Functional Grammar and Communication in English: Common Course For B.A

FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR AND
COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH
(ENG1 A02)
I SEMESTER
COMMON COURSE FOR B.A.

(2022 Admission)
CBCSS
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
School of Distance Education,
Calicut University P.O.,
Malappuram - 673 635, Kerala.
22002
School of Distance Education
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
Study Material
I Semester
Common Course for B.A.
FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR AND

(ENG1 A02)
Prepared by:
SABINA K MUSTHAFA,
Assistant Professor,
School of Distance Education,
University of Calicut.
Scrutinized by:
Mr. SAFVAN P.T,
Assistant Professor,
Department of English,
Amal College of Advanced Studies, Nilambur.
DISCLAIMER
“The author(s) shall be solely responsible for the
content and views expressed in this book”
Functional Grammar and Communication in English 2

CONTENTS
MODULE I: BASIC CONCEPTS OF SYNTAX
Word order and Sentence pattern – Concord/ Subject-Verb Agreement

– Types of sentences based on Functions. Types of Sentences based on
Clauses – Transformation of Sentences – Affirmative and Negative
Sentences – Connectives – Collocations – Punctuations.
MODULE II: BASIC FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR
Use of major tense forms (Emphasis on tense forms in use in everyday

transactions) – Use of Active and Passive Voice- Making use of
Reported Speech – Use of Functional elements in Sentences – Articles
– Prepositions.
MODULE III: SKILLS FOR COMMUNICATION
Aspects of Formal Communication – Barriers to Communication –

Preparation for Minutes of Meeting – Writing of Memos – Emails –
Letter Writing – Writing Curriculum Vitae / Resume – Proposals and
Statements of Purpose – Reviews – Case Studies – Group Discussion –
Presentation skills.


MODULE I
BASIC CONCEPT OF SYNTAX
1.1. WHAT IS SYNTAX?
Syntax is a form of grammar. It is chiefly concerned with word

order in a sentence and with the agreement of words when they
are used together. Word order refers to the way words are
arranged in a sentence. To communicate your thoughts and ideas
word order is important. English is a language that follows strict
word order and it has a structure known as SVO, that is, Subject,
Verb, and Object.
For example,
The boy plays football.
Here the sentence can be read as;
The boy plays football.
(Subject) (Verb) (Object)
This sentence makes sense as the word order is correct and you
can see an agreement between the words.
If we write the sentence as,
The boy football plays.
This sentence does not make any sense as there is no agreement
between the words in the sentence.

Hence, it should be understood that English is not just a collection

of words. Words are put together to form sentences and this way
of arrangement is called syntax of the language. In short, syntax
is the way words are put together to form phrases and sentences.
In other words, syntax is the study of the structure of sentences.
To study syntax is to study the patterns and relationships of
words, phrases and clauses. Syntax attempts to uncover the
underlying principles or rules for constructing well-formed
sentences.
There are two types of rules in syntax. They are:
1. Phrase structure rule
2. Transformational rule
1.1.1. Phrase Structure Rules:
Phrase Structure Rules attempt to describe the internal
composition of syntactic units: ie, sentences and phrases, showing
what kind of smaller units they are made up of. They also explain
the order between these smaller components.
For example,
A rule of the form S → NP + VP
This can be interpreted as ‘a sentence can consist of the
component units NP (a noun phrase) and VP (a verb phrase),
which are ordered in the way stated’.
Phrase structure rules are also called constituent structure rules
because words, phrases, and sentences can all be constituents in
larger combinations.

1.1.2. Transformational Rules

Transformational rules attempt to recognise the well-formed
sentence and those sentences which are related to each other.
Transformational rule consists of
i) Deep structure
ii) Surface structure
Grammar resulted by these two rules can be drafted as follows:
Phrase Structure Rules
↓
Deep Structure
(Meaning is given here)
↓
Transformational Rules
↓
Surface Structure
(Pronunciation is given here)

1.2. WORD ORDER AND BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS

A. Subject + Verb (SV)
This is the simplest of verb patterns. The subject is followed by
an intransitive verb, which expresses complete sense without
the help of any other words.
Subject Verb
1. Birds fly.
2. Dogs bark.
3. Flags flutter.
B. When we make simple English sentences, we usually follow

the Subject +Verb+ Object (SVO) pattern.
Steps:
1. Put the subject and the adjectives such as ‘fat’, ‘thin’ etc. or
any words describing the subject at the beginning of the sentence.
2. Put the verb and some adverbs such as ‘often’, ‘usually’ etc.
after the subject.
3. Put the object of the verb, the adjectives or other words
describing the object and the adverbs describing the verb at the
end of the sentence.
Subject Verb Object
1. Tom often eats Chocolates.
2. The fat cat is chasing a mouse.

3. My boss reads newspaper everyday.
4. The audience Enjoyed the movie.
5. Mary will visit her aunt tomorrow.
C. Some verbs can be followed by two objects without an ‘and’

connecting them. One of these objects is called the ‘direct object’
and the other the ‘indirect object’. Below is the pattern of a
sentence containing both direct object and indirect object:
Subject +Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (SVOO)
Subject Verb Indirect Direct Object
Object
1. I Gave my sister a birthday present.
2. My always me stories.
grandparents tell
3. I have him some books.
lent
4. The is the two hundred
customer paying shopkeeper dollars.
5. The nurse gave the patient some medicines.
D. Sometimes a preposition is put in front of the indirect object.

The pattern of such sentence is:
Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Preposition + Indirect
Object
Subject Verb Direct Preposition Indirect

Object Object
1. My has sent a letter to me.

friend
2. My showed his new to me.

brother wallet
3. The sent a present to their

students teacher.
4. Betty has a beautiful for her best

painted picture friend.
E. Subject + Verb+ Subject complement (SVC)

The complement usually consists of a noun, a pronoun, or an
adjective.
Subject Verb Subject

complement
1. This is a pen
2. His brother became a soldier
3. Gopal looks sad
4. The children kept quiet.
F. Subject + Verb+ Object+ Complement (SVOC)
Subject Verb Object Complement
1. The named the child angelina.

parents
2. He painted the house yellow.
1.1.2. PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of speech are the basic units of a sentence. Recognizing
parts of speech can be done by using two approaches:
i) Traditional approach
ii) Descriptive approach
Traditional approach uses intuition to determine them while,
Descriptive approach uses formal properties of language
(morphological and syntactic) to recognize them.
In the traditional approach, there are eight parts of speech. They
are:
1. Noun (N) – a word which names a person, place or thing.
e.g., Tommy, Cat, Bike, New York
2. Pronoun (PRO) – a word which can replace a noun.
e.g., He, she, it, they, we
3. Adjective (ADJ) – a word which modifies a noun.
e.g., beautiful, intelligent, handsome, busy, lazy
4. Verb (V) – a word which names an action or a state of
being
e.g., read, write, speak, walk, hit, run, is

5. Adverb (ADV) – a word which modifies a verb, adjective,

or adverb
e.g., quickly, very, hastily
6. Preposition (P) – a word which shows some relationship
between a noun or pronoun and another word in a sentence.
e.g., in, on, at, from, with, to, by
7. Conjunction (CONJ) – a word which connects words or
phrases
e.g., and, but, or
8. Interjection (INTERJ) – a word used as an exclamation.
e.g., Oh! ah, well, yeah, good heavens!
These definitions seem to be clear-cut and easy to learn but
identifying a word based on them can be difficult. So, it would be
better if we consider the function of a word in the whole sentence.
Due to this constraint, the descriptive approach is preferred most
of the time.
The descriptive approach offered by structuralists provides the

division of parts of speech into two broad classes, that is, open
classes and closed classes.
The open classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

Syntactic frames state the type of words that can precede or
follow each word in a class.
Closed class words, better known as function words, are those

which have little meaning outside of their grammatical purpose,
to relate from class words to each other. They include

determiners (DET), auxiliary verbs (AUX), preposition (P),
and conjunctions (CONJ).
Exercise 1
Pick out the nouns in the following sentences. There may be more
than one noun in each sentence.
e.g., Terry told his friends many secrets.
Nouns: Terry, friends, secrets
1. His success made his parents happy.

2. Cows give us milk.
3. The train has just left the station.
4. Paris is the capital of France.
5. Our family spent the holiday in London.
Answers
Exercise 1
1. success, parents
2. cows, milk
3. train, station.
4. Paris, capital, France.
5. family, holiday, London.
Exercise 2
Pick out the pronouns in the following sentences. There may be
more than one pronoun in each sentence.
e.g., These socks are hers.
pronoun: hers
1. The yellow car over there belongs to him.
2. This cat is beautiful, but mine is more beautiful.
3. Who gave her the money?
4. He cut himself when he was shaving.
5. Which do you prefer, an apple or an orange?
Answers
Exercise 2
1. him.
2. mine
3. Who, her
4. He, himself, he
5. Which, you
Exercise 3
Pick out the adjectives in the following sentences. There may be
more than one adjective in each sentence.

e.g., He is a hard-working student.

adjective: hard-working
1. These apples are sweet but expensive.
2. Whose umbrella is this?
3. There is some milk in the refrigerator.
4. Tai Mo Shan is the highest mountain in Hong Kong.
5. We have not got any mango trees in our garden.
Answers
Exercise 3
1. These, sweet, expensive
2. Whose
3. some
4. highest
5. any, our
Exercise 4
Pick out the verbs in the following sentences. There may be more
than one verb in each sentence.
e.g., There are thirty students in my class.
verb: are

1. After the rain had stopped, the children went out to the
playground.
2. My sister enjoys listening to classical music.
3. We will visit the museum tomorrow.
4. Who has finished doing the exercise?
5. The tiger was shot by the hunter.
Answers
Exercise 4
1. had stopped, went
2. enjoys
3. will visit
4. has finished
5. was shot
Exercise 5
Pick out the adverbs in the following sentences. There may be
more than one adverb in each sentence.
e.g., The soldiers fought bravely in the war.
adverb: bravely
1. The little girl smiled sweetly at me yesterday.
2. Please hang the wet clothes here.

3. The chairman seldom arrives on time.

4. You must spend your money more wisely.
5. It is raining heavily. You must drive carefully.
Answers
Exercise 5
1. sweetly, yesterday
2. here
3. seldom
4. more wisely
5. heavily, carefully
Exercise 6
Pick out the prepositions in the following sentences. There may
be more than one preposition in each sentence.
e.g., My father works in a factory.
preposition: in
1. Take off your hat before you go into the room.
2. I bought this book for fifty dollars.
3. There is a bridge over the river.
4. I like walking along the riverbank.
5. She kept her jewellery in a box under the bed.

Answers
Exercise 6
1. off, into
2. for
3. over
4. along
5. in, under
Exercise 7
Pick out the conjunctions in the following sentences.
e.g., A fish can swim but a bird cannot.
conjunction: but
1. Although he was late, he managed to catch the bus.
2. My father had locked the door before he went to bed last night.
3. I am dark but my sister is fair.
4. We must hurry or we will be late.
5. Do not move until the general gives the order.
Answers
Exercise 7
1. Although
2. before.
3. but
4. or
5. until
Exercise 8
Pick out the exclamations in the following sentences.
e.g. Hush! Don’t make any noise.
exclamation: Hush
1. Oh! I am sorry to hear that.
2. Ah! This is my dream car.
3. Hush! Be quiet. The baby is asleep.
4. How wonderful! It can fly.
5. Alas! The dog is dead.
Answers
Exercise 8
1. Oh
2. Ah
3. Hush
4. How wonderful
5. Alas

1.2. CONCORD/ AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT

AND VERB
Verbs can change form in tense, person, and number. The subject
and verb of every clause independent or dependent), however,
must agree in person and number. Once you identify the subject
and the verb, you can then determine such agreement of the
subject and the verb.
There are three persons:

First person- the speaker
Second person-the person spoken to
Third person- the person spoken about
There are two numbers:
Singular- denoting one person or thing
Plural- denoting more than one person or thing
Nouns ending in s are usually plural.
Verbs ending in s are singular.
Singular subjects should be paired with singular verbs and plural
subjects should be paired with plural verbs.
she walks
the book is
they want
Bill, John, and Jane go

1.2.1. Compound Subjects

Compound subjects joined by and normally require a plural verb:
Hard work and persistence are required in all rewarding
accomplishments.
Where are the pens and paper?
Subjects which include at least two nouns or pronouns connected
by and should be paired with plural verbs.
the manager and the employees are
the cats and the dog run
the man and the woman are
1.2.2. Subjects Joined by Or or Nor
When two or more subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb
should agree with the subject part closest to the verb. This also
applies to either/or and neither/nor.
The professor or her students write
The students or their professor writes
The boy or the girl walks
1.2.3. Intervening Expressions
Modifying phrases or clauses that come between the subject and
the verb do not change the number of the verb. The number of the
verb is determined entirely by the number of the subject:
The assignment, which they submitted to their professor,
was incomplete.

[Assignment is the subject of the verb was].

The new computer classroom, with its many work stations
and its sophisticated technology, fills [not fill] a long-felt
need.
[Computer classroom is the subject of the verb fills; the
phrase with its many work stations… has nothing to do
with the verb.]
1.2.4. Verb Preceding the Subject
It is possible for a verb to come before a subject in a sentence.
The rules of agreement between the subject and the verb remain
the same despite the change in order.
There is a desire in many cities to reduce traffic and
pollution. [Desire is the subject of the verb is.]
There are a stapler, two pens, four books, and a writing
tablet on the desk. [Stapler, pens, books and writing tablet
are the subjects of the verb are.]
Where are Joan and her daughters going? [Joan and her
daughters are subjects of the verb are going.]
1.2.5. Indefinite Pronouns
The indefinite pronouns or adjectives either, neither, and each, as
well as compounds such as everybody, anybody, everyone, and
anyone are always singular. None may be singular or plural. The
plural usage is more common.
Each of the cars has its insurance proof in the glove
compartment.

Everyone at the meeting was upset over the policies

announced.
Every employee, supervisor, and executive reveals the
operation of a model company.
Is either of you ready for lunch?
None of the employees have brought their children to the
company dinner.
None of the students is interested in the research project.
None--no, not one--is planning to attend the retreat.
1.2.6 Subjects Plural in Form
Singular verbs are usually used with nouns that are plural in form
but singular in meaning.
The following nouns are usually singular in meaning: news,
economics, ethics, physics, mathematics, gallows, mumps,
measles, shambles, whereabouts.
A Peanut butter and jelly sandwich is…
Physics is a difficult course…
Politics is…
Athletics seems…
Nouns such as jeans, pants, outskirts, tactics, trousers, scissors,
athletics, tidings, acoustics, riches, and barracks are usually
treated as plural.
His tactics are sneaky.
The scissors are on the table.
The trousers are hanging in the closet.

There are some other nouns such as information, hair, fish,
airplane, news, which are usually seen as singular nouns and they
take a singular verb.
Is there any interesting news?
The information sent by you is not really sufficient.
Likewise, names of subjects such as electronics, physics,
mathematics, economics, and statistics are treated as singular
nouns and take singular verbs. Same is the case with the name of
sports like gymnastics, hurdles etc.
Statistics is a very scoring subject.
He is at his best in performing gymnastics.
Plural nouns denoting a mass, a quantity, or a number require a
singular verb when the subject is regarded as a unit.
Five dollars is too much for her to pay.
Fifty bushels was all the bin would hold.
Though usage is mixed, phrases involving addition,
multiplication, subtraction, and division of numbers usually take
the singular form.
Two plus two is four.
Two times three is six.
Twelve divided by six is two.
In expressions like part of the apple, some of the pie, all of the
money, the number of parts, some, and all is determined by the
number of the noun in the prepositional phrase.
Some of the pie has been eaten.

Some of the pies have been eaten.
1.2.7. The subject of some form of To Be
When one noun precedes and another follows some form of the
verb to be, the first noun is the subject, and the verb agrees with
it and not with the complement even if the complement is
different in number.
The only food remaining is mashed potatoes.
Mashed potatoes are the only food remaining.
[In the first sentence, food is the subject; in the second,
mashed potatoes.]
1.2.8. Relative Pronoun as Subject
When a relative pronoun (who, which, or that) is used as the
subject of a clause, the number and person of the verb are
determined by the antecedent of the pronoun, the word to which
the pronoun refers.
This is the professor who is to be hired. [The antecedent
of who is the singular noun professor; therefore, who is
singular.]
These are the employees who are to be working
tomorrow. [The antecedent of who is the plural noun
employees.]
Should I, who am not a student at the school, be allowed
to take the class? [Who refers to I; I is first person, singular
number.]

She is one of those tough professors who are always

expecting the best from students. [The antecedent of who
is professors.]
If sentences such as the last one gives you trouble, try beginning
the sentence with the "of" phrase, and you will readily see that the
antecedent of who is persons and not one.
Of those tough professors who are always expecting the
best from students, she is one.
1.2.9. Collective Nouns
Some nouns are singular in form but plural in meaning. They are
called collective nouns and include such words as team, class,
committee, crowd, and crew. These nouns may take either a
singular or plural verb; if you are thinking of the group as a unit,
use a singular verb; if you are thinking of the individual members
of the group, use a plural verb.
When referring to a group as a single unit, a singular verb
is used.
The public is…
The family is…
The class is demanding…
When referring to a group's members as individuals, a
plural verb is used.
The committee fight among themselves.
The student body are talking with each other.
The class are writing.

