas

Because Than Wherever

Before That Whether

If So While

In order that Though Even tough

How Until / Till Etc.

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1.3. Discourse markers

Did you know…?

Discourse markers are essential to structure and organise the messages you create
coherently and cohesively. Also, as the British Council affirms: “Discourse markers are an
important feature of both formal and informal native speaker language. The skilful use of
discourse markers often indicates a higher level of fluency and an ability to produce and
understand authentic language.” So you must learn to use them whenever you speak or write
in English.

Note

You will probably notice that some of the discourse markers were also listed as subordinating
conjunctions. Some of them can be used as connectors, linking dependent sentences, or as
markers, introducing messages, paragraphs or sentences.

DISCOURSE MARKERS, also called CONNECTORS, LINKING WORDS or LINKING PHRASES, show
how one part of a text is related to another by providing a transition. They are also used to
structure (spoken or written) texts, indicating when the speaker has moved from one part of the
message to another.

Figure 5. Structure.

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 Travel

Listen to the following BBC podcast to find out how discourse markers work in practice. Then
you can do this activity by Oxford University Press for extra practice.

One of the main problems when speaking or writing in a foreign language is that the non-native
speaker lacks fluency as a result of misuse of discourse markers.

Let’s consider the following example:

I have seen many bears in zoos. This one near me, my dinner, and my tent gave me a
clear picture. He looked disarmingly cute as he walked toward us. Peter removed a few
things from the site and went quickly into the tent. I looked for my camera.

Now, let’s see how it improves thanks to the use of appropriate discourse markers:

ALTHOUGH I have seen many bears in zoos, SOMEHOW seeing this one near me, my
dinner, and my tent gave me a clearer picture THAN I had before. AT THIS MOMENT, the
bear looked disarmingly cute as he walked toward us. But Peter removed a few things
from the site, and THEN he went quickly into the tent. MEANWHILE, I looked for my
camera.

The result is, as you can see, a richer and better written text.

Here you have a chart with some relevant discourse markers, grouped according to their meaning
or function:

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 Adding Sequencing Illustrating Cause-effect

and first, second, third… for example because

also before such as so

as well as after for instance therefore

moreover during in the case of thus

too every time as consequently

furthermore next like hence

additionally the next day thus as a result

in addition to then then

etc. meanwhile with respect to

all of a sudden etc.

suddenly

then

subsequently

finally

etc.

Comparing Summarising Contrasting Emphasising

similarly in short but above all

equally on the whole however in particular

likewise in other words nevertheless specially

in the same way in sum in contrast significantly

as with after all on the one hand… indeed

either…or in general …on the other hand notably

neither…nor in brief rather specifically

etc. in conclusion unlike

all in all whereas

otherwise

etc.

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1.4. Formal letters: cover letters or letters of application

Did you know…?

A covering letter, or cover letter, is a letter that goes with another letter, a CV, a package,
etc. to give additional information or to introduce your delivery. It has to be short and provide
very basic information.

Figure 6. Letter.

Travel

For more detailed tips on how to write formal letters, check the following YouTube link Writing
Letters: Formal and Informal English.

Below are some tips for you to bear in mind when writing a formal letter (letter of complaint, of
application, references, etc.)

• Be concise, short and relevant: a formal letter should not be three pages long; the
addressee may easily not even bother to read it. A formal letter must take just a few
minutes to read. Go straight to the point avoiding unnecessary information. Also, avoid
flowery language or sentences that are too long. Try not to repeat the information given
in additional documents such as your CV and keep it to essential facts.
• Avoid grammar or spelling mistakes: mistakes create a very bad impression,
particularly in job application letters. Do not rush the letter and check your grammar,
punctuation, and spelling several times before you send it. If you are unsure about any
potential mistake, get someone else to check it for you if necessary. You can use the
spellchecker on your computer, but remember that it is not programmed to detect every
single mistake and most grammar mistakes may pass undetected, so also use a good
dictionary and grammar book.

