Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 294 (2020) 106881

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Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment

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Identifying and estimating soil erosion and sedimentation in small karst T

watersheds using a composite fingerprint technique
Zihao Caoa, Zhuodong Zhanga, Keli Zhanga,*, Xin Weia, Shizhen Xiaob, Zhicheng Yanga
a
State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resources Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
b
School of Karst Science, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The highly heterogeneous surface environment and subsurface conduit network in karst areas make estimating
Soil erosion soil erosion extremely complicated. Sediment fingerprint techniques have been successfully applied in soil
Composite fingerprint technique erosion research in karst areas as a new way to more effectively collect information on soil loss. However, few
137
Cs sediment fingerprint factors, most of which are based on radioactive fallout tracers, such as 137Cs and/or 210Pb,
Magnetic susceptibility
have been used in existing studies. The soil loss rate estimated by these fingerprint factors varies greatly among
Karst watershed
different watersheds. To clearly identify the sedimentary sequence, to estimate the changes in soil erosion in
recent years, and to relate the soil erosion process to rocky desertification, a composite sediment fingerprint
technique is used in this study. Two typical watersheds with peak clusters and depressions and with different
degrees of rock desertification were selected, and sediment cores were extracted from the depressions to measure
changes in 137Cs, magnetic susceptibility, soil organic carbon (SOC) and sediment particle composition at dif-
ferent depths. The results indicated that the soil loss rates in the Liaojiawodang (LJWD) and Dajutang (DJT)
watersheds showed a fluctuating decrease from 1954 to July 2018. The severe soil erosion in the periods of
1954–1963，1963–1970 and 1976–1986 was mainly caused by large-scale reclamation and deforestation. In
addition, heavy rainfall in 1983 and 1991 might have played a significant role in the soil loss in the DJT
watershed in 1978–1986 and in the LJWD watershed in 1986–2000, respectively. The construction of agri-
cultural terraces several decades ago and the implementation of the Closing Mountains for Forest Cultivation,
Grain for Green and Poverty Alleviation projects in recent years to improve the ecological environment have
effectively alleviated the soil erosion in the studied watersheds. Over the past 60 years, soil loss in the LJWD and
DJT watersheds decreased by approximately 89 % and 87 %, respectively. In karst areas, rocky desertification
and soil erosion do not exhibit identical trends. Because of severe rocky desertification, the soil erosion in the
LJWD watershed was significantly less than that in the DJT watershed. This study provides important in-
formation on detailed sediment dating and demonstrates the potential of using 137Cs, magnetic susceptibility,
SOC and sediment particle composition to identify changes in erosion in a watershed.