1.2.10. Nouns with Foreign Plurals

Some nouns retain the plural forms peculiar to the languages
from which they have been borrowed: alumni, media, crisis. Still
other nouns occur with either their original plural forms or plural
forms typical of English: aquaria or aquariums, criteria or
criterions. If you are in doubt as to the correct or preferred plural
form of a noun, consult a good dictionary.
Note: Be careful not to use a plural form when you refer to a
singular idea.
For instance:
He is an alumnus [not alumni] of this school.
Exercise:
I. Mark the appropriate verb choice for each of the following
sentences:
1. The noisy students (have/ has) to leave after two warnings.
2. She is the only one of the students who (have/ has) failed the
test.
3. The crying baby (irritate /irritates) them.
4. The longest of the presentations (is/ are) the next group.
5. The students and their teacher (is/ are) traveling to the
competition.
6. Either one of the choices (is/ are) going to disrupt the schedule.
7. This is the stereo system that (have/ has) been purchased most
often in our store.
8. Nobody (dare/ dares) to challenge the teacher when she is

wrong.
9. The players or their coach (is/ are) holding a press conference.
10. Neither of the students (has/ have) been to Europe.
11. The problems (was/ were) due to a misunderstanding.
12. Which (is/ are) more interesting, the red jackets or the blue
sweaters?
13. (Has/Have) the manager or the assistant manager approached
you?
14. Joan, as well as my sister, (is/are) in college now.
15. Several of the students (has/ have) left.
16. Both of the children (has/ have) red notebooks.
17. One of the best-known love stories (is/ are) Romeo and Juliet.
18. Mathematics (is/ are) very difficult for many students to
master.
19. She is one of the girls who (have/ has) long hair.
20. She or her sisters (is/ are) going.
II. Mark the appropriate verb choice for each of the following
sentences.
1. Each of the exercises (take/ takes) about twenty minutes to
complete.

2. The ladies and the child (is/ are) planning to have pizza for
lunch.
3. The teacher, along with her students, (is/ are) determined to
have a good year.
4. Please tell me when John and Mary (go/ goes) to the store.
5. The class (watch/watches) a movie every Friday night.
6. The number of issues (seem/ seems) to be increasing.
7. The husband and his wife (drive/drives) a convertible.
8. Hardly anyone (speak/ speaks) to her.
9. He or his sister (want/ wants) to visit Europe next summer.
10. She (take/ takes) her dog for a walk each evening.
11. The brother and sister (want/ wants) to visit their aunt and
uncle.
12. The high school senior, along with his parents, (is/ are) upset
over the sudden policy change.
13. The songs they sing (stay/ stays) in my mind all day.
14. Ten dollars (is/ are) too much to charge for such a small item.
15. She and her mother (talk/ talks) over the phone almost every
day.

1.3. TYPES OF SENTENCES BASED ON FUNCTIONS
A sentence is a word or a group of words expressing a complete

idea.
E.g. They are reading a book.
Do you speak English?
It’s a fine day!
According to the purpose of the utterance we distinguish four
kinds of sentences:
1) The Declarative Sentence
2) The Interrogative Sentence
3) The Imperative Sentence
4) The Exclamatory Sentence
1.3.1. A declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or
negative form.
E.g., This is a museum. (+)
She is not a student. (–)
Negative sentences are formed by means of the negative particle
“not” which is put after the verb (auxiliary, modal, link verb).
E.g., I do not like rainy weather.
Negative pronouns (no-one, none, neither, nothing, no, etc.),
negative adverbs (never, nowhere, etc.) and some other words
(hardly, refuse, without, etc.) are also used to express negation.
Mind! There is only one negation in an English sentence.
E.g., She never walks alone.

1.3.2. Interrogative sentences ask questions.

E.g., Where do you live?
1.3.3. Imperative sentences express commands, requests,
invitations, etc.
E.g., Stand up.
Open the door, will you?
1.3.4. An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion
or feeling (joy, anger, grief,
wonder, etc.). It often begins with the words “What” and “How”.
E.g., How wonderful!
What fine weather we are having today!
1.4. TYPES OF SENTENCES BASED ON

CLAUSES
A sentence is composed of one or more clauses. A clause contains
a subject and verb.
Independent and Dependent Clauses
There are two types of clauses: independent clauses and
dependent clauses. A sentence contains at least one independent
clause and may contain one or more dependent clauses.
An independent clause (or main clause)
- is a complete thought.

- can stand by itself.

A dependent clause (or subordinate clause)
- is an incomplete thought.
- cannot stand by itself.
You can spot a dependent clause by identifying the subordinating
conjunction. A subordinating conjunction creates a dependent
clause that relies on the rest of the sentence for meaning. The
following list provides some examples of subordinating
conjunctions
● after
● As
● Before
● if
● though
● while
● unless
● although
● because
● even though
● since
● when
● until
● whereas
●

Independent and Dependent Clauses

Independent clause: When I go to the movies, I usually buy
popcorn.
Dependent clause: When I go to the movies, I usually buy
popcorn.
Independent clause: I don’t like the ocean because sharks scare
me.
Dependent clause: I don’t like the ocean because sharks scare
me.
1.5. STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES

According to their grammatical structure, there are three types of
sentences
1. Simple sentences
2. Compound sentences
3. Complex sentences
1.5.1 SIMPLE SENTENCES
A simple sentence consists of only one main clause and no
subordinate clause. It contains one subject and one verb in the
predicate part.
Some examples are:
i) All the boys and girls have passed.
ii) The news made him sad.

iii) Walking is a good exercise.

iv) What a beautiful view!
v) Where can I find him?
vi) He was too tired to walk.
1.5.2. COMPOUND SENTENCES

A compound sentence has more than one main clause joined
together by coordinating conjunctions (joining words) such as
and, but, yet, still, or neither… nor, not only…. But also, etc.
Example,
a) Mohan worked hard and passed in the first division.
In this sentence, there are two clauses
1. Mohan worked hard.
2. He passed in the first division.
Here both the clauses are main clauses and they can be linked by
‘and’.
b) In a compound sentence there can also be more than two
independent clauses.
c) You should give up smoking or you will get cancer of the
mouth and lung. (‘or’ is the coordinator)
d) Let’s take a taxi, otherwise we will miss the train.
(‘otherwise’ is the coordinator)

e) He neither works himself, nor lets others work. (here

‘neither…nor’ is the coordinator)
1.5.3. COMPLEX SENTENCES
A complex sentence has one main or independent clause and one
or more subordinate or dependent clauses but these subordinate
clauses cannot stand independently of the main clause.
Example,
I have finished reading the book that you gave me.
Here, ‘I have finished reading the book’ is the main clause and
‘that you gave me’ is the dependent clause. The second clause
cannot stand independently of the main clause.
1.5.3.1. Subordinate clauses
There are three kinds of clauses:
1) Noun Clauses
2) Adjective Clauses
3) Adverbial Clauses
Examples:
a) This is the house where I was born.
Here the clause ‘where I was born’ tells us about a particular
house. It does the work of an adjective and is, therefore, an
adjective clause; adjectival clauses are also called relative
clauses.
b) What she says is quite true.

Here what she says does the work of a noun and is therefore a
Noun clause.
c) He went home when school was over.
In this sentence, the clause ‘when the school was over’ does the
work of an adverb and is, therefore, an adverbial clause.
1.5.3.1.1 THE NOUN CLAUSE

Below are some sentences. The italicised clauses in these
sentences are Noun Clauses i.e., they take the place of nouns.
1. He told me that he would come to see me. Here the noun
clause is introduced by ‘that’ and functions as the object
of the verb ‘told’
2. That she is the most brilliant girl of our class will be
admitted by everyone. Here the noun clause functions as
the subject of the verb ‘will be admitted’.
3. My belief is that he is innocent. (functions as the
complement of the verb ‘is’)
4. I am glad to hear that you have passed. (object to an
infinitive)
5. Hoping that he would succeed, he made another attempt.
(object to a participle)
6. My success depends on how you help me. (object to a
preposition)
7. I was not sure whose mistake it was. (adjectival
complement)
8. If/ whether clauses as Noun clauses.

I asked her if / whether she can speak Russian.
Whether he comes or not doesn’t concern me.
1.5.3.1.2 ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

Adjectival Clauses, also called Relative Clauses, qualify or define
the nouns or noun phrases before them. They answer the question:
‘Which person or thing?’ They are introduced by relative
pronouns such as that, which, who, etc. who is used to refer to
persons, which to things, small animals, etc., and that to both
persons and things.
When the adjectival clause defines a place, time, or reason, we
use where, when and why in place of the relative person. These
words are called “relative adverbs”.
Example:
The house, which is for sale, is at the end of the street.
We asked the doctor the reason why the patient was not
recovering.
That is the man who quarrelled with me in the train.
DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

A defining relative clause is one which is essential to the clear
understanding of the noun preceding it.

In the sentence ‘The man who gave me this information refused

to give me his name’, ‘who gave me this information’ is the
defining relative clause. If we omit this, it is not clear what man
we are talking about. Notice that there is no comma between the
noun ‘man’ and the defining relative clause following it.
The noise that they made woke up everybody.
The girls who work in the restaurant are the owner’s
daughters.
A non-defining relative clause is placed after a noun which is
already definite. It does not, therefore, define the noun, but
merely adds something to it by giving some more information
about it. It is separated from its noun by a comma. This
construction is more common in written than spoken English.
Clara’s father, who lives in Bombay, is seriously ill.
1.5.3.1.3. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Adverbial Clauses are of many kinds. They modify the verbs to
which they are connected in meaning.
1. Adverbial Clauses of Time
It denotes or specifies the time when the time expressed by
the main clause takes place.
Examples,
Whenever we have a puncture, she just sits in the car while I
change the wheel.
It is now ten years since he gave up drinking.
The train had left before we reached the station.

Wait here till I come back.
As soon as we left the house, it began to rain.
Note the conjunctions that introduce the adverbial clauses of
time: when, whenever, since, after, before, as long as, till etc.
The adverbial clause of time can come either at the beginning
of the sentence or in its predicate part.
2. Adverbial Clauses of Place
This clause is introduced by subordinate conjunctions-
where, whatever, etc.
Examples,
Keep these papers where you can find them easily.
He makes friends wherever he goes.
Wherever you go, I will go with you.
3. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose
The clause expresses a purpose and so they are called adverbial
clauses of purpose.
Note: we can use ‘in order that’ or simply ‘that’ in place of ‘so
that’.
Examples,
We do exercise so that we may keep fit.

I am insuring my life so that my children should have

something to live on if I am killed.
I worked hard that/ so that/ in order that I might get good
marks.
4. Adverbial Clauses of Reason or Cause
Some examples,
As we had not any money, we could not buy anything to eat.
As it was raining, he wore a raincoat.
As / since he is honest and hardworking, he will easily get the
job.
5. Adverbial Clauses of Result or Effect
Some examples,
He worked so hard that he fell ill.
He was so tired that he could not walk further.
The box was so heavy that I could not carry it.
His speech went on for so long that people began to fall
asleep.
Or
He spoke for such a long time that people began to fall asleep.
Note the difference between the two constructions, ‘such + a
+ adjective + noun’ and ‘so + adjective + a+ noun’

6. Adverbial Clauses of Comparison

For example,
She is more intelligent than her brother.
I like you not less than him.
He is as tall as you are.
She looks younger than she actually is.
He is not as stupid as he looks.
Note:
a) ‘so…as’ cannot be used in affirmative sentences. It is used
only in negative sentences.
b) ‘as…as’ can be used in both affirmative and negative
sentences.
c) When pronouns are used without verbs, an accusative form
is used. But it is better to use normative pronouns with
verbs.
d) ‘like’ can be followed by noun/ pronoun or gerund. It should
not be followed by subject + verb.
E.g.: Sitting here is like sitting in hell.
7. Adverbial Clauses of Manner or Extent
Examples,
You may do as you please.
As you sow, so shall you reap.
It looks as if it might rain.

He speaks as if he knew everything.
8. Adverbial Clauses of Condition
The three kinds of conditional sentences should be
distinguished: conditional sentences have two parts, the if-
clause and the main clause.
Type I. Probable Condition
The verb in the if-clause is in the present tense; the verb
in the main clause is in the future tense:
Examples,
If you work hard, you will pass.
If you take a taxi, you will reach the station on time.
If the weather is fine, we shall go for a picnic.
The adverb clauses in these sentences express conditions that
may or can be fulfilled.
The adverb clause can also express a negative condition.
If you don’t take a taxi, you will not reach the station in
time.
If the weather is fine, we shall go for a picnic.
The adverb clauses in these sentences express conditions that
may or can be fulfilled.

Negative conditions can also be expressed with the

conjunction ‘unless’.
Unless you work hard, you will not pass.
Unless you reach the venue on time, you will miss the
premiere.
Type II. Improbable Condition
The verb in the if-clause is in the past tense; the verb in the
main clause is in the conditional tense (would, should etc).
If he asked me, I would help him (but I don’t suppose he
will ask me).
This type is used when we don’t expect the action in the if-
clause to take place. This is also used in imaginary
suppositions.
If a bear embraced you, you would be crushed to death.
If he ran all the way, he would get to the station on time
(but I don’t suppose he will run all the way).
Type III. Impossible Condition

If I had known of your arrival, I would have come to the
station to receive you (but I did not know so I didn’t come to
the station).
If he had not wasted his time, he would not have failed
(but he wasted his time and so he failed).

These sentences express an unfulfilled condition relating to the

past. The verb in the if-clause is in the Past perfect tense and
the verb in the main clause is in the Perfect Conditional
(could have, would have, might have, should have).
Some examples,
If the printing press had not been invented, there would
not have been much progress in knowledge.
Had I been rich, I would have helped you.
9. Adverbial Clauses of Concession or Contrast
These are introduced by though, although, even if, however,
whatever, no matter etc.
Examples,
Though he is rich, he is not happy.
All opposed him; he, however, stuck to his point.
Even if it drizzles, we shall go out for jogging and our
morning exercises.
No matter how heavy the box is, I shall carry it.
I have read this passage several times, yet I haven’t been
able to understand it.
Note:
a) ‘Even though’ is the stronger form of ‘although’
b) But is not used after ‘although’, ‘though’ or ‘even though’
c) Although/ though as a subordinate conjunction is the
equivalent of but / still/ that as a coordinating conjunction.

d) ‘However’ is followed by an adjective/ adverb.
1.6. AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES

1.6.1. Affirmative sentence:
An affirmative sentence is a sentence that affirms (rather than
negates) a proposition.
E.g. He is honest.
1.6.2. Negative Sentence:
A negative sentence states something is not true or incorrect or
presents some fact by using a negative word (e.g. no, not). A
negative sentence can be formed when words like “no”, “not”,
“don’t” or “doesn’t” are added to the sentence.
E.g. Dogs do not chase after rats.
1.6.3. Interchange of affirmative and negative sentences:

(i) By way of using negative words with opposite adjectives,
an affirmative sentence could be transformed into a
negative sentence.
Affirmative: Man is mortal.
Negative: Man is not immortal.
Affirmative: He is honest.
Negative: He is not dishonest.

Affirmative: Brutus loved Caesar.

Negative: Brutus did not hate Caesar.
Affirmative: Where there is fire, there is smoke.

Negative: There is no smoke without fire.
Affirmative: Everyone distrusts a liar.

Negative: No one trusts a liar.
(ii) By the way of changing degrees of comparison:

Affirmative: He is as good as I am.
Negative: I am not better than he is.
Affirmative: He is the best student.

Negative: No other student is as good as he.
Affirmative: As soon as the teacher arrived, the noise ceased.

Negative: No sooner did the teacher arrive than the noise ceased.
(iii) There are also other ways to change an affirmative

sentence to a negative sentence:
Affirmative: Only the brave deserves the fair.
Negative: None but the brave deserves the fair.

Affirmative: He is too weak to walk.