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 • Be polite and use the right register: it is very important to use the right language
register in a formal document. Avoid colloquial expressions or slang, contractions, vague
words such as nice, good, get, etc., or subjective language. You must sound polite and
respectful but try to avoid being old-fashioned or baroque. Remember you can always use
modal verbs to sound more polite.
• Well presented: if you are sending a hard copy of the letter, use good quality paper and
avoid stains. Use the appropriate layout (margins, centred text, etc.), make sure names
are correctly spelt and do not forget to sign at the end!

1.4.1. Layout
Consider the layout of the following sample cover letter. Every section is preceded by a number.
Check the numbers below for an explanation of each section of a formal letter, along with the
main features.

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 (1) 12, Kenmore Road

Littletown

LT12 9BH

(2) 1st December 2001

(3) Mr G. Sands

Business First

Lake Road

Littletown

LT1 5MX

(4) Dear Mr. Sands

(5) Re: Business consultant FF/32

(6) I am writing to apply for the job of business consultant, as advertised in Thursday's Courant.
This is an ideal job for me given my enthusiasm for the corporate world, my related experience
and qualifications.

Business and finance training have always been important to me, which is why I chose to take
a MA in Business Management. I obtained distinctions in the Auditing and Financial
management modules last year and am confident that I will get similar marks in Cost and
management accounting, Organisational behaviour, and Economics this year. I am a confident
user of Microsoft Office 2000 and have worked extensively with Business Publisher, a program
for analysing business.

As you can see from my CV, I've taken the opportunity to gain extra qualifications that were
on offer at college, which has helped me get part-time work as an account manager assistant.
I'm called on to provide cover during busy times so I am used to working irregular hours at
short notice. I've also run a financial advice club at college since the start of this year.

I finish college in six weeks and am keen to find a job rather than carry on with further full-
time study. I could start any part time work or training sooner as many of my classes are
finishing and most of my assignments are done.

(7) I look forward to hearing from you.

(8) Yours sincerely

(9) [Signature]

(10) Louise Longford

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Layout (II)

Travel

Writing a formal letter can always be difficult because there are many types of formal letters
and also many circumstances in which you may need to write one. It is always advisable to
get some help by checking the numerous webs that provide you with a good selection of
samples of formal letters. Here you have an example: British Council ESOL Nexus.

Now, let’s go through the different parts of the above letter following the number for each section:

(1) Your address (return address) but not your name should be written in the top
right-hand corner of the letter. You can include your phone number and email but it is not
compulsory.

(2) The recipient’s address (the person you are writing to) should be written on the
left, starting below your address. Whenever possible, address the letter to a specific
person.

Did you know…?

Americans usually write dates with the following format: month – day – year; whereas British
write them just like us: day – month – year.

Example:

14th April 2016 = 14/04/2016 (British)

April 14th 2016 = 04/14/2016 (American)

(3) The position of the date is more flexible. It can be placed on the left or the right,
usually below the addressee’s details. The format of the date is also flexible; it could be
written 5 April 2003, 5th April 2003, 5/4/03 or 05/04/03.

(4) The greeting depends on whether or not you have the name of the person. If you do,
write:

Dear Mr + last name (for a man).

Dear Mrs + last name (for a married woman).

Dear Miss + last name (for a single woman).

Dear Ms + last name (it does not indicate the marital status of a woman and it is better
if you want to avoid the sexist connotations of Mrs and Miss).

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 If the person has a specific title, use it: Dear Dr Smith.

If you don’t know the name or gender of the person, write Dear Sir/Madam.

(5) It is common to write the subject of the letter directly below the greeting. This
would be in bold or underlined. The purpose is to give the reader an idea of what the letter
is about before reading it, and to be able to pass it on to a more appropriate person if
necessary.

(6) The content of your letter must be written in short, clear and well-organised
paragraphs.

(7) It is common to end your letter with a phrase such as I look forward to hearing
from you, although it is not compulsory to include it.