1. Introduction
Karst is a particular geomorphic unit with a rugged surface, poor
soil, and underlying limestone that is easily fractured and dissolved.
Limited agriculture can be performed in such regions around the world
as the bedrock is generally exposed at the surface, especially on slopes
with thin soil cover (Kranjc, 2012; Jiang et al., 2014). However, in the
550,000 km2 karst region of Southwest China, sloping land is in-
tensively cultivated and provides food for approximately 100 million
people. However, unfavorable land use practices have resulted in the
loss of relatively fertile topsoil and land degradation and in ecological
disasters related to the relatively soluble carbonate rocks in the karst
area, which develop soils slowly (Zhang et al., 2011a). Once the soil is
lost, it is extremely difficult to recover the soil layer because a period of
approximately 2000–8000 years is required to generate 1 cm of soil on
average (Jiang et al., 2014). Therefore, the fragile ecological environ-
ment and slow social development attributed to serious soil loss have
been typical characteristics of the karst region of China. To maintain
sustainable development and food security, it is essential to control soil
loss and protect land resources in the karst region of China. However,
accurate data on soil loss in the karst region are scarce because of the
difficulty of plot building and sediment observation. Fortunately, the
composite fingerprint technique represents a credible method for
identifying the long-term soil loss rate by analyzing deposited sediment.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: keli@bnu.edu.cn, kunqing@bnu.edu.cn (K. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2020.106881
Received 25 September 2019; Received in revised form 15 February 2020; Accepted 20 February 2020
Available online 27 February 2020
0167-8809/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. Cao, et al.
Karst is characterized by widespread caves, fractures and fissures,
which strongly affect the runoff and erosion processes in karst regions
(Martin et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2017). First, soil particles are trans-
ported into fractures and fissures into subsurface systems instead of
along the soil surface (Zhang et al., 2007a; Tang et al., 2010). Second,
eroded soils from slope areas often fill in karst conduits and depressions
rather than being transported directly into a river, as in other regions
(Jiang et al., 2014). Due to the combination of surface and subsurface
processes, soil erosion in karst regions is so complicated that traditional
methods, such as field plots and rainfall simulations, are not sufficient
to capture the runoff and soil losses via both the surface and subsurface
systems.
As a milestone in erosion research methods, sediment fingerprint
techniques, such as radioactive fallout tracers (Pennington et al., 1973;
Ritchie and McHenry, 1990; Walling and He, 1997; Andŕeas et al.,
2008; Li et al., 2019a), magnetic susceptibility (de Jong et al., 1998d;
Liu et al., 2020; Yu et al., 2017), sediment particle size (Grimhaw and
Lewin, 1980; Walling and Moorehead, 1989; Yu et al., 2019) and soil
organic components (Andŕeas et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2017; Li et al.,
2019b), have been successfully applied to research soil erosion and
sedimentary processes over the past few decades. Compared with
conventional monitoring methods, fingerprint techniques are reliable,
economical and rapid methods for determining soil loss. The radio-
active fallout tracer can be used as chronometers of recent deposits to
identify sedimentary processes and estimate soil erosion rates on the
basis of sample collection instead of long-term monitoring (Zhang and
Walling, 2005; Li et al., 2003,). Soil magnetic material and soil organic
components can be adopted as tracers to measure soil loss and redis-
tribution based on their changes in profiles at different slope positions
(de Jong et al., 1998d; Liu et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017; Yu et al.,
2019). On the other hand, the sediment itself can also serve as a tracer
(Grimhaw and Lewin, 1980; Walling and Moorehead, 1989; Li et al.,
2017; Zhang et al., 2018). The particle size of sediment and its dis-
tribution with depth can record the process of sedimentation. In turn,
by analyzing sediment particle size changes with depth, the sediment
sources in the watershed can be identified, and the contribution of
sources to the sediment yield can be effectively estimated. Furthermore,
composite fingerprint techniques solve problems associated with the
relationship between erosion and sediment delivery and with the
temporal and spatial variations in eroded sediment yield in a catchment
(Tang et al., 2013).
Topography characterized by clusters of steep hills and ridges sur-
rounding a flat center (so-called peak-cluster depression topography) is
the most typical landscape in the karst region of China (Fig. 1). In a
watershed, the depressions act as a sink area into which runoff pours
and sediment is deposited, similar to a lake or reservoir. (Pennington
et al., 1973). The sedimentary sequence deposited in a karst depression
provides a good environment for testing the applicability of fingerprint
techniques. Therefore, fingerprint techniques have been widely applied
in the karst region in Southwest China to estimate soil loss (Table 1).
The results from previous studies have contributed greatly to the un-
derstanding of soil loss in the karst region. However, the tracers used in
previous studies were very limited in number, and the results of study
lacked the support and verification of other tracers. Moreover, the
calculated soil loss rate varied greatly from site to site (Table 1). Hence,
it is imperative to use multiple composite fingerprint techniques to
estimate the soil loss rate and to improve soil loss predictions in karst
regions. This study aims to identify the sedimentary sequence, estimate
the sedimentation rate and investigate the changes in soil erosion over a
nearly 60 year period by using multiple sediment fingerprint techni-
ques, including radioactive fallout tracer 137Cs, magnetic susceptibility,
soil organic carbon (SOC) content and sediment particle size in order to
relate the soil erosion process to rocky desertification in the karst region
of China.
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Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 294 (2020) 106881
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
The sampling was conducted in two peak-cluster depression wa-
tersheds with different degrees of rocky desertification in July 2018.
The Liaojiawodang (LJWD) peak-cluster depression watershed
(105°37′47″E, 25°39′12″N) and Dajutang (DJT) peak-cluster depression
watershed (105°06′32″E, 27°15′56″N) are located in Anshun County
and Bijie County, respectively, in Guizhou Province, Southwest China
(Fig. 1). The rocky desertification is more severe in Anshun County than
in Bijie County. These regions feature a subtropical monsoon climate
characterized by hot rainy summers and cold humid winters. The mean
annual temperature varies from 10 °C to 15 °C. The mean annual pre-
cipitation varies from 850 mm to 1379.5 mm and exhibits significant
seasonality, with most precipitation occurring during the rainy season
(Apr.–Sep.).
The LJWD watershed, with a total area of 1.33 km2, consists of a
5502 m2 flat area in the center and a series of surrounding slopes. These
hillslopes are relatively steep, and most of the measured slopes are
steeper than 25°, except at the foot of the hillslopes. Because the area
has a long history of cultivation on the hillslopes, which may have
contributed to soil loss, fragments and boulders of limestone are ex-
posed on the middle and upper slopes (Zhang et al., 2011a). According
to field assessment, rocky areas account for at least 30 % of the surface
area. The primary soil type in this area is yellow soil, according to the
Chinese genetic classification of soil, and is classified as Udic Ferrisol in
the Chinese Soil Taxonomy and Udic Ultisols in the US Soil Taxonomy
(Gong et al., 1999). The hillslopes are dominated by shrubs, the foot of
the hillslopes is generally cultivated with maize (Zea mays L.) and oil-
seed rape (Brassica campestris L.), and the depression is dominated by
grass (Galiumodoratum).
The peak clusters in the DJT area exhibit similar terrain and geo-
logic structure characteristics (Zhang et al., 2011b). The DJT watershed
has a total area of 0.07 km2 and a 3942 m2 flat area surrounded by
hillslopes with an average gradient greater than 20°. Limestone is ex-
posed on the slopes and accounts for 15 % of the total surface area. The
soil type in the DJT watershed is the same as that in the LJWD wa-
tershed. The hillslopes are dominated by grass and some rare shrubs
(Spiraea salicifolia L., Hypericum patulum Thunb.), and the depression is
covered with grass (Galiumodoratum, Cynodondactylon).
With a total population of more than 100 million, the karst region in
Southwest China is a major poverty-stricken area in China, and nearly
half of the total number of impoverished citizens of China are con-
centrated in this region (Zhang et al., 2011a). The hillslopes have long
been cultivated to provide sufficient food. In environments with steep
terrain and frequent rainfall, unfavorable land use practices cause se-
vere soil erosion. After interviewing the local senior farmers and ex-
perts, it was determined that since the implementation of the Grain for
Green ecological project in 2000, the area of farmlands on hillslopes in
the LJWD and DJT watersheds has decreased substantially through
transformation into woodland or grassland.
2.2. Field sampling
Sediment samples were taken across profiles at two selected sites in
the LJWD and DJT depressions in July 2018. Therefore, sediments
deposited until July 2018 were included in this study. The sampled soil
profiles were 100 cm in width and 220 cm in depth at the centers of the
LJWD and DJT depressions. The profiles were then divided into 23
sampling depths on average, each of which was 10 cm apart. After each
soil profile was prepared, sediment samples were collected from the
bottom (220 cm) to the ground surface (0 cm), and two samples were
taken at each depth as replicates. In total, 92 samples were collected
from the two depressions for laboratory analysis of magnetic suscept-
ibility, sediment particle size and SOC content.
Z. Cao, et al.
Fig. 1. Location of the karst peak-cluster depression watershed and sampling site.
In addition, two 200 cm-long sediment cores were extracted using
an 8 cm-diameter auger near the LJWD and DJT soil profiles. The se-
diment cores were sectioned and sampled at an interval of approxi-
mately 5 cm from the soil surface to a depth of 100 cm and then at an
interval of approximately 10 cm from 100 cm to 200 cm. Altogether, 60
samples were taken from the two cores for soil bulk density calculation
and 137Cs analysis.
2.3. Laboratory analysis
All the samples were air-dried, weighed, and passed through a 2 mm
sieve. Then, the activity of the radionuclide 137Cs, magnetic suscept-
ibility, particle size and SOC content were measured in the soil
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Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 294 (2020) 106881
laboratory of Beijing Normal University.
2.3.1. Radionuclide 137Cs
To ensure that the test samples were fully representative, two re-
plicate core samples from each depth were mixed well. Approximately
320 g of each sample (≤ 2 mm) added to a measuring box (7 cm in-
ternal diameter and 6.5 cm height), which was then sealed with poly-
vinyl chloride tape and left undisturbed for 28 days to allow the sample
to achieve equilibrium. Then, these samples were measured by gamma-
ray spectrometry using a high-resolution, low-background, low-energy,
hyperpure n-type coaxial germanium detector (GMX 50P4) coupled to
an ORTEC amplifier and multichannel analyzer. The counting time was
more than 33,000 s to ensure that the measurement precision was less
Z. Cao, et al. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 294 (2020) 106881