Negative: He is so weak that he cannot walk.
# DEGREE OF COMPARISON
Adjectives change in form to show comparison. They are called
the three Degrees of Comparison.
Examples, Sweet- Sweeter- Sweetest
The adjective sweet is said to be in the Positive Degree.
The adjective sweeter is said to be in the Comparative Degree.
The adjective sweetest is said to be in the Superlative Degree.
The Positive Degree of an Adjective is the Adjective in its simple
form. it is used to denote the mere existence of some quality of
what we speak about. It is used when no comparison is made.
The Comparative Degree of an Adjective denotes a higher degree
of the quality than the positive, and is used when two things (or
sets of things) are compared.
For example:
This boy is stronger than that.
Apples are dearer than oranges.
The Superlative Degree of an Adjective denotes the highest
degree of the quality, and is used when more than two things (or
sets of things) are compared.
This boy is the strongest in the class.
Note1: There is another way in which we can compare things.
Instead of saying ‘Tom is stronger than Jerry’, we can say ‘Jerry
is less strong than Tom’. Instead of saying ‘Stephen is the laziest

boy in the class’, we can say ‘Stephen is the least industrious boy
in the class’.
Note 2: The Superlative with most is sometimes used where there
is no idea of comparison, but merely a desire to indicate the
possession of a quality in a very high degree; as in
This is most unfortunate.
Truly a most ingenious device!
This usage has been called the Superlative of Eminence or the
Absolute Superlative.
FORMATION OF COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
Most Adjectives of one syllable, and some of more than one,
form the Comparative by adding er and the Superlative by
adding est to the Positive.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Sweet sweeter sweetest
Small smaller smallest
Tall taller tallest
Bold bolder boldest
Clever cleverer cleverest
Kind kinder kindest
Young younger youngest
Great greater greatest
When the Positive ends in e, only r and st are added.

Brave braver bravest
Fine finer finest
Large larger largest

Able abler ablest
Noble nobler noblest
Wise wiser wisest
White whiter whitest
When the Positive ends in y, preceded by a consonant, the y is

changed into ‘i’ before adding er and est.
Happy happier happiest
Easy easier easiest
Heavy heavier heaviest
Merry merrier merriest
Wealthy wealthier wealthiest
When the Positive is a word of one syllable and ends in a single

consonant, preceded by a short vowel, this consonant is doubled
before adding er and est.
Red redder reddest
Big bigger biggest
Hot hotter hottest
Thin thinner thinnest
Sad sadder saddest
Fat fatter fattest
Adjectives of more than two syllables form the Comparative and

Superlative by putting more and most before the Positive.


Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Difficult more difficult most difficult
Industrious more most industrious
industrious
Courageous more most
courageous courageous
Two-syllable adjectives ending in ful (e.g. useful), less (e.g.

hopeless), ing (e.g. boring) and ed (e.g. surprised) and many
others (e.g. modern, recent, foolish, famous, certain) take more
and most.
The following take either er and est or more and most:
Polite, simple, feeble, gentle, narrow, cruel, common, handsome,
pleasant, stupid etc.
Example:
She is polite/ more polite than her sister.
He is the politest/ most polite of them.
The Comparative in er is not used when we compare two qualities
in the same person or thing. If we wish to say that the courage of
Rama is greater than the courage of Balu, we say,
Rama is braver than Balu.
But if we wish to say that the courage of Rama is greater than his
prudence, we must say,
Rama is more brave than prudent.
When two objects are compared with each other, the latter term
of comparison must exclude the former; as’
Iron is more useful than any other metal.

If we say,
Iron is more useful than any metal,
That is the same thing as saying ‘Iron is more useful than iron’
since iron is itself a metal.
IRREGULAR COMPARISON
The following Adjectives are compared irregularly, that is, their
Comparative and Superlative are not formed from the Positive:
Good, well better best
Bad, evil, ill worse worst
Little less, lesser least
Much more most (quantity)
Late later, latter latest, last
Old older, elder oldest, eldest
Far farther farthest
(Fore) (former) foremost, first
(Fore) further furthest
(In) inner inmost, innermost
(up) upper upmost, uppermost
(Out) outer, (utter) utmost, uttermost
Note: The forms nigh, nigher, nighest, fore and utter are outdated.
The double forms of the Comparative and Superlative of the
Adjectives:
Later, latter; latest, last- Later and latest refer to time; latter and
last refer to position.

Examples:
He is later than I expected.
The last chapter is carelessly written.
Ours is the last house in the street.
The latter chapters are lacking in interest.
Elder, older; eldest, oldest – elder and eldest are used only of
persons, not of animals or things; and are now confined to
members of the same family. Elder is not used with than
following. Older and oldest are used of both persons and things.
Farther, further- both farther and further are used to express
distance. Further is used to mean “additional”.
Examples:
After this he made no further remarks.
The raft carried the family farther north than they had planned.
Nearest, next- Nearest means the shortest distance away. Next
refers to one of a sequence of things coming one after the other.
Examples:
Mumbai is the seaport nearest to Europe.
My uncle lives in the next house.
Certain English Comparatives have lost their comparative
meaning and are used as Positive. They cannot be followed by
than. These are:
Former, latter, elder, upper, inner, outer, utter.

Examples:
Both the tiger and the leopard are cats; the former animal is
much larger than the latter.
The inner meaning of this letter is not clear.
The soldiers ran to defend the outer wall.
My elder brother is an engineer.
This man is an utter fool.
Certain Comparatives borrowed from Latin have no Positive or
Superlative degree. They all end in or, not er. They are twelve in
all. Five of them have lost their Comparative meaning and are
used as Positive Adjectives. These are:
Interior, exterior, ulterior, major, minor.
Examples:
The exterior wall of the house is made of stone.
His age is a matter of minor importance.
I have no ulterior motive in offering you help.
The other seven are used as Comparative Adjectives followed by
to instead of than. Comparative Adjectives ending in -or are
followed by the preposition to; as
Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, posterior, senior, junior
Examples:
Hari is inferior to Ram in intelligence.
Rama’s intelligence is superior to Hari’s.

He is junior to all his colleagues.

All his colleagues are senior to him.
Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of different
degrees cannot, strictly speaking, be compared; as,
Square, round, perfect, eternal, universal, unique.
Strictly speaking, a thing cannot be more square, more round,
more perfect. But we say, for instance,
This is the most perfect specimen I have seen.
INTERCHANGE OF THE DEGREE OF COMPARISON

It is possible to change the Degree of Comparison of an Adjective
in a sentence, without changing the meaning of the sentence:
Examples:
Positive: Some poets are at least as great as Tennyson.
Comparative: Tennyson is not greater than some other poets.
Superlative: Tennyson is not the greatest of all poets.
Superlative: Chennai is one of the biggest of Indian cities.

Comparative: Chennai is bigger than most other Indian cities.
Positive: Very few Indian cities are as big as Chennai.

1.7. CONNECTIVES/ CONJUNCTIONS

According to the Common Core State Standards (CCSS),
students are to use language comprehensively and be able to
develop different methods of linking paragraphs in oral and
written language. Hence, it is important that students learn
appropriate use of connectives and conjunctions as both have
similar grammar functions. A connective is used as connecting
words within a sentence whereas, conjunction usually connects
two sentences. Connectives are commonly used to indicate
different purposes, such as addition, sequence, consequence
and/or contrast. They are also used to indicate reason and time.
1.7.1. Use of Connectives
Connectives can be one word or a phrase. The purpose of the
words or ideas to be connected will determine the type of
connective used. Connectives can be also used as starters of a
paragraph or clause, whereas conjunctions generally cannot.
1.7.2. Basic Rules for Using Connectives
The different types of connectives are not interchangeable. The
sentences/ideas being connected must be related. Connectives are
usually used only once in a sentence.
Connectives Used for Different Purposes
Adding Cause and Sequencing Contrasting

Effect
and, also, as because, so, next, then, whereas,

well as, first, instead
moreover, therefore,
thus,

furthermore, consequently, second, of,

as a result of, finally, alternatively,
besides, in etc.
meanwhile, otherwise,
addition, etc. after,
unlike, on the
etc.
other hand,
in contrast,
etc.
Qualifying Emphasizing Illustrating Comparing
however, above all, in for example, equally, in the

although, particular, such as, for same way,
unless, like,
especially, instance, as
except, if, as similarly,
significantly, revealed by, in
long as, likewise, as
apart indeed, the case of, as with,
notably,
from, yet, shown by, etc. as compared
most of all
despite, etc. with, etc.
Examples,
1. The teacher liked my grades, in particular my 100%
grade for writing. (emphasizing)
2. I can go out with friends, as long as I am home by 9:00
p.m. (qualifying)
3. The film is long and boring, whereas the book is thrilling

and well written. (contrasting)
4. Class debates are interesting, for example the one about
the Civil War. (illustrating)
5. Today, we completed the chapter on cells; therefore, we
will have a quiz on this topic tomorrow.
Exercise
Fill in the blanks with appropriate connectives:
1. I put a note beside his cereal bowl; ________, he would not
notice it.
2. She married him _________ he was extremely rich.
3. You should study more, _________ you might fail your exams.
4. Sarah was not smiling. _____________, Sarah was already
lonely.
5. I will go for a walk if the weather is nice; ________, you can
ride your bike.
(since, because, furthermore, otherwise, likewise)
Connectives such as and, but, after, because, though, as,

wherein, whereupon, for, unless, lest, while, whereas etc. are
also called conjunctions. Some of these connectives are known as
coordinating conjunctions and some others are called
subordinating conjunctions.
Examples,
He was not well and he could not come to the meeting.
Unless you solve sums, you cannot feel confident in
Mathematics.
A main/ principal/ independent clause can independently convey
the meaning, while a dependent/ subordinating clause has to
depend on the clause for its meaning.
Main coordinating conjunctions: And, but, or, also, either… or,
neither…nor, etc.
Main subordinating conjunctions: Though, although, as, when,
unless, while, because etc.
1.8. COLLOCATIONS
A collocation is a pair or group of words that are often used
together. These combinations sound natural to native speakers,
but students of English have to make a special effort to learn them
because they are often difficult to guess. Some combinations just
sound ‘wrong’ to native speakers of English. For example, the
adjective fast collocates with cars, but not with a glance.
Learning collocations is an important part of learning the
vocabulary of a language. Some collocations are fixed, or very
strong, for example take a photo, where no word other than take
collocates with photo to give the same meaning.
Some collocations are more open, where several different words
may be used to give a similar meaning, for example, keep to /
stick to the rules.
Here are some more examples of collocations:

You must make an effort and study for your exams (NOT do an
effort)
Did you watch TV last night? (NOT look at TV)
This car has a very powerful engine. It can do 200 km an hour.
(NOT strong engine)
There are some ancient monuments nearby. (NOT antique
monuments)
Sometimes, a pair of words may not be absolutely wrong, and
people will understand what is meant, but it may not be the
natural, normal collocation. If someone says I did a few mistakes,
they will be understood, but a fluent speaker of English would
probably say I made a few mistakes.
1.8.1. Compounds and Idioms
Compounds are units of meaning formed with two or more words.
Sometimes the words are written separately, sometimes they have
a hyphen and sometimes they are written as one word. Usually,
the meaning of the compound can be guessed by knowing the
meaning of the individual words. Some examples of compounds
are car park, post office, narrow-minded, shoelaces, teapot.
It is not always easy to separate collocations and compounds and,
where they are useful for learners or an important part of the
vocabulary of a topic, we include some compounds in this book
too.
Idioms are groups of words in a fixed order that have a meaning
that cannot be guessed by knowing the meaning of the individual
words. For example, pass the buck is an idiom meaning ‘to pass
responsibility for a problem to another person to avoid dealing

with it oneself’.
1.8.2. Importance of Collocation
Learning collocations is a good idea because they can:
a) give you the most natural way to say something: smoking is
strictly forbidden is more natural than smoking is strongly
forbidden.
b) give you alternative ways of saying something, which may be
more colourful/expressive or more precise: instead of repeating It
was very cold and very dark, we can say It was bitterly cold and
pitch dark.
c) improve your style in writing: instead of saying poverty causes
crime, you can say poverty breeds crime; instead of saying a big
meal you can say a substantial meal. You may not need or want
to use these in informal conversations, but in writing they can
give your text more variety and make it read better: this book
includes notes about formality wherever the collocations are
especially formal or informal.
1.8.3. Types of collocation
There are many different types of collocation.
Here are some examples.
1.8.3.1. Adjectives and nouns
Notice adjectives that are typically used with particular nouns.
Emma always wears red or yellow or some other bright colour.

We had a brief chat about the exams but didn’t have time to
discuss them properly.
Unemployment is a major problem for the government at the
moment.
Improving the health service is another key issue for the
government.
1.8.3.2. Nouns and verbs
Notice how nouns and verbs often go together.
The examples below are all to do with economics and business:
The economy boomed in the 1990s. [the economy was very
strong]
The company has grown and now employs 50 more people
than last year.
The company has expanded and now has branches in most
major cities.
The two companies merged in 2013 and now form one very
large corporation.
The company launched the product in 2012. [introduced the
product]
The price increase poses a problem for us. [is a problem]
The internet has created opportunities for our business.
[brought new opportunities]

1.8.3.3. Noun + noun

There are a lot of collocations with the pattern a … of ….
As Max read the lies about him, he felt a surge of anger. [literary:
a sudden angry feeling]
Every parent feels a sense of pride when their child does well or
wins something.
I felt a pang of nostalgia when I saw the old photos of the village
where I grew up.
1.8.3.4. Verbs and expressions with prepositions
Some verbs collocate with prepositional expressions.
As Jack went on stage to receive his gold medal for the judo
competition you could see his parents swelling with pride.
[looking extremely proud]
I was filled with horror when I read the newspaper report of the
explosion.
When she spilt juice on her new skirt the little girl burst into
tears. [suddenly started crying]
1.8.3.5. Verbs and adverbs
Some verbs have particular adverbs which regularly collocate
with them.
She pulled steadily on the rope and helped him to safety. [pulled
firmly and evenly]
He placed the beautiful vase gently on the window ledge.

‘I love you and want to marry you,’ Dylan whispered softly to

Madison.
She smiled proudly as she looked at the photos of her new
grandson.
1.8.3.6. Adverbs and adjectives
Adjectives often have particular adverbs which regularly
collocate with them.
They are happily married.
I am fully aware that there are serious problems. [I know well]
Harry was blissfully unaware that he was in danger. [Harry had
no idea at all, often used about something unpleasant]
Collocation Example
pay a compliment I was trying to pay her a
compliment but she
misunderstood.
pay your (last) respects At a funeral people pay their last
respects to the person who has
died.
pay tribute [formal] When Jack retired, his boss made a
speech paying tribute to all he
had done for the company.
pay attention You must pay attention to the
teacher.

have a break Let’s have a break when you

finish this exercise.
have a conversation/chat I hope we’ll have time to have a
chat after the meeting.
have difficulty The class had difficulty
understanding what to do.
have a dream/nightmare I had a nightmare last night.
have an experience I had a frightening experience the
other day.
do your best All that matters in the exam is to
do your best.
do someone a good turn / Jess did me a good turn by
do someone a favour lending me her car while mine was
in the garage.
Could you do me a favour and
pick me up some milk from the
supermarket?
do harm Changing the rules may do more
harm than good.
do your hair No, I’m not ready. I haven’t done
my hair yet.
make arrangements for The school can make
arrangements for pupils with
special needs.
make a decision I’m glad it’s you who has to make
the decision, not me.

make an effort Michael is really making an

effort with his maths this term.
make an excuse I’m too tired to go out tonight.
Let’s make an excuse and stay at
home.
make friends Caroline is very good at making
friends.
make a phone call I’ve got to make some phone
calls before dinner.
strongly deny The PM strongly denied claims of
corruption made against him.
reject an idea / a Ann rejected all Joe’s suggestions
suggestion about how to decorate their flat.
to walk briskly/swiftly The nurse walked briskly over to
the bed.
1.8.3.7. Common mistakes

Note these collocations:
deny/reject a claim, deny a rumour / an allegation / an
accusation but reject an idea / a suggestion and refuse an
invitation/offer. You deny/ reject/refuse something. You deny
that something is true. You can also refuse to do something (in
the future) but deny doing something (in the past).
1.8.3.8. Common expressions for everyday events
The book caused an uproar in the United States. [made a lot of
people complain angrily]
If you make her angry, you’ll have to suffer the consequences.
The accident had a huge effect on her life.

Latino singers have had a major impact on pop music this year.
Remember that it makes/creates a bad impression if you’re late.
The drug companies have a lot of influence on doctors.
Their love affair caused a sensation.
It’s two o’clock. Let’s make a start / get started, shall we? Then
we can finish by five.
As my time at university came to an end, I knew I had to start
looking for a job.
1.9. PUNCTUATION MARKS

Punctuation marks are visual indicators used in a written or
printed text to separate sentences or a part of a sentence from
another. We use punctuation to make the meaning of words and
sentences clear. The most important punctuation marks are
1. Full stop / Period (.)
2. Comma (,)
3. Dash ( __ )
4. Hyphen (-)
5. Semicolon (;)
6. Double inverted commas (“”)
7. Single inverted commas (‘’)
8. Colon (:)
9. Apostrophe (’)
10. Parenthesis ()
11. Sign of interrogation / Question mark (?)
12. Exclamation mark (!)
13. Capital letters
Let us discuss these punctuation marks in detail
1.9.1. Full stop/ period (.)
● It is used to mark the end of an affirmative, negative, or

imperative sentence.
For example:
Marie Curie was a great scientist.
Listen to me.
She did not know the way to the market.
● It is also used in abbreviations, such as the following:

He is an M.B.B.S. doctor.
Our teacher is pursuing his Ph.D.
● Do not use periods with acronyms. Acronyms are

abbreviations formed from the first letters of a name or title.
Acronyms are usually pronounced as words.