(8) To end the letter, you would normally write Yours sincerely if you have started the
letter with the name of the person, or Yours faithfully if you have started with Dear
Sir/Madam.

(9) Sign your name directly below and (10) Write your name and surname(s) in full
below.

Layout (III)
More tips on how to write a cover letter

• Organise your letter in clear paragraphs.

• Start by explaining who you are and why you are writing (1st paragraph).
• Then write one paragraph per point addressed in the letter (explaining your qualities and
why you are a good candidate or the job).
• Finish your sentences with the usual expressions:

Do not hesitate to contact me should you require further information.

I look forward to hearing from you at your earliest convenience.

Yours faithfully/sincerely,

Useful vocabulary

Opening:

Dear Mr / Ms / Mrs

Paragraphs:

Following your recent advertisement in....

I would like to apply for the position/job of...

At present, currently...

I obtained a degree in.....

I am available for an interview....

I’m familiar with…

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 I can speak English fluently.

I would say my strengths / my weaknesses are....

I have previous experience in.....

I have good interpersonal / presentation / communication / negotiation skills...

Closing:

Do not hesitate to contact me should you require more information.

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Yours faithfully, (if you started with Dear Sir or Madam)

Yours sincerely, (If you started with Dear + last name)

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2. Summary
By the end of this unit, you should have learnt to properly use relative sentences, and be familiar
with typical features, such as the cases in which the relative pronoun can be omitted. You will
also be able to tell the difference between dependent and independent clauses, their
characteristics and functions. Moreover, you have gained a good insight into different types of
coordinating and subordinating conjunctions used to link independent and dependent sentences
respectively. As for discourse markers, they can be described as the “glue” that binds together a
message, making the different parts of the text “stick together”. Without sufficient discourse
markers in a piece of writing, a text would not seem logically constructed and the connections
between the different sentences and paragraphs would not be obvious. Hence, this section of the
unit is crucial to effectively communicate in English. You also know all the features and necessary
tips to draft a good cover letter (or any other kind of formal letter).

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3. Conceptual map

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4. References

Main resources

Aarts, B. (2011). Oxford Modern English Grammar. Oxford: OUP Oxford.

Cohen, E. (2012). Discourse Markers: Cotext and Context Sensitivity. Saarbrücken: Lambert.

Garner, B. (2013). Legal Writing in Plain English. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Murphy, R. (2012). English Grammar in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Singleton, K. (2003). Reported Speech. Barcelona: Stanley.

Teng, S. A. (2013). English Grammar: The Verb Tenses. Phnom Penh, Cambodia: Sam Ang
Teng Editor.

Warden, C.A.,& Chen, J.F. (2014). Quick English Sentences: Writing Effective Sentences and
Paragraphs. Kindle version.

Wesley-Kennedy, W. (2012). Effective English and Letter Writing: A Practical Drill in the
Principles. London:Forgotten Books.

Additional resources

Pearson Longman (2007). Longman English Business Dictionary. London: Pearson.

Cambridge University. (2012). Cambridge Essential English Dictionary. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Collins Dictionaries. (2012). Collins Gem. Diccionario inglés: (español-inglés, inglés- español).
Barcelona: Grijalbo.

Collins Dictionaries. (2014). Collins English Dictionary. London: HarperCollins.

Other resources

BBC Learning English. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/.

British Council: ESOL Nexus.

<http://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/learners/skills/writing/writing-formal-letter>.

IELTS General Writing: Informal Letter. <http://ielts-simon.com/ielts-help-and-english-

pr/2013/11/ielts-general-writing-informal-letter.html>.

Oxford Language Dictionaries Online. < https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ >.

University of Warwick. Learning English Online. Discourse markers. <

https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al-archive/leap/grammar/discourse/sample1/>.

Wordreference. com. < http://www.wordreference.com/>.

Using English.com: Formal letters. < http://www.usingenglish.com/resources/letter-

writing.php>.

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Writing Letters: Formal & Informal English. <
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgwmAUJx248>.

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