Table 1
Overview of the recent applications of sediment fingerprint techniques in karst areas in China.
Location Watershed Sediment fingerprints Sediment yield Reference
(t km−2 yr-1)

Sichuan, Southwest China
Sichuan, Southwest China
Chongqing, Southwest China
Puding, Southwest China
Puding, Southwest China
Puding, Southwest China
Puding, Southwest China
Puding, Southwest China
Maolan, Southwest China
Maolan, Southwest China
Huanjiang, Southwest China
Huanjiang, Southwest China
Huanjiang, Southwest China
Huanjiang, Southwest China
Yongkang, Southwest China
Yaji, Southwest China
Yimeng Mountain region, China
137 210
Wujiagou watershed Cs, Pb 624 (Watershed) Zhang et al. (2004)
137
Xiangshui watershed Cs 1759 (Forest land) Hou et al. (2007)
4468 (Slope cropland)
137
Longyan river watershed Cs 112.5 (Forest land) Zhang et al. (2007b)
2264.8 (Slope cropland)
137
Chongtou depression watershed Cs 20.7 (Watershed) Bai et al. (2009)
137
Shirenzhai watershed Cs 2315 (Watershed) Zhang et al. (2011b)
137
Shirenzhai watershed Cs, 210Pb 2757 (Watershed) Bai et al. (2013)
137
Zhongba watershed Cs 19.25–27.5 (Watershed) Yan et al. (2012)
137
Chenqi watershed Cs, Magnetic susceptibility / Cheng et al. (2019)
137
Gongchenbei depression watershed Cs 45.95 (Grass land) He et al., 2009a,He et al., 2009b)
0 (Forest land)
137
Grassland depression Cs, pollen / He et al. (2013)
137
Guzhou watershed Cs 57.1 (Watershed) Li et al. (2010a)
137
Guzhou watershed Cs 50.2 (Watershed) Li et al. (2010b)
137
Guzhou watershed Cs, RUSLE 15.8 (Watershed) Feng et al. (2016)
137
Guzhou watershed Cs, 210Pb, SOC, sediment particle size 283 (Watershed) Li et al. (2019b)
137
Yongkang watershed Cs 20.53 (Watershed) Bai et al. (2010)
137
Yaji experimental site Cs, GIS 13.68 (Watershed) Li et al. (2016)
137
Quananzi watershed Cs, 210Pb, Clay 1.8 (Watershed) Zhang et al. (2018)

Note: “/” means unknown.