Example:
NASA stands for National Aeronautical Space
Administration.
● Many organizations whose shortened names are not

pronounced as words, but as individual letters do not use
periods after the letters in the shortened names.
Example:
You need to file your tax return with the IRS no later than
April 15.
● Periods are used in Internet addresses. If an Internet address is

at the end of a sentence, use a period at the end. The reader
should know not to include that period when using the address
online.
Example:
My favourite source for news is www.cnn.com.
● It was customary to write Mr. and Mrs. in English, that is, with
a full stop at the end of these words. In present usage, we write
these abbreviations as Mr and Mrs, that is, without a full stop
since they are now seen as full spellings. With Miss, do not use
a period.
Example:
Miss Linda is a music teacher.
1.9.2. Comma
A comma (,) suggests a pause in writing. Some of the uses
are:
● It indicates omission of a word, especially a verb.

Examples:
Her mother was English, her father, an American.
● It separates the coordinate clause(s) in a compound sentence.

Examples:
I came, I saw, I conquered.
Father is in the office; mother is in the kitchen.
● It separates the subject and the long preceding phrase that

characterizes it.
Examples:
Harassed and distraught right from the early days of her
marriage, she decided to embark on a journey of her own.
● It separates the same parts of speech used in the same

sentence.
Examples:
He was tall, slim, and handsome.
Books, chairs, tables, desks, and settees could be seen in the
lawn.
● It separates the parenthetical ideas from the core ideas in a

sentence.
Examples:
Your suggestion, however, is quite tempting.
No such efforts, therefore, are going to yield fruit.
● It marks a non-defining clause. It is used to contribute to the

original idea in a parenthetical way and can be omitted
without doing any harm to the core meaning of the sentence.
Examples:
My friend, who is a journalist, doesn’t think so.
The poet, the one who always defied the system, decided not
to comply with the king’s orders.
● It is used to separate two or more nouns in apposition.

Examples:
Shakespeare, the greatest dramatist of all times, was born in
1564.
Sam, my uncle, is returning from England.
● It is used to address people.

Examples:
Sir, I am indebted to you.
How are you, my dear?
● It marks off direct quotations from the rest of the sentence.

Examples:
Mother said to her children, ‘Have your food’.
“Come in and tell what happened”, the fat man said.

● It is used to separate an adverbial clause from the main

clause.
Examples:
If you do not work hard, you cannot succeed.
When we came back, we found the doors open.
● It is used before and after words, phrases, or clauses that are

introduced to the main thought in a parenthetical way.
Examples:
This, in no way, is my problem.
Your story, in all probability, is a fairy tale.
1.9.3. Dash ( _ )
A dash ( _ ) indicated by a long horizontal line is often used
in place of a colon or parenthesis. Some of the uses are:
● It is used to emphasize the idea anticipated in the sentence.

Examples:
Finally, we got what we had all along desired – our first
television set at home.
He is what you expect him to be – the greatest fool on earth!
● At times, much like a comma, a dash is used to separate an

expression from the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
He is – after all – his mother’s son.
In the end – to be precise – I would say that all that shines is

not gold.
● It is also used after the colon to indicate something that

follows.
Examples:
These are some of the views –
He says – frailty thy name is woman!
● It is used to indicate an abrupt change of idea.

Example:
Had he not boarded the plane – but what is the use of thinking
like that?
Once you reach here – but wait, you are coming, aren’t you?
1.9.4. Hyphen (-)
It is a shorter line than a dash. The following are some of
the uses:
● It is used to join two or more words in a compound word.

Examples:
She was truly happy for her daughter-in-law.
The ex-director of the company is paying a visit this
afternoon.
The commander-in-chief refused to sanction any leave
to the sergeant.

1.9.5. Semicolon (;)

It stands for a longer pause than a comma. Following are the
uses:
● It is used to separate clauses.

Examples:
Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and
writing an exact man.
Man proposes; God disposes.
● It is used to express different ideas without writing a new

sentence.
Examples:
In the morning, he fought with his wife; in the afternoon, he
reconciled with her.
One man kept her in good humour; the other kept her in the
need of the first.
1.9.6. Colon (:)
It is used to list examples and enumeration.
Examples:
Following are the examples of parts of speech: noun, pronoun,
adjective, adverb, etc.
These are the points to be kept in mind: ….

1.9.7. Single inverted commas (‘’)

These are used to cite a quotation within another quotation.
Example:
“There is no point in keeping a pulled face”, said he, “even if
you are perturbed by the ‘to be or not to be’ conundrum.”
“What sort of movie was that – so loud and so pompous?” felt
she, “they seem to have forgotten that ‘art lies in concealing
art’.”
1.9.8. Double inverted commas (“”)
These are used to quote exact words of the person being quoted.
Examples:
He said, “You are my friend.”
Eliot begins by saying, “April is the cruellest month.”
1.9.9. Apostrophe (’)
● It is used to indicate the possessive case of a noun. If the noun

is singular, the apostrophe is followed by an s; if the noun is
plural, the s is followed by the apostrophe, except when the
plural does not end in s, as in the case of a few irregular nouns,
e.g., children’s:
Example:
The children’s books are lying there.
The girl’s purse was lost. (The purse of a girl)

The girls’ purses were stolen. (Purses of many girls)
● It is also used to show words in a contracted form.

Example:
Let’s go and watch some play. (let’s stands for let us)
You’re just a complete fool. (you’re stands for you are)
● It is sometimes also used to show the letters and figures in the

plural form to avoid confusion.
Example:
In 1970’s was seen the first wave of Parallel Hindi Cinema.
Articulate your s’s and sh’s properly.
1.9.10. Parentheses ( )
Used by writers to indicate an afterthought by introducing some
words, phrase, or a clause:
Examples:
The great man (this is how he is seen to be in the area) is
reported to have killed his wife.
The development (so it seems) was achieved by turning the
poor out of their huts.
1.9.11. Sign of Interrogation/ Question Mark
It is used after a direct question or a tag question that is appended
to a statement.

Example:
Do you understand what I say?
You are stupid, aren’t you?
Remember that a question mark is not used after an indirect
question.
Example:
I am not sure what to do in life.
They asked their children whether they are doing good
parenting.
1.9.12. Exclamation Mark
It is used in phrases and sentences that express sudden, strong
emotion or a wish:
Example:
May you live long!
What a terrible sight!
O Hamlet, speak no more!
1.9.13. Capital letters
Capital letters are used for various purposes. To begin with, we
start a sentence with a capital letter:
Examples:
We can’t do anything about it.

No problem.
Has he come?
● They are used to begin a sentence inside inverted commas.

Examples:
It is said, “To err is human.”
● They normally begin a proper noun and the adjectives we

form from it.
Pinter is known for his theatre language popularly known as
Pinteresque idiom.
● They are used to refer to a person’s title or degree.

Examples:
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was the first prime minister of India.
Sir V.S. Naipaul is visiting India next year.
● They are used to refer to the names of festivals.

Examples:
Christmas falls on 25th December.
Diwali is the single most important festival in our family.
● They are used to refer to the names of days, weeks, months,

and events.
Examples:
On Sundays, we generally get up quite late.
North India is quite cold in January.
● They are used to mark the important words in a title.

Example:
‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’ is a great poem by John Keats.
● They are chosen to refer to the word God and the pronouns
replacing it.
Example:
God is great.
No one knows His ways.
● They are used in words of exclamations

Examples:
Oh! You are back.
This is the solution, Eh!
● The personal pronoun I is always capitalized.

Examples:
I can’t see you.
‘It is doubtful, I said to her.

Exercise:
I. Identify the sentence patterns in the following sentences:
1. Birds fly.
2. Jane reads her sister a story.
3. Ashly learned to ride a bike.
II. Identify the types of sentences:

1. Are you going abroad?
2. Bring me that file.
3. What a time we’ve had!
4. Meera is a successful writer.
III. Transform the following sentences as instructed:

1. She returned home at midnight. (Change to Complex)
2. He is so sick that he cannot speak. (Change to Simple)
3. Despite trying hard, he failed to reach the target. (Change to
Compound)
IV. Change the following into negative:

1. Rani is honest.
2. Everybody was present for the meeting.
3. A giraffe is taller than an elephant.

V. Choose the correct linking word / phrases from the

brackets:
(because of, despite, nevertheless, still, even though, while,
whereas, though, however, in spite of, yet, on the other hand)
1. _______ it was summer and the nights were quite chilly.
2. He is good at languages, _______ his brother is an athlete.
3. I like hamburgers, I don’t like pizza _______.
4. My car is _____ in very good condition. It’s 12 years old.
5. Jimmy can’t read very well. ______ he is a skilful worker.
VI. Choose the right word to form proper collocations:

(give, keep, pay, make, hold, do, take, write, have, create,
cause, bring, get, become, waiting, expecting)
1. The webinar was almost four hours so it was impossible to
____ attention all the time.
2. The teacher could not _____ students’ fight under control.
3. Could you _____ me a favour by posting these letters on your
way home?
4. Rani will quit her present job as she’s _____ a baby.
5. I don’t think we should _____ a decision yet; we should wait.

V. Rewrite the sentence using proper punctuations:

sammy and ralph were snowmen sammy was ralphs cousin
sammy was a very proper little snowman and ralph was a rebel
ralph always wanted to do things differently while sammy always
wanted to do what he was supposed to do because ralph wanted
to be different

MODULE II:
BASIC FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR
2.1. TENSES
The word ‘tense’ literally means ‘time’. The word ‘tense’ refers
to the form which a verb takes and shows the time (past, present
or future) in which the action has been performed or is being
performed.
2.1.1. PRESENT TENSE
2.1.1.1 SIMPLE PRESENT (OR PRESENT INDEFINITE)
TENSE
Form:
Subject + auxiliary verb (do) + main verb (base)
a) To express a habitual or repeated action
Examples:
I go to college at 9 a.m. everyday.
He goes for a morning walk daily.
He always tells lies.
b) To express universal, permanent and verifiable truths
Examples:
The earth moves round the sun.

The rose smells sweet.

Water boils at 1000 C.
c) To state things of general nature.
Examples:
She sings well.
Man does not live by bread alone.
d) It is used with the verbs of going (go, leave, set off, take off,
sail, fly etc) and coming (come, arrive, return etc) provided
futurity is implicit in the context.
Examples:
He goes to London next week. (will go)
Our ship sails next month. (will sail)
e) In ‘if-clause’ of conditional sentences when the principal
clause’ is in the future tense:
Examples:
If you do not hurry, you will not be able to catch the train.
If it does not rain, there will be a drought.
f) This tense is often used in running commentaries during
sports events:
Example:
Tom passes the ball to John and John throws it right on the
stumps and Roy is out.

g) It is also used in describing a past event in a dramatic

manner:
Now King Porus appears before Alexander the Great after
his defeat and boldly answers his questions.
Three important exceptions:
1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2. For the third person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main
verb or es to the auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for
questions and negatives.
Examples:
Mother cooks food daily.
They are not old.
Am I late?
Form:
a) Do/does + subject + main verb (base)
b) Wh – questions (What, why, when etc) + do / does +
subject + main verb (base)
Examples:
I work. (Affirmative)
I do not work. (Negative)
Do I work? (Interrogative)
Do I not work? (Negative Interrogative)
Where does he work?
2.1.1.2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE)

TENSE
Form:
Subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (base) + ing + Object
a) To describe an action which is in progress at the time of
speaking. Ordinarily no adverb of time is used with it.
Example:
The boys are flying kites.
Who is making that horrible noise?
b) To express an action that has been arranged to take place in
the near future. One usually uses this tense to express one’s
immediate plans. The time of the action should be generally
mentioned, otherwise there may be confusion between the
present and future meanings.
Example:
I am meeting the Education Minister tomorrow.
He is meeting us this week.
Some more sentences showing the use of the present
continuous tense.
Example:
He is teaching English and learning German.
My father is writing a book.

My sister is always watching television.

c) This tense is not used with such verbs as: see, hear, smell,
wish, care, hate, like, think, remember, forget, seem, contain,
cost etc.
Example:
I smell something burning.
I think it is coming from Sita’s room. She is probably ironing.
What does this book contain?
But when some of these verbs are used in the present
continuous tense, their meaning changes.
Example:
I am seeing the Home Minister tomorrow. (means ‘visiting’)
He is thinking seriously of leaving the job. (means
‘considering’)
d) In making this tense, the helping verbs ‘is’, ‘am’, ‘are’ are
followed by the ‘ing form of the verb’ (present participle)
2.1.1.3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

This tense may be said to be a sort of mixture of present and
past. It always implies a strong connection with the present.
We use this tense when we are interested in something having
happened which has some result or bearing on the present.

Form:
Subject + auxiliary verb (have) + main verb (past participle)
Example:
He has been in the army for five years. (He is still in the army)
He has lived here all his life. (He still lives here.)
The train has just arrived.
I have known him for a long time. (and I still know him.)
What is said in each sentence has current relevance’, i.e., some
link with the present.
Some other examples showing the use of present perfect.
a) This tense is used for actions or events which, though
completed in the past, have ‘current relevance’. Time is
not mentioned for action of the present perfect tense.
Examples
1. I have seen the Taj; I saw it last month.
2. I have been to Chennai several times; I went there
recently in October.
3. Our manager has returned from Delhi, he came back
this morning.
In these sentences, the first clauses are of the present perfect
tense, and the second clauses are of the simple past tense. When
we have to refer to a definite time in the past (last year, last month,
two hours back etc), we use past tense and not the present perfect

tense. A common mistake is to use the present perfect instead of

the past.
Examples
I have received a letter from him yesterday. (X)
I received a letter from him yesterday. (✔ )
I have met him last Sunday and had a long talk with him. (X)
I met him last Sunday and had a long talk with him. (✔)
b) The use of the present perfect tense with adverbs like just,
already, yet, never, lately, for, since etc.
Examples:
He has just gone out. (a recently performed action)
The train has just left.
I have been very busy lately.
I haven’t finished my work yet.
Note: ‘For’ is used for a period of time in the past and ‘since’
for a point of time. ‘Since’ means from that point to the time
of speaking. It is always used with a perfect tense. It can never
be omitted.
E.g., She has been here since Sunday.
When ‘for is used with the simple past tense, it denotes a
terminated period of time.

E.g., We lived here for ten years (but we don’t live here
now)
We have lived here for ten years (and still live here)
c) The present perfect can be used with a time expression.
Examples:
i. He has been in the army for five years (he is still in the
army).
ii. This room had not been cleaned for months (but we are
cleaning it now).
iii. I have known him for a long time.
d) It is used in time clauses with ‘when’, ‘after’ etc.
Examples:
i. As soon as (when) I have learnt English, I will go to
France and learn French.
ii. She will sing when she has rehearsed.
iii. We shall go to meet them after we have had our
breakfast.
iv. We shall play after we have finished our work.
2.1.1.4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

a) This tense is used to express an action which began in the past
and is still continuing or has just finished.
i. I have been living in this house since 1980.

ii. How long have you been waiting for the bus?
iii. Ever since he came to us, that man has been trying to
make trouble.
b) In many sentences (but not in all) present perfect tense can be
used in place of present perfect continuous, especially in the
case of verbs which themselves carry the sense of a continuous
action. We generally use ‘since’ or ‘for’ in such sentences.
c) But this replacement is not possible in most of the cases. If we
do so, the sense of the sentence will change.
Note that when we mention the number of things that have been
done, we generally use present tense and not present perfect
continuous.
The present perfect continuous is not used with verbs which are
not normally used in the continuous forms (see, smell, forgive,
live, hate, own, belong, understand, know, mean, etc)
d) The form of the verb in this tense is:
Subject + has/ have+ verb + ing
Affirmative:
I have been working. He has been working etc.
Negative:
I have not been working.
He has been working.
Interrogative:
Have you been working?
Has he been working?
2.1.2. PAST TENSE

2.1.2.1. SIMPLE PAST OR THE PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
This tense is used for actions completed in the past at a definite
time. Adverbs of time are often used with this tense.
To make the simple past tense, we use:
● Past form only

or
● auxiliary did + base form

The structure for positive sentence in the simple past tense is:
Subject + main verb (past)
The structure for negative sentences in the simple past is:
Subject + auxiliary verb (did) + not + main verb (base)
The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:
Auxiliary verb (did) + subject + main verb (base)
We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation
– an event – in the past. The event can be short or long.
We use simple past tense when:
→ the event is in the past
→ the event is completely finished.
→ we say (or understand) the time and / or place of the
event
In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must

use the simple past tense; we cannot use the present perfect
tense.
Example:
My father left for Madras yesterday.
We visited Agra last year and saw the Taj.
It rained heavily last night.
When I was in Bombay, I went to the sea beach.
(Habitual action in the past)
For making negative and interrogative sentences ‘did’ is used for

all persons.
I worked. (affirmative)
He did not work. (Negative)
Did you work? (Interrogative)
Didn’t he work? (Negative interrogative)
Note:
When we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We
may use the past continuous tense to “set the scene”, but we
almost always use the simple past tense for the action.
Example of how a story began:
“The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was
pouring down. It was cold. The door opened and James Bond
entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered

a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge and
quietly drank his….”
2.1.2.2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

Expresses an action in progress in the past.
Examples:
The boys were playing in the garden when it began to rain.
She was ironing her saree when the electricity failed.
The structure of the past continuous tense is:
Subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (base) + ing
Example:
She was singing.
The tense is used for
a) for continuous actions in the past about the beginning or end
of which we are not concerned.
Example:
The boys were flying kites.
It was raining.
Peacocks were dancing in the jungle.
Flowers were blooming.

b) to express gradual development of some action:

Example:
It was getting darker. They were getting late. They were being
detained at every step.
c) to describe an action which was continuing when another
action took place.
Example:
She was sleeping when the telephone rang.
As he was crossing the road, a motorcycle knocked him down.
d) to describe two actions continuing side by side
Example:
While they were watching the television, thieves were
stealing their goods.
While some students were reading in the library, the others
were playing in the playground.
Note: in such sentences often the conjunction ‘while’ is used.
e) the past continuous with ‘always’
Example:
He was always ringing me up.
This sentence expresses a frequently repeated past action,
which often annoys the speaker.

2.1.2.3. THE PAST PERFECT TENSE

a) This tense is used to emphasize that one past action took place
before another. The two actions are in some way related to
each other. The earlier action or event is expressed in the past
perfect tense and the later in the simple past. In other words,
this tense talks about the “past in the past”.
The structure of the past perfect tense is:
Subject + auxiliary verb (had)+ main verb (past participle) V3
Example:
The train had left when I reached the station.
When we reached the theatre, the play had already begun.
We went for a walk after the rain had stopped.
For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not
between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question
sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb.
Example:
She had not gone to school.
We had not left.
Had they eaten dinner?
Had you arrived?
When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the
subject and the auxiliary verb.
Example:

I had – I’d
You had – you’d
He had – he’d etc.
The ‘d contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would.
For example, we’d can mean:
We had
Or
We would
But usually, the main verb is in a different form.
For example,
We had arrived. (Past Participle)
We would arrive. (base)
Hence, we should understand the difference from the context.
b) Two past actions can also be combined with ‘till, until’,
as soon as’, ‘before’, etc. unless it is necessary to
emphasize that the first action was completely finished
before the second one started, simple past tense is used in
both clauses.
Examples:
We stayed there till it got dark.
As soon as it began to rain, we ran indoors.
Look at the following sentences:
When the play ended, the audience went home.
When the child died, its mother wept and cried bitterly.
Here two simple past tenses are used. The idea is that the
first action led to the second and the second followed the first
closely.
But when we wish to emphasize the sequence of the two
actions in the past, we use ‘past perfect tense’ in the earlier
action.
For example,
He refused to go till he had seen all the papers.
When she had sung her song, she sat down.
As soon as the guests had finished all the sweets and drinks, they
left his house.
c) We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after
verbs like said, told, asked, thought, wondered:
For example:
He told us that the train had left.
I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.
I wondered if I had been there before.
d) Use of the past perfect in conditional sentences. This tense is
used in the ‘if-clause’ of the conditional sentences of the third
type (to express an unfulfilled condition in the past).
Example:
If we had worked hard, he would have passed.

If he had taken a taxi, he would not have missed the train. (This
sentence shows that he did not take a taxi and so he missed the
train.)
e) This tense is used to express an unfulfilled wish.
Example:
I wish I had written that letter.
I wish I had accepted that job.
2.1.2.4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
This tense expresses an action or event that had begun and was
going on up to a given point of time in the past. This tense bears
the same relation to the past perfect which the present perfect
continuous bears to the present perfect.
Examples:
He had been teaching English for 35 years when he retired last
year.
Radha had been sleeping for two hours in the evening when her
mother awakened her.
The structure of the past continuous tense is:
Subject + auxiliary verb (had) + auxiliary verb (been) + main
verb (base + ing)
For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we
insert not after the first auxiliary verb. For question sentences,
we exchange the subject and first auxiliary verb.
Examples:

We had not been expecting her.

Had you been drinking?
Had they been waiting long?
Note:
This tense is not used with verbs which are not used in the
continuous forms, except with want and sometimes ‘wish’.
(Verbs such as like, feel, hear, see, think, understand, dislike,
know, own, possess, etc)
Examples:
The boy was delighted to have a new watch. He had been
wanting to have one for a long time.
Note: the past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect
tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past before another
action in the past.
For example:
Ram started waiting at 9 am. I arrived at 11 am. When I arrived,
Ram had been waiting for two hours.
2.1.3. FUTURE TENSE
There are several ways of expressing future time in English. One
of these ways is to use ‘shall’ or ‘will’ with an infinitive (base
form or the dictionary form of the verb).
2.1.3.1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

This tense usually expresses the ‘neutral future of prediction’

(when the speaker just wants to say what is likely to happen in
future).
The structure of the simple future tense is:
Subject + auxiliary verb (will) +main verb (base)
Example:
Forecast for Saturday:
Weather will be cloudy and cold. There will be thunder showers
at many places.
The President will address the nation on the Republic Day eve.
He will reach Delhi on Tuesday morning.
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not
between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences,
we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb.
Examples:
She will not be at school tomorrow.
You will finish before me.
Will you arrive on time?
Will they want dinner?
When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often
contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I will – I’ll

You will – you’ll

He will – he’ll
She will – she’ll etc.
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract
with won’t, like this:
I will not – I won’t
You will not – you won’t
He will not – he won’t
She will not – she won’t
It will not – it won’t
Uses:
a) We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or
decision to do something before we speak. We make the
decision spontaneously at the time of speaking.
For examples:
● Hold on. I’ll get a pen.
● We will see what we can do to help you.
● Maybe we’ll stay in and watch television tonight.

In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The
decision is made at the time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before
it:
For examples:
● I think I’ll go to the gym tomorrow.
● I think I will have a holiday next year.
● I don’t think I will buy that car.

b) We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction
about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying
what we think will happen.
Some examples:
● It will rain tomorrow.
● People won’t go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.

● Who do you think will get the job?
c) When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense
even if we have a firm plan or decision before speaking.
Examples:
● I’ll be in London tomorrow.
● I’m going shopping. I won’t be very long.
● Will you be at work tomorrow?

Note:
When we have a plan or intention to do something in the future,
we usually use other tense or expressions, such as the present
continuous tense or going to.

2.1.3.2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

Form:
Subject + auxiliary verb (will) + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb
(base +ing)
Examples:
The train will be arriving soon.
I shall be meeting Tom in the evening.
You will be working in the office.
She will not be using the car.
Will they be watching tv?
Note:
We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.
Uses:
The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular
moment in the future. The action will start before that moment
but it will not have finished at that moment.
For example:
At 4 pm tomorrow, I will be working.
When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually
knows or understands what time we are talking about.
Examples:
I will be playing tennis at 10 am tomorrow.
What will you be doing when I arrive?
Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.

2.1.3.3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand. The
future perfect tense talks about the past in the future.
Form:
Subject + auxiliary verb (will) + auxiliary verb (have) + main
verb (past participle)
For example:
I will have finished by evening.
She will not have gone to school.
Will they have received it?
In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the
subject and will. Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and
have all together.
I will have – I’ll have – I’ll’ve
He will have – he’ll have – he’ll’ve
Uses:
The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before
another action in the future. This is the past in the future.
For example:
The train will leave the station at 9 am. You will arrive at the
station at 9.15 am. When you arrive, the train will have left.
You can call me at work at 8 am. I will have arrived at the office
by 8.
They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for
a long time.
2.1.3.4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Form:
Subject + auxiliary verb (will) + auxiliary verb (have) + auxiliary
verb (been) + main verb (base + ing)
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we
insert not between will and have. For question sentences, we
exchange the subject and will.
For example:
You will have been travelling for two days.
Will they have been watching TV?
We will not have been waiting long.
When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we
often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I will – I’ll
You will – you’ll
Uses:
We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long
action before some point in the future.
For example:
I will have been working here for ten years next week.
He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling
for 24 hours.
2.2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

There are two voices:
1. Active
2. Passive
Look at the following sentences:
1. Ram wrote the novel.
2. The novel was written by Ram.
In the first sentence Ram, the ‘doer’ or the ‘agent’ is the subject
of the verb ‘wrote’. Here the verb is said to be in the ‘active
voice’.
In the second sentence, the ‘doer’ or the ‘agent’, Ram is not the
subject of the verb ‘wrote’. It is the object (novel) of the action
which has been made the subject of the sentence. Here the verb is
said to be in the ‘passive voice’.
Some more examples:
Active Passive
They read the Ramayana The Ramayana is read by
daily. them daily.
You are wasting your Your time is being wasted
time. by you.
The teacher punished him. He was punished by the
teacher.

We shall play the match. The match will be played

by us.
Note: As a rule, only a transitive verb (verb with object) can be

changed into the ‘Passive Voice) and not an intransitive verb
because an intransitive verb has no object.
Tense Voice Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect
continuous
Present Active She She is She has She has
washes washing washed been
clothes. clothes. clothes. washing
clothes.
Passive Clothes Clothes are Clothes No
are being have passive
washed washed by been
by her. her. washed
by her.
Past Active She She was She had She had
washed washing washed been
clothes. clothes. clothes. washing
clothes.
Passive Clothes Clothes Clothes No
were were being had been passive
washed washed by washed
by her. her. by her.
Future Active She She will be She will She will
will washing have have been
wash clothes. washed washing
clothes. clothes. clothes.

Passive Clothes No passive Clothes No

will be will passive
washed have
by her. been
washed
by her.
The following verbs cannot be changed into the Passive Voice

because they are intransitive (have no object):
1. Fire burns
2. He laughs
3. The water is boiling
4. The ship sank
5. Birds fly in the air.
2.2.1. When a sentence in the ‘active voice’ is changed into one
in the ‘passive voice’, the following changes occur:
a) The ‘object’ of the verb in the ‘active voice’ becomes the
‘subject’ of the verb in the passive voice and the ‘subject’ in
the ‘active voice’ becomes the ‘object’ in the ‘passive voice’.
b) The main verb is changed into the ‘past participle’ (the third
form) and an appropriate form of the verb “to be” (be, is, am,
are, was, were, being, been) is put before it.
c) The ‘subject’ in the active voice (the doer of the action)
becomes the ‘object’ in the passive voice and generally takes
‘by’ before it.
Examples:

Active Passive
They grew rice. Rice was grown by them.
Mohan has completed his His work has been completed
work. by Mohan.
He is exhibiting some Some paintings are being
paintings. exhibited by him.
Mr. John sells radios. Radios are sold by Mr. John.
d) The nominative case of the pronoun is changed into the
objective case.
i) He has done his work. (Active Voice)
His work has been done by him. (Passive voice)
ii) I shall finish my work by tomorrow. (Active voice)
My work will be finished by me by tomorrow. (Passive
voice)
2.2.2. In the sentences of ‘passive voice’ ‘be’ is used after modal
auxiliaries (should, must, may, might, can, could, ought to, etc.)
Active Passive
I can help you. You can be helped by me.
You ought to respect Your teachers ought to be
your teachers. respected by you.
He is exhibiting some Some paintings are being
paintings. exhibited by him.

A specialist should The patient should be

examine the patient. examined by a specialist.
2.2.3. If a transitive verb has two objects, either of them may be
made the subject in the ‘passive voice’ and the other remains
unchanged. The ‘unchanged object’ is called the ‘retained object’.
Active Passive
He will teach me English. English will be taught to me
by him.
Or
I shall be taught English by
him.
My uncle gave me a scooter. A scooter was given to me by
my uncle.
Or
I was given a scooter by my
uncle.
2.2.4. Sometimes, an intransitive verb takes an object which is

similar to the verb in meaning. Such an object is called the
‘Cognate object’. Such verbs can be changed into the passive
voice.
Active Passive
We ran a race. A race was run by us.
She sang a sweet song. A sweet song was sung by her.
He lived a happy life. A happy life was lived by him.

2.2.5. The ‘passive voice’ is used to lay emphasis on the things

done or things acted upon instead of on the ‘doer’ or the ‘agent’.
It should be borne in mind that all the sentences of the active voice
should not be turned into the ‘passive voice’. Some sentences
when turned into the passive voice look awkward and clumsy.
Active Passive
Quinine tastes bitter. Quinine is bitter when tasted.
The rose smells sweet. The rose is sweet when smelled.
2.2.6. Since the ‘passive voice’ sounds impersonal, it is used in

preference to the ‘active voice’ in scientific and technical
processes and objective reporting:
Examples:
Common salt is got from the sea.
When the Chief Minister was contacted and asked why no
action was being taken against the dishonest traders and
corrupt officials, he evaded answering the question directly.
2.2.7. In a passive construction, when it is not important to know
who or what caused the action (the doer or the agent), then the
use of the doer along with the word ‘by’ is omitted.
Active Passive
People speak English all English is spoken all over the
over the world. world.

(Here, our interest is in the

predicate ‘speaking of English
and not in the vague subject
‘people’.
Somebody has broken my My dinner plates have been
dinner plates. broken (by somebody).
No one has ever beaten my My brother has never been
brother at badminton. beaten at badminton.
2.2.8. But in certain sentences the ‘doer’ of the action is very

important and is very necessary to complete the meaning of the
sentence:
Examples:
Shakuntala was written by the Sanskrit poet Kalidasa.
Electric bulb was invented by Edison.
2.2.9. Change of Tenses from Active to Passive
a) In the ‘simple present’ tense the form is:
Subject + am/ is/are + third form of the verb
Active Passive
I write a letter. A letter is written by me.
He loves me. I am loved by him.
They grow rice there. Rice is grown there.
I do not hate them. They are not hated by me.

b) In the simple past tense, the form is:

Subject + was/ were + third form of the verb
Active Passive
He killed a cockroach. A cockroach was killed by him.
I ate fruits. Fruits were eaten by me.
She did not obey her parents. Her parents were not obeyed by
her.
c) In the future tense, the form is:
Subject + will/ shall + be + third form of the verb
Active Passive
I shall help him. He will be helped by me.
Will she cook the meals? Will the meals be cooked by her?
They will never deceive We shall never be deceived by
us. them.
d) In the present continuous and past continuous tenses, the

form is:
Subject + am/ is/ are/ was/ were + being + third form of the
verb
Active Passive
I am reading a book. A book is being read by me.
We are playing a match. A match is being played by us.
Farmers were ploughing Their fields were being
their fields. ploughed by farmers.

He was writing letters. Letters were being written by

him.
e) In the present perfect and past perfect tenses, the form is:
Subject + has/ have/ had + been + third form of the verb
Active Passive
I have finished my book. My book has been finished by
me.
He has not helped her. She has not been helped by
him.
I had warned you of the You had been warned of the
danger. danger by me.
We had not seen the Taj The Taj Mahal had not been
Mahal before. seen by us before.
f) In the future perfect tense, the form is:

Will/ shall + have been + third form of the verb
Active Passive
He will have prepared his His speech will have been
speech by now. prepared by him by now.
Note: There is no passive voice in the ‘future continuous’ tense
and the present, past and future perfect continuous tenses.
2.2.10. a) In the ‘interrogative sentences’ (of yes – or – no type
questions) the subject is put between the auxiliary and the main
verb.

Active Passive
Are you doing your work? Is your work being done by you?
Have you completed the Has the essay been completed
essay? by you?
Does he speak Bengali? Is Bengali spoken by him?
Will they hold the Will the elections be held by
elections? them?
b) In interrogative sentences beginning with ‘who, what, why,
when, where (Wh questions)’, ‘who’ is changed into ‘by whom’,
while, what, why etc are retained. In the passive voice also the
‘Wh’ questions (except who) begin with the same question –
word as is used in the active voice.
Active Passive
What do you want? What is wanted by you?
Who has stolen my pen? By whom has my pen been
stolen?
Where did you find my Where was my umbrella found
umbrella? by you?
Why are you wasting your Why is your time being wasted
time? by you?
d) Passive of Negative sentences
In a negative sentence the negative word ‘not’ is put between
the auxiliary (helping verb) and the past participle (third form
of the verb):

Active Passive
He does not write poems. Poems are not written by him.
They don’t teach English English is not taught in lower
in lower classes. classes.
Didn’t they invite you to Were you not invited to the
the meeting? meeting by them?
2.2.11. Passive voice of imperative sentences:
a) In imperative sentences expressing order, command,
advice etc. the verb in the ‘active voice’ is changed into the
‘passive voice’ by making the sentence with ‘let’ and
adding ‘be’ before the ‘past participle’:
Active Passive
Help the poor. Let the poor be helped.
Open the door. Let the door be opened.
Do this work. Let this work be done.
Love all. Let all be loved. / All should be
loved.
b) Imperative sentences expressing requests, invitations or
advice are changed into the passive voice by putting ‘you
are requested to’, ‘advised to’ etc. in the beginning of the
sentence:
Active Passive
Please help me. You are requested to help me.
Kindly grant me leave. You are requested to grant me leave.
Work hard. You are advised to work hard.
2.2.12. a) Use of prepositions other than ‘by’.