than ± 5% at the 90 % confidence level. The 661.6 keV line was used
for the 137Cs analysis, and the mass concentration density of 137Cs (Bq
kg−1) was calculated via the following equation:
137Cs= (Narea / W ∙T ∙C)× 1000
where Narea is the net peak area of 137Cs, W is the sample weight (g), T is
the counting time (s), and C is the detection efficiency of 137Cs.
2.3.2. Magnetic susceptibility
A Bartington magnetic susceptibility meter (MS2) was used to
measure soil magnetic susceptibility. Approximately 15 g of each
sample (≤ 2 mm) was placed in an 8 cm3 plastic box. Before mea-
surement, the machine was preheated for 10 min to ensure that the
measurement error was within 0.2. Blank readings on air were taken
before and after every sample measurement (de Jong et al., 1998d). The
specific volume of magnetic susceptibility (κ) was measured at low
(0.47 kHz; κlf) and high (4.7 kHz; κhf) frequencies (Yu et al., 2017). The
soil bulk density (ρ, g cm−3) was determined by dividing the dried soil
mass by the volume. The parameter χ (χlf or χhf, 10-8 m3 kg-1) is the
ratio of κ (κlf or κhf) to ρ (Dearing, 1994):
χ=( κ/ ρ)
The frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility (χfd, %) was cal-
culated via the following equation using χlf and χhf (Dearing, 1994):
χfd = (χlf − χhf / χlf ) × 100
2.4. Data analysis
2.4.1. The 137Cs dating model
137
Cs has been widely used for dating and providing independent
(1) information on erosion and sedimentation rates (Ritchie and McHenry,
1990). In the karst depressions selected to trace the sediment process,
the land use types can be broadly divided into undisturbed land and
cultivated land. The adopted assessment models to calculate the sedi-
ment deposition rate (R, cm yr−1) and soil loss rate (M, t km−2 yr−1)
are different for the two kinds of land use (Zhang and Walling, 2005; He
et al., 2009a; Li et al., 2010a). For undisturbed land, the sediment de-
position rate and soil loss rate since 1963 can be calculated based on the
depth of a single well-defined 137Cs peak as follows:
R = [H/ (Ts −1963)] (4)
M =ρ∙s∙H∙10-2/A(Ts− 1963) (5)
where H is the depth of the 137
Cs peak (cm), Ts is the sampling year (yr),
ρ is the soil bulk density (tm−3), s is the depression area (m2), and A is
the watershed area (km2).
For the cultivated land, the deposited sediments in the plow layer
are mixed by tillage practices. Hence, the 137Cs is evenly distributed
(2) across the depth of the plow layer, and the distribution depth at a de-
position site is greater than the depth of the plow layer (Bai et al., 2010;
Li et al., 2010a). The sediment deposition rate (R, cm yr−1) and soil loss
rate (M, t km−2 yr−1) since 1963 are calculated as follows:
(3)
R= (h−hp) / (Ts −1963) (6)

M=ρ∙s(h−hp )∙10-2/A(Ts − 1963) (7)

2.3.3. Sediment particle size
Approximately 2 g of each sample was weighed and pretreated with
hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid to remove the organic frac-
tion, and the sample was then subjected to chemical and ultrasonic
dispersion. Then, the particle size was determined using a Mastersizer
3000 laser granulometer (Malvern Instruments, Malvern, England).
2.3.4. Soil organic carbon
Approximately 10 g of each sample (≤ 2 mm) was passed through
0.15 mm sieves, and a 0.05 g sample was then weighed from the ≤ 0.15
mm fraction to determine the SOC content using the potassium di-
chromate colorimetric method.
where h is the total 137Cs distribution depth in the profile (cm) and hp is
the plow layer depth (m).
A karst depression is an area that accumulates sediment in a wa-
tershed, and sediment from elsewhere in the watershed is deposited on
the central flat bottom of the depression. Hence, these sediments pro-
vide record information on cultivation, land utilization and soil loss in
the watershed. Therefore, there may be other age markers besides the
age marker of 1963. The sediment deposition rate (R, cm yr−1) and soil
loss rate (M, t km−2 yr−1) in other periods can be calculated based on
the following modified formulas:
S= (hf − hl / Tf − T)
l (8)

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Z. Cao, et al. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 294 (2020) 106881

M= ρ∙s(hf − hl)/ A( Tf − T)
l (9) Table 3
137 137 Statistical analysis of soil characteristics in the LJWD and DJT profiles.
where f denotes an earlier Cs age marker and l denotes a later Cs
age marker; hf and hl are the distribution depths of the earlier 137Cs age Soil characteristics Location Min Max Mean SD CV