Active Passive
We do not know him. He is not known to us.
This book contains many Many delightful pictures are
delightful pictures. contained in this book.
The news alarmed all. All are alarmed at the news.
The discovery surprised the The researcher was surprised
researcher. at the discovery.
He displeased his teachers His teachers were displeased at
with his behaviour. his behaviour.
b) Sentences with Prepositional Verbs.

Active Passive
The police charged him He was charged with theft by the
with theft. police.
Mother has switched off the The lights have been switched off
lights. by the mother.
His uncle is looking after He is being looked after by his
him. uncle.

The new Principal has taken The charge of the school has been
over the charge of the taken over by the new Principal.
school.
Have you gone through the Has the book been gone through
book? by you?
Note: some intransitive verbs become transitive when a
preposition is added to them. In that case they can also be
changed into the passive voice.
Example:
They laughed at the lame beggar. (active)
The lame beggar was laughed at by them. (passive)
2.2.13. Change of Voice by Change of Infinitives.
Look at the following sentences in which infinitives with ‘to’
are used. In the passive voice ‘to be’ is used before the past
participle (third form of the verb).
Active Passive
It is time to close the shop. It is time for the shop to be
closed.
It is time to offer prayers. It is time for the prayers to be
offered.
It is time to stop writing. It is time for the writing to be
stopped.
It is time to give the final It is time for the final call to be
call. given.

2.2.14. Use of ‘shall have’, ‘will have’, ‘should have’, ‘could

have’, ‘may have’ etc.
Active Passive
You could have helped He could have been helped by
him. you.
You should have praised He should have been praised by
him. you.
He may/ might have stolen My book may/might have been
my book. stolen by him.
You could have informed I could have been informed
me earlier. earlier by you.
The peon should have rung The bell should have been rung
the bell. by the peon.
# TAG QUESTIONS
Tag questions are questions that are attached to a statement in
order to provide emphasis on it. Though tag questions are
questions, they are rhetorical in nature and in asking them, the
speaker really does not seek an answer but just intends to stress
the idea suggested in the statement.
1. The basic rule for putting a tag question is that a positive
statement takes a negative tag question and a negative statement
takes a positive tag question. When we use it, we put a comma (,)
after the statement and use small letters in a contracted form,
followed by a question mark.

Example:
It is a wonderful idea, isn’t it?
The statement is positive; so, it requires a negative tag question
isn’t it.
2. There is no need to write it in the tag question when the subject
of the statement is that. So it should be written as follows:
That was a great shot, wasn’t that?
3. The third statement below does not carry an appropriate tag
question.
Jane us very brave, isn’t she?
In this statement, Jane is the subject of the sentence. Since Jane
is a feminine noun, it should be replaced by a feminine personal
pronoun, she and not it.
4. since the subject of the sentence given below is we, the
sentence should be written as:
We are Indians, aren’t we?
5. In the sentence given below since the main statement is in the
simple present tense, the tag must also be written in the same
tense and hence does should be written:
Jack looks ill, doesn’t he?
(i.e., Looks = does + look)
Note:
The correct way of adding the tag questions to the statements like:
We all need money, don’t we?

Reading grammar is quite boring, isn’t it?

You are not a fool, are you?
Americans are quite rich, aren’t they?
6. words such as few and little mean hardly anything, which is
equivalent to nothing or none. Similarly, words such as hardly,
scarcely, barely, and seldom also suggest a negative idea and
hence tag questions appended to all these statements should be
positive.
In short, remember to use a positive tag for a statement which
connotes a negative thought even though it may seem to use a
positive verb.
Examples:
Few want to help others these days, do they?
We could hardly concentrate, could we?
There is little hope of his recovery, is there?
We seldom meet each other these days, do we?
None of them were interested, were they?
7. Imperative statements that connote a request, order, command,
suggestion etc. usually take will you as a tag questions. Let’s is
followed by shall we. Further, when the verb have is used in the
sense of take or eat, the tag question will be according to the
tense, e.g., in the present tense it should take don’t we.
8. Expressions such as everybody, everyone, someone and
somebody are followed by a plural tag question whereas one is
followed by one and not he. This is how we can use the tag
questions in the sentences appropriately:

Please stay with us tonight, will you/ won’t you?

Let’s play cricket, shall we?
One must not lose patience, must we?
Everyone enjoyed the party, didn’t they?
Keep quiet, will you?
Pass me the salt, will you?
Everybody has come, haven’t they?
2.3. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

The sentence spoken by a person can be reported in two ways.
One way is to report the actual words of the speaker. This is called
direct speech.
The boy said, “I want to play football this evening.”
The verb ‘said’ in the above sentence is called the reporting
verb and it is also the finite verb in the main clause. The actual
words of the speaker are used here and so they are placed between
inverted commas. There is also a comma used after the reporting
verb.
The second way of reporting someone’s words is to put them
indirectly, that is, in the words of the reporter. This is called
reported speech or indirect speech.
The boy said that he wanted to play football that evening.
When we convert direct speech into indirect speech a few
changes are made. In the above example, we made the following
changes:
i) The verb ‘want’ is changed into ‘wanted’.

ii) ‘This evening’ is changed into ‘that evening’.
iii) The pronoun ‘I’ becomes ‘he’.
iv) The inverted commas are removed.
Besides these, several other changes also may take place. They
are given below:
2.3.1. Change of the tense in the reporting verb:
If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense, there will be
no change in the tense.
i) The boy says, “I am ill.”
→ The boy says that he is ill.
ii) He has said to me, “I am guilty.”
→ He has told me that he is guilty.
iii) He will say, “I can come tomorrow.”
→He will say that he can come the next day.
If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verb in the direct
speech will be changed into the corresponding past tense as
shown below:
Direct Indirect
Simple present → Simple past
The boy said, “I like ice The boy said that he liked ice
cream.” cream.

Present continuous → Past continuous

The girl said, “I am studying The girl said that she was
grammar.” studying grammar.
Present perfect → Past perfect
They said, “We have tried They said that they had tried their
our best.” best.
Present perfect continuous → Past perfect
continuous
The man said, “I have been The man said that he had been
living here since 2000.” living there since 2000.
Simple past → Past perfect
He said, “I saw the thief.” He said that he had seen the thief.
Past continuous → Past perfect
continuous
The teacher said, “I was The teacher said that he had been
reading then.” reading then.
Note:
i) The tense of the verb is not changed from present to past when
we change sentences containing a universal truth into indirect
speech:
The boy answered, “the sun rises in the east.”
→ The boy answered that the sun rises in the east.
The teacher said, “honesty is the best policy.”
The teacher said that honesty is the best policy.

ii) according to the nature and tone of the speech reported,
different reporting verbs may be used. The following are some of
the reporting verbs for reporting statements: say, tell, admit,
assure, complain, declare, demand, deny, object, observe, point
out, promise, protest, remark, retort, state, etc.
2.3.2. The conjunction ‘that’ is used after the reporting verb:
He said, “I am a fool.”
He said that he was a fool.
2.3.3. Pronouns and possessive adjectives of the first and
second persons are changed into the third person.
She said, “I am looking for my purse.”
She said that she was looking for her purse.
Note:
i) The second person changes into the first if ‘me’ follows in the
reporting verb.
He said to me: “You can come at any time.”
He told me that I could come at any time.
ii) When the speaker reports his own speech the first person
remains unchanged:
I said, “I will keep my promise.”
I said that I would keep my promise.
iii) When there is a chance of ambiguity in the use of pronouns,
the noun should be specified.

Geetha told Leela that her bag should be mended.

(Here, we do not know whether ‘her’ refers to Geetha’s or
Leela’s. So, when reporting it we should mention the name in
brackets.)
The following are some of the usual changes that take place
when direct speech is changed into indirect speech.
This → That
These → Those
Here → There
Now → Then
Today → That day
Tomorrow → The next day,
the following day
Tonight → That night
Yesterday → The previous day
The day before yesterday → Two days before
Day after tomorrow → After two days
Next week → The following week
Next month → The following month
Last week → The previous week
A year ago → A year before or
The previous year

Examples:
He said, “I saw her the day before yesterday.”
→ He said that he had seen her two days before.
“I will not do it tomorrow.”, he promised.
→ He promised that he would not do it the next day.
“I am starting the day after tomorrow, mother.”, he said.
→ He told his mother that he was starting after two days.
Note:
If the speech is made and reported on the same day, these
changes in time are not necessary.
At breakfast this morning he said, “I will be very busy today.”
→ At breakfast this morning he said that he would be very
busy today.
2.3.4. Questions in Indirect Speech
The verbs usually used to report questions are ‘ask’, ‘enquire’,
‘demand’ and ‘want to know’.
He said, “Where are you going?”
→ He asked me where I was going.
“Where is the railway station”, he enquired to me
→ He enquired to me where the railway station was.
When a question begins with a ‘question word’ no other
connective is used.
He asked me, “What is your name”?
→ He asked me what my name was.

When a ‘Yes/ No question’ is changed into indirect speech ‘if’ or
‘whether’ is used as a connective.
a) My friend Raju said to me, “Will you help me with some
money?”
→ My friend Raju asked me if I would help him with some
money.
b) My mother asked, “Will you be back before lunch?”
→ My mother asked me if I would be back before lunch.
Note:
In indirect questions there is no need of inversion. The word order
of an indirect question is the same as that of a statement.
2.3.5. Imperative Sentences in Indirect Speech
The reporting verbs used are advise, ask, beg, command, entreat,
forbid, implore, order, recommend, remind, request, tell, urge,
warn.
He said, “Lie down, Salim.” (Direct command)
→ He told Salim to lie down. (Indirect command)
“You had better hurry, Tom”
→ He advised Tom to hurry.
Direct Indirect
“Why don’t you remove He advised me to remove my
your shoes” shoes.

“Could you show me your He asked me to show my

passport, please?”, he said. passport.
“Try again”, said his uncle His uncle encouraged him to try
encouragingly. again. Or
His uncle told him encouragingly
to try again.
“Don’t open the She told me not to open the
windows”, she said. window.
“Let us go for a walk”, she She suggested we/ they should go
said. for a walk.
“Come to my room, if you He invited me to his room if I was
are free”, he said. free.
“Come on, apply for the John urged me to apply for the
job”, said John. job.
2.3.6. Exclamations in Indirect Speech

To report exclamations the following reporting verbs are used:
exclaim, shout, cry out, wish, pray, etc.
i) He said, “what a clever idea!”
→ He exclaimed that it was a very clever idea.
ii) “Good”, he said
→ He gave an exclamation of pleasure/ satisfaction.
iii) He said, “Happy Christmas”
→ He wished me a happy Christmas.
iv) “Congratulations!” he said.

→ He congratulated me
v) He said, “Damn”
→ He swore.
Note:
i) When an exclamation is changed into reported speech, the word
order used is that of a statement.
ii) A word belonging to the category of intensifiers is used.
Intensifiers are words (adverbs) adding to the degree or force of
an adjective. They are words like ‘very’. ‘quite’, ‘extremely’ etc.
iii) Even if there is no finite value in the exclamation sentence, a
verb has to be used in the statement.
2.3.7. Future simple tense
Direct speech: “I will call you tomorrow.”
In reported speech, will goes back a tense and becomes would:
• “He said he would call me tomorrow.”
It is also common for the future simple to remain in the same tense
in reported speech, especially if what was reported happened very
recently.
For example:
• Person A: “What did Barry say just now?”
• Person B: “He said/says he will call me tomorrow.”

2.3.8. Special cases

Can
Direct speech: “I can swim.”
In reported speech, as with will, can moves back a tense and
becomes could:
• “She told me she could swim.”
Must
Direct speech: “I must go.”
In reported speech, must can either remain in the simple present,
or else take the past tense of have to in reported speech, as in:
• "She said she had to go.”
or:
• “She told me she must go.”
2.3.9. Modal auxiliary verbs
If we use the modal auxiliary verbs should, would, could, may,
might, or ought to, then direct speech and reported speech are
always the same.
For example:
Direct speech: “You should take an aspirin.”
Reported speech: “She said I should take an aspirin.”
Direct speech: “I would phone him if I had his number.”
Reported speech: “She told me she would phone him if she had
his number.”

Direct speech: “They could stay another day if you want.”

Reported speech: “They said they could stay another day if I
wanted.”
Direct speech: “I might/may be late.”
Reported speech: “I told them I might/may be late.”
2.3.10. Reporting the negative

Where we put the negating not or never depends on what is
negative in the reported speech: the speech being reported or the
report itself. Both cases are simple to structure.
2.3.11. Reporting negative speech

When we report negative speech, we simply use the reporting
verbs and tense shifts that we have looked at already.
For example:
Direct speech: “I did not buy a car.” (Negative past tense)
Reported speech: “He said he hadn’t bought a car.” (Shifts to the
negative past perfect)
However, as with reporting speech in the positive past simple, it
is common in modern English to leave the reported speech in the
negative past simple, as in:
• “He said he didn’t buy a car.”
2.3.12. Reporting negative commands
There are two general ways to report imperative speech that was
in the negative:

we either use not to before the verb of a reported clause without

a subject, or else use was/were not to before the verb of a reported
clause with a subject. (We often contract was/were with not in
this construction.)
For example:
Direct speech: “Don’t speak.”
Reported speech:
• “He said not to speak.”
• “He said I wasn’t to speak.”
• “I told you we were not to speak.”
2.3.13. Giving negative reports

When we are giving a negative report of quoted speech, we
typically use the negative past tense of the reporting verb:
Direct speech: “She is studying for a test.”
Reported speech: “She didn’t say she was studying for a test.”
If we want to put the report further in the past, we can also use
the negative past perfect, as in:
• “She hadn’t said she was studying for a test.”

2.4. ARTICLES
Definition
Articles identify whether a noun is definite (specific or
particular) or indefinite (general or unspecific). For this reason,
articles are divided into two categories:
● the definite article, the, and
● the indefinite articles, a and an.
2.4.1. The
The definite article ‘the’ is used to identify a specific person,
place, or thing.
For instance:
• “I’m looking forward to the game.” (There is a specific game
that the speaker is looking forward to.)
• “Would you pass me the phone?” (There is a specific phone
that the speaker is asking for.)
• “She turned on the lamp next to her bed.” (There is a specific
lamp next to her bed that she turned on.)
• “He’s going to the play later.” (There is a specific play that
he is going to see.)
We can also use the to refer to plural nouns, when they are being
referenced specifically, as in:
• “The dogs next door keep me awake with their barking.”
• “She’s looking for the papers she printed last night.”
• “I see that the students have already arrived.”

2.4.2. A/An
A and an, on the other hand, are used to identify a person or thing
that is unspecific or generic—the speaker is not referring to
someone or something in particular, or the person or thing may
not be specifically known to the speaker. Unlike the, a/an can
only be used before singular nouns.
For instance:
• “I’m looking for a pen.” (There is not a specific pen that the
speaker is looking for.)
• “Would you please turn on a light?” (There is not a specific
light the speaker is asking to be turned on.)
• “There is an angry student waiting to speak with you.”
(Although there is a particular student, he or she is unknown to
the speaker.)
• “I’m waiting for an answer.” (There is not one specific
answer the speaker is waiting for it.)
2.4.2.1. Other parts of speech
Articles always modify nouns. For this reason, they are often
considered a subclass of determiners. However, an article can
also precede a noun phrase, even if it begins with an adjective or
an adverb.
For example:
• “That was an exciting night.” (Noun phrase beginning with
an adjective)
• “The truly remarkable thing is how long the deal took to
happen.” (Noun phrase beginning with an adverb)

Articles can’t precede verbs, however, as verbs are not used to

create noun phrases.
2.4.2.2. Vowel Sounds vs. Consonant Sounds

We use the indefinite article a when it precedes a word beginning
with a consonant sound, and we use an when the article precedes
a word beginning with a vowel sound. Note that this rule applies
to the sound of the noun, rather than the specific spelling.
For example:
✖ “What a unusual discovery!” (incorrect)
✔ “What an unusual discovery!” (Correct—the word begins

with the vowel “u,” and it makes the vowel sound “uh.”)
✖ “What an unique discovery!” (incorrect)
✔ “What a unique discovery!” (Correct—the word begins

with the vowel “u,” but it makes the consonant sound “yu.”)
✖ “It is a honour to meet you.” (incorrect)
✔ “It is an honour to meet you.” (Correct—the word begins

with the consonant “h,” but it makes the vowel sound “ah.”)
✖ “There was an heap of food left over.” (incorrect)

✔ “There was a heap of food left over.” (Correct—the word

begins with the consonant “h,” and it makes the consonant
sound “he.”)
Here are a few other examples where a word’s spelling goes
against its pronunciation:
an hour — makes the vowel sound “ow”
an honest man — makes the vowel sound “awh”
a university — makes the consonant sound “yu”
a European citizen — makes the consonant sound “yu”
a once-in-a-life-time chance — makes the consonant sound
“wuh”
2.4.2.3. Identifying a profession
In addition to identifying an unspecified noun, we also use the
indefinite article a/an to talk or inquire about someone’s
profession.
For example:
✖ “Are you teacher?” (incorrect)
✔ “Are you a teacher?” (correct)
✖ “John is engineer.” (incorrect)
✔ “John is an engineer.” (correct)

We only use the definite article ‘the’ if we are referring to a
particular person in that profession.

For instance:
• “Are you a doctor?” (Unspecific—it enquires about the
person’s profession in general.)
• “Are you the doctor?” (Specific- it inquires if this person is
a particular doctor that the speaker was waiting or looking for.)
• “Mary is a technician for the gas company.” (Unspecific—
Mary’s general profession is as a technician for the specific
gas company.)
• “Mary is the technician for the gas company.” (Specific—
Mary is either the sole technician for the gas company, or else
she is a specific technician the speaker is referencing.)
2.4.2.4. Uncountable nouns

In addition to plural nouns, the indefinite article a/an cannot be
used with uncountable nouns (also known as mass nouns or
non-count nouns). These are nouns that cannot be divided or
counted as individual elements or separate parts. They can be
tangible objects (such as substances or collective categories of
things), or intangible or abstract things such as concepts or ideas.
For example:
✖ “Would you like a tea?” (incorrect)
✔ “Would you like tea?” (correct)

✖ “Do you have an information?” (incorrect)
✔ “Do you have (some/any) information?” (correct)
(We often use the words some or any to indicate an unspecified
quantity of uncountable nouns.)
Uncountable nouns can sometimes take the definite article the, as

in:
• “Have you heard the news?”
•“The furniture in my living room is old.”
However, this is only the case if a specific uncountable noun
is being described.
For example:
✖ “I am looking for an accommodation.” (incorrect)
✖ “I am looking for the accommodation.” (incorrect)
✔ “I am looking for accommodation.” (correct)

✔ “I am looking for the accommodation listed in this
advertisement.” (correct — references specific
accommodation)
2.4.3. Uses of Articles

1. Use a/an to say what something or someone is.
A Porsche is an expensive car.
A Lhasa Apso is a kind of dog from Tibet.
Morocco is a country in Africa.
2. Use the after a second reference to the same noun. Do not
repeat ‘a’.
✖ I saw a car drive down the street. A car was driving very
quickly.

✔ I saw a car drive down the street. The car was driving very
quickly.
3. Use a or one interchangeably before the numbers hundred,
thousand, hundred thousand, million, and billion when
referring to either those exact amounts or a number that is near
(approximately) one of these numbers.
Examples:
That company lost more than a/one hundred thousand dollars
in the stock market yesterday.
That watch costs over a/one thousand dollars.
We need a/one hundred more boxes of cookies for the cookie
sale.
4. In situations other than numbers such as hundred and so on, do
not substitute one for a.
Example:
✖ He is one teacher.
✔ He is a teacher.
✖ Please bring me one doughnut.

✔ Please bring me a doughnut.
5. Use one only to give emphasis to the number.
Example:
Please bring me one doughnut, not two.
6. If you give special stress (loudness) to the word one, you can
say:
Please bring me one doughnut.

7. Use a + day to talk about the day.
Today is a beautiful late September day.
8. Use one day to talk about an indeterminate day in the past.
✖ A Day last August, it rained for six hours without stopping.
✔One day last august, it rained for six hours without stopping.
9. Use a to talk about prices by weight, such as per-pound prices.
Cheddar cheese is on sale for $2 a pound.
Bananas are only 33 cents per pound this week.
2.4.4. Choosing Between A and An

Follow these rules for choosing between a and an.
1. In general, use a before a consonant and an before a vowel.
I’d like a salad and a large orange juice, please.
Please give me an apple and an orange.
2. Use an before a silent initial h. Words with silent h include
hour, honour, herb, and honest.
Please be ready to leave in an hour.
It’s an honour to meet you.
3. Use a before certain vowels that sound like the consonant
sound /y/.
He graduated from a university in California.

She is from a European country.

4. Never use a or an with uncountable nouns. Use some.
✖ I bought a sugar.
✔ I bought some flour.

5. We can use some to mean “a few” or “not all.”
I like some cats. (I don’t like all cats.)
The following nouns are uncountable in English but not in many
other languages: bread, news, information, furniture, work,
research, and spaghetti. Do not use ‘a’ with these nouns. Use
some, and do not make these nouns plural.
Example:
✖ Please buy a bread from the supermarket.
✔ Please buy some bread from the supermarket.

6. Do not confuse job and work. Job is a countable noun that
means “an employment” or “a task.”
Work is an uncountable noun. When we use work with an
article such as some or this, this word refers to tasks we have to
do. We can use work without an article to mean “a job.”
Example:
I need to find a work. ✖
I need to find work. ✔
I need to find a job. ✔

2.4.5. The
We use ‘the’ to refer to one unique person, place, or thing.
Example:
I need to go to the bank, the post office, and the library.
The cashier gave me too much change.
1. Do not use ‘the’ with names of people.
The Mr. Smith is my friend. ✖
Mr. Smith is my friend. ✔
2. Use the with doctor and dentist when referring to a certain
doctor or dentist but not using his or her name.
The doctor will see you now.
The doctor says I should get more rest.
3. Do not use the with Dr. + name.
Example:
✖ I have an appointment with the Dr. Alfred next week.
✔ I have an appointment with Dr. Alfred next week.
4. Use ‘the’ with kinds of entertainment.
Example:
Tom loves to go to the opera and the movies.
5. Do not use the with TV when TV refers to entertainment or to
TV programs. Use the only when referring to the electrical
appliance.

6. Use ‘the’ with organizations.

Tom went camping with the Boy Scouts this weekend.
She joined the army when she graduated from high school.
7. Do not use ‘the’ when referring to organizations’ acronyms.
An acronym is an abbreviation that is said as a word.
✖ He works for the UNICEF.
✔ He works for UNICEF.
8. Use ‘the’ with rivers, seas, and oceans.
The Mississippi is the longest river in the United States.
I’ve never seen the Pacific Ocean.
9. Do not use ‘the’ with lakes.
✖ The Lake Michigan is in North America.
✔ Lake Michigan is in North America.
10. Do not use ‘the’ for most countries.
He lives in England.
Vietnam is in Southeast Asia.
11. Use ‘the’ with countries that have words such as kingdom,
republic, or states in them.
I am from the United States.
“The People’s Republic of China is the official name of China.
12. Use ‘the’ with plural countries.
He lives in the Bahamas.
I am from the Netherlands.

13. ‘The’ is part of the name of a few countries. In these
cases, the is capitalized.
He is from The Gambia.V
14. Barbados ends with an -s, but does not use the.
She is from Barbados.
15. Use ‘the’ when talking about mountain ranges.
The highest peaks in the Rocky Mountains are often covered
in snow, even in summer.
16. Do not use ‘the’ to talk about individual mountains.
Her dream is to climb Mount Everest.
17. Use the to talk about something that is one of a kind in
our solar system.
The sun is behind a cloud right now.
The moon will rise at 8:51 tonight.
18. Do not use ‘the’ for planets. Use ‘the’ for galaxies.
Uranus is the eighth planet.
Earth is in the Milky Way.
19. Some English speakers use the with Earth.
Earth is the third planet from the sun.
The Earth is the third planet from the sun.
20. Use ‘the’ with superlatives.

This is the most expensive perfume in the world. THE

21. Use the with the word same when two things are similar
or identical.
I can’t tell the difference between regular and extra spicy fried
chicken. They taste the same to me.
22. Use the to make a general statement about a singular

countable noun.
The rose is a beautiful flower.
When country means “rural area,” we use the, not a.
I spend the holidays in the country.
23. Use ‘the’ with specific foods and drinks.
The tea smells delicious.
24. Do not use ‘the’ with meals.
Breakfast was delicious.
25. Use ‘the’ with nationalities.
The British settled North America.
The French are famous for excellent cooking.
The ancient Greeks invented democratic government.
26. Do not use ‘the’ with languages.
Spanish is an easy language to learn.

2.4.6. Zero Article

1. A noun with a zero article has no article.
He ordered ham and eggs.
I smell roses.
Do you want coffee or tea?
He has lots of luggage.
2. Use the zero article with an uncountable noun or a plural
countable noun when the noun has a general meaning.
Fresh bread smells delicious.
Flowers grow in spring.
Let’s make cookies tomorrow.
3. Use the zero article with meals, sports and games, cities,
countries, and towns.
What do you want for breakfast?
I like to watch baseball and play basketball.
He lives in Paris, France.
Let’s play cards tonight.
4. Use the zero article with languages.
He speaks Spanish.
Joe knows Chinese.
5. Use the zero article with prepositions and places such as
church, school, bed, prison, and home when the meaning of

the sentence implies the person is there to pray, study, sleep,

and so on.
He is at school all day.
They are playing football at the school.
6. Use the zero article with days, months, or expressions such as
last week.
Next week we will have a test.
Your appointment is on Monday.
7. Articles with the names of illnesses are complicated.
Use a/an with cold, headache, and fever.
I have a fever.
Use ‘the’ with flu.
He is sick in bed with the flu.
Use the zero article with diabetes, high blood pressure, and
hepatitis.
High blood pressure can be a life-threatening condition.

2.5. PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are used to express the relationship of a noun or
pronoun (or another grammatical element functioning as a noun)
to the rest of the sentence. The noun or pronoun that is connected
by the preposition is known as the object of the preposition.
Common prepositions include in, on, at, until, since, for, before,
after, during, under, behind, opposite, by, above, below, with, and
about.
Examples:
The book is on the table.
Your appointment is at 2:30.
We went swimming before breakfast.
This book is about the history of China.
A noun or a gerund follows a preposition.
He is in the office.
On seeing the movie star, the fans began to scream.
A bus stop is near my house.
An infinitive can follow the prepositions but and except.
You can’t park here except to unload.
You can’t park here but to unload.
A pronoun can follow a preposition.
I bought this present for you.

I think that this book is by him, too.

If a pronoun follows a preposition, it must be an object pronoun.
Example:
× Between you and I, she is a very nice singer.
✔ Between you and me, she is a very nice singer.
Prepositional phrases modify other parts of a sentence. A
prepositional phrase can modify a noun, a verb, an adjective, an
adverb, another prepositional phrase, or a sentence.
Examples:
A woman with bright red hair just entered the room.
(modifies the noun woman)
Your shift begins at seven o’clock. (modifies the verb
begins)
Your shift ends at three o’clock in the afternoon. (modifies
the phrase three o’clock)
I am worried about these bills. (modifies the adjective
worried)
He isn’t old enough to join the army. (modifies the adverb
enough)
At lunch tomorrow, let’s have a birthday celebration for
Kate! (modifies the entire sentence)
Prepositional phrases often give information about time, location,
direction, and purpose.

2.5.1. Time
We use the prepositions in, on, at, for, since, from … to/until,
until, by, before, after, during,
when, and while to talk about time.
In
Use ‘in’ to talk about months, years, and seasons.
We always go on vacation in summer.
Taxes are due in April.
In 2008, the Olympics were in Beijing.
Use ‘in’ to talk about morning, afternoon, and evening.
I always feel sleepy in the afternoon.
On
Use on to talk about specific days, such as days of the week,
holidays, and dates.
I have a day off from work on Monday.
Your appointment is on April 25.
We are going to Aunt Phyllis’s house on Christmas Day
this year.
In general, on is optional with days of the week: We use on time
and on schedule to state that someone or something is following
the schedule.
The train is on time today.

We need to stay on schedule, or we won’t finish our work

on time.
When we are early, we can say early, ahead of time, or ahead of
schedule.
The train is early.
The train is ahead of schedule.
We finished ahead of time.
Use ‘on’ with weekends.
What do you like to do on weekends?
Many English speakers say over the weekend to emphasize
the amount of time.
Over the weekend, I will paint the kitchen and back stairs.
At
We use ‘at’ to state specific times of appointments, meetings,
classes, and so on.
Your appointment is at two o’clock.
Please meet us at the restaurant at noon.
Do not use ‘to’ to say the time of a meeting, appointment, and so
on. Use at.
We use it + be +time to say the current or past time.
It’s noon.
It was 8:44 when the train pulled out of the station.
Do not use in, on, or at with this, last, next, and every + time.

For
We use ‘for’ to state a period of time.
We played basketball for two hours after work yesterday.
Mr. Jefferson has been our neighbor for eleven years.
Since
We use since to state a beginning point for an action that has
continued up to the present. We often use since with the
present perfect tense.
He’s lived in Chicago since 2000.
That company is very old. It’s been in business since 1847.
Do not use ‘since’ for a period of time. Use for.
From … to/Until
We use from… to or until to state a period of time.
In this part of the country, it’s rainy from December to March.
Today I worked from 8 o’clock until 6 o’clock.
Until
We use until to state the end point of a period of time.
They stayed out dancing until midnight.
The shop stayed busy until closing time.THE
In informal speech, many speakers say till instead of until. Use
until in formal writing.

By
We use by to state that an action occurs before no later than a
certain time. English speakers often use ‘by’ to state deadlines.
You must file your tax return by April 15.
He should arrive by midnight.
Before
Use before + noun to tell what happened prior to another activity.
Before work, I always get a cup of coffee and a doughnut.
After
We use after to tell an action that followed a previous action.
I went to the mall after work.
We can use a noun, gerund, or clause with before and after.
Before leaving home, I closed and locked all the windows.
Before I left home, I closed and locked all the windows.
He took a nap after finishing lunch.
He took a nap after he finished lunch.ID T
Do not use that to introduce a clause following before or after.
During
We use during to say when an action happened.
During the afternoon, a blizzard struck.
The power went out during the blizzard.
He left work during lunch to go shopping.D THE
During the week means during the workweek—that is, Monday

to Friday. For weekends, we say during the weekend or over the
weekend.
While
We can use while + gerund to talk about actions that take place
during another action.
While running, she hurt her foot.
While driving to the store, I saw an accident.
While can also be used to introduce a clause.
While I was running, she hurt her foot.
While I was driving to the store, I saw an accident.
Do not confuse during and while. Different words follow these
words. We use during + noun.
We use while + gerund or while + clause.
In sentences with while + gerund, before + gerund, and after +
gerund, the gerund must refer to the same subject as the main
clause.
While talking on the phone, she read her email.
Before getting on the train, get your ticket punched.
After arriving, you turn your ticket in at the exit gate.AVOID
THE
If the gerund in a phrase with while, before, or after does not refer
to the subject of the main clause, rewrite the sentence.

2.5.2. Location
In
Use ‘in’ when you think about space as an interior.
Let’s go in the train station and buy our tickets.
It was raining, so we waited in a bookstore for a few
minutes.
Use ‘in’ for cities, states, and countries.
I live in Dallas, Texas.
People often eat dinner at ten o’clock at night in Spain.
On
Use on when you think about space as a surface.
A coffee shop is on the corner.
There are many beautiful houses on my street.
The milk is on the kitchen table.
Please put these books on the bookshelf.ID THE
To talk about people who are riding the subway, train, or bus, we
use on. However, we use in for car passengers.
On a car means “on the roof of a car.”
When we talk about how we get from one place to another, we
use by.
We use ‘in’ when someone is performing in a concert, play,
movie, or sporting event.
I played in a Softball game on Sunday morning.
My daughter is in a band concert at school on Thursday

night.
At
Use ‘at’ when you think about a space as a point.
Run! The bus is at the bus stop.
Stop at the red light or you’ll get a ticket.
We always use at with work:
Usually, I am at work every day except Sunday.D THE
For locations on streets, we use on + street name or at + street
address.
We use ‘at’ when we state that someone is attending a concert,
play, movie, or sporting event.
I was at a baseball game last night.
My oldest son is at the movies with his friends right now.
We usually use in and a kind of school (such as elementary school
or college) to state that someone is a student. We use ‘at’ to state
that someone is currently in a school building.
My son is going to be in high school next year.
Right now, he’s at middle school playing basketball.
Do not use ‘in’ + university. Use in + college.
Sometimes, we use in or at with a location to stress whether it’s
a public place or a building.
I have to stop at the bank to deposit my pay cheque. (The
bank is a public place.)
It’s too cold in the bank. (The bank is a building.)

We can use ‘in’ or ‘at’ with restaurant, coffee shop, or hotel.
We ate breakfast in a coffee shop today. We stayed in a
great hotel.
We ate breakfast at a coffee shop today. We stayed at a
great hotel.
We use ‘at’ to state that we are at home.
I was at home all day yesterday. THE
Do not use at + home, or any preposition, when talking about
traveling home.
Do not use a preposition to announce that you have arrived home.
Behind
We use behind to describe something that is located at the back
of another thing.
Please put these trash bags in the containers behind the
building.
A school is behind my house.
By
We use by to describe something that is near and along the side
of something else.
There is a great restaurant by the river.
I walked by the store this morning, but it was closed.