marker and later 137Cs age marker (m), respectively; and Tf and Tl are χlf LJWD 158.64 218.46 181.06 18.11 10
the years corresponding to the earlier 137Cs age marker and later 137Cs (10−8 m3 kg-1) DJT 40.67 86.92 56.3 11.81 20.99
age marker (yr), respectively. χfd LJWD 11.17 12.33 11.93 0.26 2.18
(%) DJT 7.75 9.22 8.47 0.37 4.33
SOC LJWD 1.92 5.42 2.9 0.78 26.95
2.4.2. Calculation of rainfall erosivity (g kg−1) DJT 1.56 3.68 1.95 0.43 21.85
Rainfall is a key factor affecting the loss of soil in a watershed. Clay LJWD 2.04 7.61 4.83 1.42 29.32
Therefore, rainfall erosivity is a vital index for dating and identifying (%) DJT 7.02 15.01 10.46 2.46 23.49
sedimentation changes in a depression within a given timeframe. To Silt LJWD 67.46 85.59 79.76 4.29 5.39
(%) DJT 62.49 80.17 70.71 4.32 6.11
calculate rainfall erosivity, a record of monthly rainfall in the study Sand LJWD 7.79 29.31 15.41 4.76 30.86
area from 1954 to 2018 was collected from the National Meteorological (%) DJT 6.28 27.17 18.79 5.38 28.64
Information Center (http://data.cma.cn). The rainfall erosivity for in-
dividual monthly periods was estimated with the following equation
(Da Silva, 2004): In the LJWD profile, χlf varied from 158.64 × 10−8 m3 kg-1 to
218.46 × 10−8 m3 kg-1, with an average value of 181.06 × 10−8 m3
EI30i = 73.989 ×(P 2i /Pa)0.7387 (10) kg-1, and χfd varied from 11.17 % to 12.33 %, with an average value of
where EI30i is the monthly average rainfall erosivity (MJ mm ha−1 11.93 %. Compared with the LJWD profile, the DJT profile exhibited
h−1), Pi is the rainfall in month i (mm), and Pa is the average annual obviously lower soil magnetic susceptibility values (χlf and χfd); χlf
rainfall (mm). The annual average rainfall erosivity is the sum of the varied from 40.67 × 10−8 m3 kg-1 to 86.92 × 10−8 m3 kg-1, with an
monthly average rainfall erosivity as follows: average value of 56.3 × 10−8 m3 kg-1, and χfd varied from 7.75 % to
9.22 %, with an average value of 8.47 %. The SOC content varied from
n
R=∑ EI30i 1.92 g kg-1 to 5.42 g kg-1 in the LJWD profile, with an average value of
i=1 (11) 2.9 g kg-1, and from 1.56 g kg-1 to 3.68 g kg-1 in the DJT profile, with an
average value of 1.95 g kg-1. The high magnetic susceptibility values
where R is the annual average rainfall erosivity (MJ mm ha h yr−1) −1 -1
and SOC content in the LJWD depression indicated that soil loss has
and n is the number of months within a year. The model has been been severe in the watershed over the last 60 years.
shown to be reliable in complicated karst areas (De Almeida et al., Generally, the soil magnetic susceptibility values are higher in
2017; Cao et al., 2018). topsoil and lower in the subsoil or near the parent material (Dearing,
1994), and they decrease from the soil surface to the parent material in
3. Results and discussion a soil profile under natural conditions. However, the magnetic sus-
ceptibility profile can be altered by soil erosion or sediment deposition
3.1. Description of the sediment profile characteristics (Liu et al., 2015; Yu et al., 2017). In our study, the magnetic suscept-
ibility values (χlf and χfd) in the DJT and LJWD profiles were similar
All the samples were pooled together to demonstrate the soil char- (Figs. 2 and 3). The magnetic susceptibility profiles indicated that the
acteristics of the two sampling profiles, as shown in Tables 2 and 3, and sediment sources in the two watersheds did not fluctuate or that the
the distribution characteristics of 137Cs are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The deposited sediment principally came from the parent material of the
topsoil 137Cs concentrations in the LJWD and DJT profiles were 3.39 Bq soil on the slopes.
kg−1 and 4.02 Bq kg−1, respectively, and there was no significant The sediment particle size contents in the LJWD and DJT profiles all
difference between the two depressions. However, obvious differences showed the same trend of silt > sand > clay (Table 3). However, the
between the two depressions were present in the vertical distribution clay and sand contents had peaks and exhibited high variability in the
pattern. The concentration of 137Cs varied from 0 to 8.48 Bq kg−1 in the profiles (Figs. 2 and 3 and Table 3). These results indicated that the clay
LJWD profile, with an average concentration of 4.15 Bq kg−1, while the and sand particles were poorly sorted during the process of transport
concentration of 137Cs varied from 0 to 5.86 Bq kg−1 in the DJT profile, and deposition, and this phenomenon could reflect aspects of the me-
with an average concentration of 1.65 Bq kg−1. Although the 137Cs chanism responsible for sediment particle transport in an erosional
concentration in the LJWD profile varied more widely than that in the environment, such as flood volume, rainfall intensity or sediment
DJT profile, 137Cs exhibited weak variability in the LJWD profile source (Li et al., 2017).
(Table 2) owing to the lack of cultivation over the last 30 years due to
frequent waterlogging. The uniform 137Cs distribution in the upper part
of the LJWD profile may be because of the input of sediment from the 3.2. Dating of the sediment profiles
sloping cropland. The 137Cs distribution in the DJT profile was rela-
tively homogeneous, but there were some peaks. In the LJWD profile, the deepest depth at which 137Cs was detected

Table 2
137
Statistical characteristics of Cs in the LJWD and DJT profiles.
Location Land use Previous Topsoil 137Cs concentration 137
Cs concentration Depth of 137
Cs distribution Depth of 137
Cs
disturbance (Bq kg−1) (Bq kg−1) (cm) peak
(cm)
Min Max Mean SD CV

LJWD Grass Undisturbed 3.39 0 8.48 4.15 2.67 64.36 140 95

land
DJT Grass Cultivated 4.02 0 5.86 1.65 2.23 134.68 55 40
land

Note: CV refers to the coefficient of variation and is in % (similarly hereinafter).

5
Z. Cao, et al.
Fig. 2. Distributions of 137
Cs, χlf, χfd, soil organic carbon (SOC), clay, silt, and sand in the LJWD depression sediment profile.
was 140 cm, and the highest 137Cs concentration occurred at a depth of
95 cm. From 95 cm downward, the 137Cs concentration declined con-
tinuously, and no 137Cs was detected deeper than 140 cm. From the soil
surface to 95 cm, the 137Cs concentration also declined but exhibited
some unique changes (Fig. 2). For instance, the 137Cs concentration
rapidly declined at a depth of 70 cm and sharply increased at a depth of
55 cm, and it slightly increased again at a depth of 40 cm in the profile.
In the DJT profile, the deepest depth at which 137Cs was detected was
60 cm, and the highest 137Cs concentration occurred at a depth of 40
cm. The 137Cs was uniformly distributed within the 0–25 cm and 25–45
cm depths but sharply decreased from 45 to 60 cm deep (Fig. 3). The
changes in the 137Cs concentration at depths of 25 cm, 20 cm and 10 cm
were approximately consistent with the changes observed in the LJWD
profile; however, the deepest detection depth differed greatly, being
deeper in the LJWD profile than in the DJT profile. The SOC content
showed a decreasing trend with depth in both profiles; the SOC content
was highest within the depth ranges of 0–10 cm in the LJWD profile and
0–5 cm in the DJT profile (Figs. 2 and 3).
Different types of fingerprint factors have different diagnostic ef-
fects on the erosional environment (Tang et al., 2013). In this study, we
used multiple fingerprint factors (so-called composite fingerprint
technique) to measure soil loss and identify the sedimentary sequence.
Thereinto, the magnetic susceptibility and sediment particle composi-
tion were used as indicators to reflect the erosional environment of the
watershed, and the 137Cs concentration and SOC content were used as
indicators to divide and date the sediment profile.
137
Cs was first recorded in soil in 1954 (Pennington et al., 1973;
Walling and He, 1997). Consequently, the deepest sedimentary layer in
Fig. 3. Distributions of 137
Cs, χlf, χfd, soil organic content (SOC), clay, silt, and sand in the DJT depression sediment profile.
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Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 294 (2020) 106881
which 137Cs can be detected should have been deposited in 1954.
However, it is usually difficult to detect 137Cs in sediment layers de-
posited in 1954 because of the low concentration and decay of 137Cs.
Therefore, it is usually risky to use the 1954 age marker to date sedi-
ment processes. Fortunately, a study in the same research area in-
dicated that the initial release of 137Cs can still be detected in some
areas of Southwest China (Zhang et al., 2005a). Based on the results
mentioned above, we speculated in this study that the deepest layers in
which 137Cs was detected, 140 cm in the LJWD profile and 60 cm in the
DJT profile, represent 137Cs deposition in or near 1954. Most of the
137
Cs fallout occurred in the decade between 1956 and 1967, with high
inputs in 1958 and 1962 and the highest input in 1963 (Fig. 4a). As a
typical age marker, 1963 has been widely recognized and used world-
wide (Pennington et al., 1973; Ritchie and McHenry, 1990; Zhang et al.,
2005b). In the LJWD depression, the 137Cs peak corresponding to 1963
occurred at a depth of 95 cm. In the DJT depression, the 137Cs peak
corresponding to 1963 occurred at a depth of approximately 40 cm. In
addition to the 1954 and 1963 age markers, other auxiliary 137Cs age
markers could also be adopted for sediment dating. The 137Cs fallout
declined rapidly through the mid- and late 1960s and early 1970s
owing to the implementation of the nuclear test ban treaty (Walling and
He, 1997; Zhang et al., 2005b). Thus, 1970 can be regarded as a distinct
marker and corresponds to the sediment layers at depths of 70 cm in the
LJWD profile and 25 cm in the DJT profile (Figs. 2 and 3). China's
nuclear tests peaked in 1976 (Fig. 4a), and the associated release of
137
Cs formed an important age marker in sediment deposited in some
areas. For example, 137Cs deposited in 1976 has been detected in Lake
Dianchi and Lake Baikal sediments (David et al., 1991; Zhang et al.,
Z. Cao, et al. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 294 (2020) 106881

Fig. 4. Sediment deposition rates and erosion modulus values in the LJWD and DJT watersheds for six periods. Fig. 4a is the LJWD watershed, and 4b is the DJT
watershed. The gray columns indicate the erosion modulus of the watershed in the six periods, regardless of land use. The dark gray columns indicate the erosion
modulus of the watershed, assuming all the sediment comes from slope cropland. Due to limited land use information, only the erosion modulus of cultivated land in
1986 – 2000 and 2000 – 2018 is available. The cultivated land in the DJT watershed was converted to grass after the Grain for Green project was implemented in
2000; therefore, there was no erosion modulus for cultivated land after 2000 (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article).

2005a). Therefore, the secondary 137Cs peaks occurring at depths of 55
cm in the LJWD profile and 20 cm in the DJT profile were related to the
1976 age marker in this study. The 137Cs fallout increased sharply in
1986 because of the Chernobyl accident (Fig. 4a), and additional 137Cs
input was received in Europe and adjacent regions (Carter and
Moghissi, 1977; Cambray et al., 1989; Hirose et al., 2001; Lee et al.,
1997; Warneke et al., 2002). Due to the limited impact of the accident,
the 1986 marker for dating sediments remains controversial. However,
some scientists have suggested that it can be regarded as an age marker
in some areas, such as Southwest China, Northwest China, Japan and
Korea (Wan, 1999; Hirose et al., 2001; Lee et al., 1997; Zhang et al.,
2005b). Considering the distance from the accident site, we speculated
that the small 137Cs peaks occurring at 40 cm in the LJWD profile and
10 cm in the DJT profile likely reflect 137Cs deposition in 1986.
An increase in the SOC content in topsoil may be an indicator of
land use changes (Cheng et al., 2016; Yu et al., 2019). The Grain for
Green project was implemented in 2000 in the study area, and most of
the cultivated land on the hillslopes was converted to shrubland or
grassland (Yang et al., 2017; Li et al., 2019b). As a result, the SOC
content in the topsoil in the watersheds has increased over the past
decade. Thus, the age marker of 2000 in the LJWD and DJT profiles is
clearly associated with the change in the SOC content.
3.3. Sediment deposition rate and erosion modulus estimation
According to the sediment dating of the LJWD and DJT profiles, the
historical deposition was divided into six periods: 1954–1963,
1963–1970, 1970–1976, 1976–1986, 1986–2000 and 2000–July 2018
(Table 4). For each period, the sediment thicknesses in the LJWD profile
were 45 cm, 25 cm, 15 cm, 15 cm, 30 cm, and 10 cm, respectively, and
those in the DJT profile were 20 cm, 15 cm, 5 cm, 10 cm, 5 cm, and 5
cm, respectively. The corresponding deposition rates in the LJWD and
DJT depressions for each period were calculated based on the sediment
thickness and duration, yielding 5 cm yr−1, 3.57 cm yr−1, 2.50 cm
yr−1, 1.50 cm yr−1, 2.14 cm yr−1, and 0.56 cm yr−1 in the LJWD
depression and 2.22 cm yr−1, 2.14 cm yr−1, 0.83 cm yr−1, 1 cm yr−1,
0.36 cm yr−1, and 0.28 cm yr−1 in the DJT depression (Table 4 and
Fig. 5).
Detailed information about the sediment deposition rates and ero-
sion modulus in the six periods is presented in Fig. 5. The sediment
deposition rates in the LJWD depression showed a decreasing trend
from the 1954–1963 period to the 1976–1986 period and a distinct
increasing trend from the 1976–1986 period to the 1986–2000 period.
After 2000, the deposition rate sharply decreased. To show soil loss in
the watershed clearly, we transformed the deposition rate into the
erosion rate expressed as volume per unit area per year. The erosion
rate during the period of 1954–1963 was 228 t km−2 yr-1 and then
decreased to 68 t km−2 yr−1 in the 1976–1986 period. The soil loss rate
increased slightly in the 1986–2000 period to 98 t km−2 yr−1 but
continued to decrease after 2000 in response to the Grain for Green
project. The erosion rate during 2000 – July 2018 was only 25 t km−2
yr−1, representing a decrease of approximately 89 % over the past 60
years. The trends of the sediment deposition rate and erosion modulus
in the DJT depression were similar to those in the LJWD depression. A
continuous decrease in the deposition rate was found from the
1954–1963 period to the 1970–1976 period, with a slight increase in
the 1976–1986 period. Subsequently, the deposition rate gradually
decreased from the 1976–1986 period to the 2000 – July 2018 period.
The corresponding erosion rate in the 1954–1963 period was as high as
1791 t km−2 yr−1 and then decreased to 671 t km−2 yr−1 in the
1970–1976 period. The soil erosion rate increased noticeably to 806 t
km−2 yr−1 in the 1976–1986 period and then rapidly decreased to 224
t km−2 yr−1 in the 2000 – July 2018 period. The erosion rate decreased
by approximately 87 % over the past 60 years in the DJT depression.
Because the depressions were surrounded by steep slopes, the se-
diment delivery ratio (SRD) can be considered to have a value of one in
the studied watersheds. Therefore, the soil loss can be reliably esti-
mated using the deposition rate in the depressions, and the soil loss can
be related to land utilization. Therefore, we use the sediment deposition
rate to estimate the erosion process in the LJWD and DJT watersheds
from 1954 to July 2018. The soil loss decreased significantly over time
in both selected watersheds. However, the erosion rate was obviously

7
Z. Cao, et al. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 294 (2020) 106881

Table 4
Summary of the sampling depth, bulk density, catchment area, depression area, and sediment thickness of the LJWD and DJT depressions.
Location Sampling depth Bulk Catchment area Depression area Deposited thickness in different periods
(cm) density (km2) (m2)
(g cm−3) Time period Thickness (cm)

LJWD 200 1.1 1.327 5502 2000 – July 2018 10

1986–2000 30
1976–1986 15
1970–1976 15
1963–1970 25
1954–1963 45
DJT 200 1.37 0.067 3492 2000 – July 2018 5
1986–2000 5
1976–1986 10
1970–1976 5
1963–1970 15
1954–1963 20

Fig. 5. Global nuclear event statistics and rainfall and rainfall erosivity in the LJWD and DJT watersheds. Fig. 5a shows the number of nuclear tests worldwide and in
China from 1954 to 1991 and the annual deposition of 137Cs. Figure 5b1 and 5b2 show the annual precipitation of LJWD and DJT watersheds from 1954 to 2017,
respectively. Figure 5c1 and 5c2 show the annual rainfall erosivity in the LJWD and DJT watersheds, respectively.

higher in the DJT watershed than in the LJWD watershed, whereas the
sediment deposition rate was obviously higher in the LJWD depression
than in the DJT depression (Fig. 5). The decrease in sediment yield in
both watersheds occurred in response to terracing over several decades
to promote agriculture and to the Closing Mountains for Forest Culti-
vation, Grain for Green and Poverty Alleviation projects implemented
in recent years to improve the ecological environment (Jiang et al.,
2014; Cheng et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2017). The difference between the
LJWD and DJT watersheds was caused by environmental conditions
and human activities in the two regions. Generally, soil loss depends on
precipitation, topography, soil properties, land use/land cover, and the
degree of rocky desertification in Southwest China (Wilcox et al., 2008;
Jiang et al., 2014; Dai et al., 2017). In the LJWD watershed, the pre-
cipitation, rainfall erosivity and slope angle were obviously greater
than those in the DJT watershed (Fig. 4), and cultivated land was also
more extensive in the LJWD watershed than in the DJT watershed
(Fig. 6). Therefore, the sediment deposition rate was higher in the
LJWD catchment with a smaller deposition area. However, the erosion
rate was significantly higher in the DJT catchment than in the LJWD
catchment in this study because of differences in the degree of rocky
desertification, which was higher in the LJWD catchment. In karst
areas, soil erosion may be the dominant reason for rocky desertifica-
tion, but soil loss gradually decreases with the increasing rock exposure.
In addition, soil erosion is extremely sensitive to human activities
and land use changes in Southwest China (Bai et al., 2013). Soil erosion
changes in both watersheds over the past 60 years were also somewhat
related to historical events, as land use changes occurred during this
period. During 1954–1970, soil erosion was severe in both the LJWD

8
Z. Cao, et al.
Fig. 6. Land use changes in the LJWD and DJT watersheds before and after 2000. Fig. 6a shows the LJWD watershed, and Fig. 6b shows the DJT watershed.
and DJT watersheds, mainly because of a sharp increase in population
and extensive cultivation for food production (Fig. 5). In the 1970s, the
Chinese government began to pay attention to soil conservation and
encouraged the construction of terraces, dams and reservoirs to control
soil loss. Therefore, soil erosion has decreased since the mid-1970s,
especially in the DJT watershed, which features a large area of terraces
(Fig. 6b). However, the farming activities under the new rural economic
system caused soil loss to increase once again in 1978 (Wang et al.,
2003). In contrast, soil loss decreased continually in the LJWD wa-
tershed from 1976 to 1986 owing to increasing rocky desertification. In
addition to human activities and land use, heavy rainfall in 1983 and
1991 might have played a significant role in the soil erosion in the DJT
watershed in 1976–1986 and the LJWD watershed in 1986–2000, re-
spectively (Fig. 4). Since the mid-1980s, soil erosion in the LJWD and
9
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 294 (2020) 106881
DJT watersheds has decreased gradually because of the Closing
Mountains for Forest Cultivation project implemented in Guizhou
Province after 1980 and the Poverty Alleviation and Grain for Green
projects implemented in Southwest China after 2000. As a result, the
cultivated land in the LJWD and DJT watersheds has decreased sig-
nificantly since 2000 (Fig. 6), from 0.27 km2 to 0.13 km2 in the LJWD
watershed and from 0.03 km2 to 0 km2 in the DJT watershed. As cul-
tivated land has decreased and vegetation has increased, sediment
yields in the LJWD and DJT catchments have decreased by 74 % and 22
%, respectively.
4. Conclusions
In this study, 137
Cs, magnetic susceptibility, SOC and sediment
Z. Cao, et al.
particle composition were used to identify the sedimentary sequence
and soil erosion and to relate the soil loss to rocky desertification in
small karst watersheds in southwestern China over the past 60 years.
The results indicated that (1) the soil loss rates in the studied areas
decreased from 1954 to July 2018 on the whole, except for slight soil
loss increases in 1976–1986 in the DJT watershed and in 1986–2000 in
the LJWD watershed. (2) The most serious soil erosion occurred in the
1954–1963 and 1963–1970 periods, mainly due to large-scale re-
clamation and deforestation, and the slight increase in 1976–1986 was
mainly affected by the new rural economic system. The construction of
terraces decades ago to support agriculture and the implementation of
the Closing Mountains for Forest Cultivation, Grain for Green and
Poverty Alleviation projects in recent years to improve the ecological
environment contributed greatly to soil loss control. The soil erosion in
the LJWD and DJT watersheds decreased by approximately 89 % and
87 %, respectively, over the past 60 years. (3) The difference between
estimated soil losses from the two watersheds with different environ-
mental conditions confirmed the impact of land utilization and rocky
desertification on soil loss. However, soil loss and rocky desertification
are reciprocal and interact with each other. Early serious erosion en-
hanced rocky desertification, although soil loss gradually decreases as
the degree of rocky desertification increases. (4) Compared with a
single fingerprint technique, the composite fingerprint technique pro-
vides a more detailed sedimentary sequence and soil loss estimated on a
small watershed of karst.
Declaration of Competing Interest
We declare that we have no financial and personal relationships
with other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence
our work, there is no professional or other personal interest of any
nature or kind in any product, service and/or company that could be
construed as influencing the position presented in, or the review of, the
manuscript entitled “Identifying and estimating soil erosion and sedi-
mentation in small karst watersheds using a composite fingerprint
technique”.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 41730748), the National Key Research
and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2016YFC0503705), and
the Foundation for Science and Technology of Water Resources
Department of Guizhou Province (Grant No. KT201617). We thank Dr.
Liu Liang and the members of the Huajiang and Salaxi demonstration
area, School of Karst Science, Guizhou Normal University, for help.
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