Near
We use near to describe something that is located close to
something else.
In winter it’s nice to sit near a roaring fire.
My house is located near a bus stop.D THE
Do not use ‘to’ after ‘near’.
Above
We use ‘above’ to describe something that is higher than another
thing.
Look! A helicopter is flying above the football stadium.
Over
We use over to describe something that is directly above
something else.
A plane flew over the lake.
A car drove over the bridge.
On Top Of
We use on top of to describe something that is above and touching
an object such as a table, cabinet, or refrigerator.
Your backpack is on top of the cabinet.
Often, we can use on interchangeably with on top of.
The iron is on top of the fridge.
The iron is on the fridge.

Below
We use below to describe something that is lower than another
thing or directly under it.
From the mountaintop, we could see a beautiful valley
below us.
The people in the apartment below us always make a lot
of noise.
Under
We use under to describe something that is directly below another
thing.
Never stand under a tree during a thunderstorm.
I always forget to vacuum under my bed.
We can use below and under interchangeably when they mean
“directly under.”
In Front Of
We use ‘in front of’ to describe something that is directly ahead
of us.
Why can’t you find your car keys? They’re right in front
of you.
I found a great parking spot right in front of the main
entrance to the mall. THE
Do not use in front of to describe buildings that face one another.
Use ‘opposite’.
Next To
Next to means “to one side of.”
A parking lot is next to the museum.

The closet is next to the front door.D THE
Use next to and by only when the items are directly adjacent to
one another. If they are not adjacent, use near.
Between
‘Between’ means “in the middle of two things.”
The convenience store is between the video store and
the restaurant.
Let’s put a small table between the sofa and the
armchair.
2.5.3. Direction
In and Into
We use in and into to mean “enter.”
He walked in the room and sat down.
He walked into the room and sat down.
I was surprised to see a police officer run into the store.
I was surprised to see a police officer run into the store.
Out Of
We use ‘out of’ to mean “out from inside.”
The cookies are ready. Let’s take them out of the oven.
He walked out of the room.

Off
We use off to describe movement away from the top of another
thing.
The antique vase fell off the shelf and broke into hundreds
of pieces.
Please clear your homework off the kitchen table so we
can eat dinner.
To
We use ‘to’ to describe movement in the direction of something.
Let’s go to the park for a picnic.
Please open your books to page 101.
Toward
We use toward to describe movement in the general direction of
something.
Let’s walk toward the park.ID THE
Do not use toward and to interchangeably. Toward means “in the
general direction of.” To means “directly to.”
From
We use from to describe movement away.
He arrived from China this afternoon.
We use from to state someone’s nationality.
Carlos is from Mexico.
To state nationality, do not use of. Use from.

2.5.4. Other Meanings

On
We use ‘on’ to talk about TV and radio.
At work, I like to listen to music on the radio.
I saw a great documentary on TV last night.
By
We use ‘by’ to talk about transportation.
He often comes to work by bus.
I am afraid to travel by plane.
I hate traveling by bus.ID THE
We use ‘on foot’ to talk about walking.
Use by + bus, plane, or train to talk about means of
transportation.
He goes to work by subway. (Subway is the transportation
he uses.)
Let’s not drive to the art fair. Let’s go by bus. (Bus is the
transportation they will use.) HE
Do not use ‘the’ with ‘by’ + bus, train, and so on.
Use on + the + bus, plane, or train to talk about someone or
something’s location.
I forgot my purse on the bus.
I think that John is on the subway right now. He should
be at work in a few minutes.ID THE

Use the with on + bus, plane, or train.

We use a prepositional phrase with by to state the passive subject
in a passive-voice sentence.
His car was hit by a bus.
With and Without
We use with and without to talk about things we do or do not have,
want, or own.
Jennifer lives with two roommates.
I want to buy a car with a sunroof.
I’d like some French fries with my Hamburger.
I feel nervous without my cell phone.
About
We use ‘about’ to talk about subjects or topics of a book, article,
discussion, film, lecture, and so on.
This book is about Abraham Lincoln.
Let’s not talk about the accident. It’s too upsetting.
We also use ‘about’ to mean “approximately.”
It’s about two hundred miles from here to Houston.
Right now, it’s about four o’clock.D THE
Do not use ‘of’ to show possession. Use a possessive noun or
‘belongs to’.
2.5.5. Adjective + Preposition Combinations

We use these adjectives and pronouns together.ID THE

Do not confuse angry with, angry at, and angry about. Use angry
with and angry at to talk about people whom you have a
disagreement with. Use angry about to talk about the cause of the
anger.
He is angry at his neighbour. (He has a disagreement with
the neighbour.)
He is angry with his neighbour. (He has a disagreement
with the neighbour.)
He is angry about his neighbour. (He is upset because of
something the neighbour did.)
There are many exceptions to the rules about prepositions. As you
listen to English speakers and read, take notes on the details.
Exercises:
I. Fill in the blanks with appropriate articles (a/ an/ the):
1. I saw _____ accident this morning. _____ bus crashed into
_____ tree. ____ driver of the bus wasn’t hurt, but ____ bus was
badly damaged.
2. My parents live in _____ old house in a small village. There is
____ beautiful garden behind the house. I would like to have
_____ garden like that.
II. Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions:
1. Is there anything interesting ___ today’s paper?
2. Ram and I used to be good friends, but I don’t have much
contact ____ him now.
3. There are many advantages ____ being able to speak a foreign
language.

III. Rewrite the correct tense of the verbs supplied in

brackets:
1. Father (cook) some food in the kitchen at present. He always
(cook) in the morning.
2. Karim will be forty when I (be) fifty.
3. The train (leave), when I (reach) the station.
IV. Change into indirect speech:
1. He says, “They have come.”
2. “What a lovely evening”, Anju said.
3. “Could you lend me some money?” Rakesh asked me.
V. Change the following into passive form:
1. They have vacated the office.
2. She was making a solution.
3. Rajani sends articles to journals.
VI. Change the following sentence into active form:
1. The field is being ploughed by the farmer.
2. Will the letters be delivered by the postman?
3. English was taught to us by him.

Module III
Skills for Communication
3.1. Aspects of Formal Communication

The word communication is used in common talk, usually, to
mean speaking or writing or sending a message to another person.
Communication is really much more than that. It involves
ensuring that your message has reached the target audience, (that
is, the persons to whom it is sent) and that the receiver
understands and responds as you want them to. It also involves
ensuring that you yourself are able to understand, interpret, and
respond to messages that you receive. Communication is an
important aspect of behaviour; human communication is affected
by all factors that influence human behaviour.
In the last sixty to seventy years, the study of human
communication has been strengthened by contribution from many
disciplines. Definitions, descriptions of the process, and analyses
of the elements of communication have been developed by many
scholars.
Communication is central to everything that we do. We do things
in organisations; our family, school/college, office, hobby group,
community group, our city/town are the organisations in which
we live and act. Our activities succeed or fail, and our goals are
achieved or not achieved, according to our ability to communicate
effectively with other members.

Communication plays a foundational role in the development of

any healthy relationship. It can strengthen a mutual sense of
commitment; it also helps to bridge the gap between people who
have misunderstandings. Indeed, communication plays a critical
role in all phases of interpersonal relations, from creating a
relationship to maintenance of relationships.
3.1.2. Definitions of Communication
Communication is the buzzword in today’s world. It originates
from the Latin term communico or communicare which means ‘to
share’.
Communication has been defined by many theorists in different
ways. Some of these definitions are quoted here.
• Communication is a process of passing information and
understanding from one person to another. - Keith Davis
• Communication is any behaviour that results in an exchange of
meaning. - The American Management Association
Communication is the transmission of information and meaning
from one individual or group to another. The crucial element is
meaning. Communication has as its central objective the
transmission of meaning. The process of communication is
successful only when the receiver understands an idea as the
sender intended it. Both parties must agree not only on the
information transmitted but also on the meaning of that
information. In other words, communication essentially means
the transfer of ideas, feelings, plans, messages or information
from one person to another. Hence, communication is considered
effective only when it gets the desired action or response.

3.1.3. Process of Communication

Communication is a process whereby information is encoded,
channelled, and sent by a sender to a receiver via a medium. The
receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender feedback.
All forms of communication require a sender, a channel, a
message, a receiver, and the feedback which effectively winds up
the process. Communication requires both the sender and the
receiver to have an area of communicative commonality.
However, sometimes there occurs a hindrance in the
communication process, which is known as noise. Noise can be
defined as an unplanned interference in the communication
environment, the one that causes hindrance to the transmission of
the message. It may mainly occur due to two reasons: disturbance
in the channel/ medium and/ or some kind of error in the message
sent.
3.1.4. Features Of Successful Professional Communication
Since communication matters a lot in the professional world, it is
quite important for us to get acquainted with the most important
features of successful professional communication.
1. Communication is a two-way process by which
information is transmitted between individuals and/ or
organizations to develop an understanding among them.
2. Communication is a process of meaningful interactions
among persons in an organization that results in meanings
being perceived and understood in a desired way.
3. The role of the receiver and the sender keeps changing in
the entire communication activity.
4. Communication broadly includes both verbal and non-
verbal forms. Therefore, it also includes lip reading, finger

spelling, sign language, and body language used in face -

to-face communication.
5. It is a process which transmits and disseminates important
ideas, thoughts, feelings, plans, etc.
6. Communication skills are generally understood to be an
art or technique of persuasion through the use of oral,
written, and non-verbal features.
3.1.5. Importance of Communication
The following factors make communication indispensable in the
world of business.
1. Growth
2. Complexity
3. Competitiveness
4. Harmony
5. Understanding and Cooperation
3.1.6. Different Forms of Communication
Communication is generally classified into the following types:
a) Verbal Communication
Verbal communication stands both for the spoken and the
written word used in the communication process. It is
further divided into oral and written communication.
● Oral communication is a face-to-face interaction
between the sender and the receiver. In this type of
communication, there could be two or more than two
persons who use spoken language as a medium of

communication. For example, whenever we make

presentations, deliver speeches, participate in group
discussions, appear for interviews, or simply interact with
somebody, we are involved in oral communication.
● In Written communication, the sender uses the written
mode to transmit his/her messages. Reports, proposals,
books, handbooks, letters, emails, etc. come in this
category. Written communication is routinely used for
documentation purposes in business and government
organizations.
b) Non- Verbal Communication
When a message is communicated without using a word,
the process requires non-verbal cues to be transmitted and
received. Non-verbal communication forms an important
part in the professional world. It can be further
categorized into two –
● Body language involves aspects such as personal
appearance, walk, gestures, facial expressions, hand
movements, posture, and eye contact.
● Paralingual features include a person’s voice, volume,
pitch, rate, pauses, articulation, voice, modulation etc.
c) Intrapersonal Communication means individual
reflection, contemplation, and meditation. Hence,
communication that takes place within one’s own self is
termed intrapersonal communication. An example is
transcendental meditation. Communication with the
divine and with spirits in the form of prayers, rites and
rituals are some of the other examples.

d) Interpersonal Communication is a direct, written, or

oral communication that occurs between two or more
persons. The oral form of this type of communication,
such as a dialogue or a conversation between two or more
people, is personal and direct, and permits maximum
interaction through words and gestures.
e) Extra personal Communication does not take place
only among human beings. Sometimes we do
communicate with non-human entities, such as animals,
birds, etc. for example, we command our pet dog or cat to
sit, stand, or go, they immediately follow our orders. Dogs
wag their tails as a sign of their gratitude. This type of
communication is known as extra personal
communication.
f) Mass Communication is generally identified with tools
of modern mass media, which include books, the press,
cinema, television, radio, the internet, etc. it is a means of
conveying messages to an entire populace. This also
includes the speeches delivered by a political leader.
g) Media Communication includes communication that
takes place only with the help of electronic media, such as
computers, cell phones, LCD, video, television, etc. of
these, the internet has become a major means for all sorts
of official or personal communication.
Exercise:
1. Define communication
2. explain the major elements of communication
3. Write an essay on different types of communication.

3.2. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Barriers to effective communication could be anything that
disrupts the free flow of communication. It can lead to
miscommunication between the sender and the receiver.
Following is some of the barriers to effective communication:
1. Verbal barriers
2. Non-verbal barriers
3. Listening barriers
4. Cultural barriers
5. Miscellaneous barriers
Let us study in detail about the various types of barriers to
effective communication.
3.2.1. Verbal barriers: Speaking fluently is an important aspect
of communication. One should be able to listen effectively, speak
fluently and clearly, write well, and read in the language(s) others
are familiar with. Thus, there are some verbal barriers such as
verbal attack, speaking loudly unnecessarily and using complex
words and phrases.
Some of the reasons for verbal barriers are:
Lack of proper planning will fail to serve the purpose of the
message. This may result in miscommunication or partial
breakdown in the communication process.
Selection of a wrong variety of language: The language used
for communication should be appropriate to the context and
situation. Since we choose different varieties of expressions for
various human interactions, the selection of the wrong variety of

language for a particular context may lead to failure in proper

communication.
Badly encoded or wrongly decoded messages occur when the
message conveyed by the sender would not reach the receiver as
the message might have been improperly expressed. The reasons
for this could be the choice of wrong words, absence of
punctuation marks, or wrongly-timed pauses, poor organization
of ideas, use of unnecessary jargons etc.
Semantic gaps or distortion might be deliberate or accidental.
Ambiguity in conveying the messages can lead to confused
situations.
Differences in perception of a message happen when different
people perceive a particular situation in different ways. Hence,
the message could be interpreted as per the context/ situation and
then verify the matter from a different point of view and come to
a conclusion.
Variation in language occurs as certain words and idiomatic
expressions are culture specific. If we do not use it appropriately
in the respective cultural context, it might lead to
miscommunication or non- communication.
3.2.2. Non-Verbal Barriers: Non- verbal aspects are crucial in
communication skills. Sometimes flashing eyes, rolling eyes,
quick movement or very slow movement, or avoiding eye contact
may also cause non-verbal barriers to effective communication.
raising eyebrows constantly suggests that the speaker is not
convinced about the information he/ she has shared. Bulging eyes
leave the audience alienated as the speaker unnecessarily sounds
arrogant. When the presenter keeps his/ her hands or thumbs
constantly in the pockets of his/ her trousers, he/she will certainly
appear snobbish, scared, or deceptive to his/ her audience.

3.2.3. Listening barriers: poor listening results in incomplete,

incorrect, and inconsistent responses. Listening requires
concentration, patience and focus. Some of the other reasons that
may cause listening barriers are:
● Making the speaker feel as though he/she is wasting the
listener’s time.
● Being distracted by something that is not part of the
ongoing communication.
● Getting ahead of the speaker and completing his/her
thoughts.
● Topping the speaker’s story with one’s own set of
examples.
● Forgetting what is being discussed.
● Asking too many questions for the sake of probing.
3.2.4. Cultural barriers: Cultural barriers are those that arise due
to lack of similarities among the different cultures across the
world. A term that can be harmless in one culture can be regarded
as slang in another culture. Moreover, various beliefs can differ
from one culture to another.
3.2.5. Miscellaneous barriers: There are a few complex barriers
such as:
Premature evaluation of a message may include to jump to
hasty conclusions, approve or disapprove what is being said or
written and generalize the ideas without being convinced. This
tendency often leads to failure in communication because the
listeners and readers evaluate the message without fully
understanding its real essence.

Information overload may often tend to ignore the important

information unconsciously while processing information.
Distrust, threat and fear are aroused among the subordinates
due to inconsistent and unpredictable behaviour of the superiors.
Less time for orientation and for adjustment to change-
changes affect people in different ways and it takes time to adapt
to a particular situation in both our personal and professional
worlds. In some communication situations a need for further
training, career adjustment, or status identification are required.
Lack of sufficient time to adjust, alter, or prepare the employees
to face the changes around them make them less confident and it
may also severely affect their performance in an organization.
Emotional reaction may create a barrier depending on the
intensity of our emotions while responding or reacting to a
context / situation. Emotions such as fear, suspicion, anger, and
joy may act as hindrance in making ourselves clear to our
audience.
Rigid attitude: A stubborn attitude on the part of the listener or
speaker may lead to a failure of communication because human
communication is all about sharing and conveying emotions,
ideas and attitudes.
Exercise:
Answer the following: -
1. What is ‘noise’ in communication?
2. Write an essay on the various barriers to communication.

3.3. PREPARATION OF MINUTES FOR

MEETING
Minutes of meeting are a helpful tool for recording meeting
activities, group or individual accomplishments, and for
providing a record for the group’s activities, programs, and
issues.
3.3.1. The Purpose of Meeting Minutes:

✔ An official record of the organization’s business
✔ Record to highlight procedures, traditional activities, etc.
✔ Tool for informing members not in attendance at a
meeting
✔ Tool to assist in follow-up of assignments and decisions,
and the organizing of the next agenda
✔ Can assist when selecting members for award
nominations, special programs, etc.
3.3.2. What to Include in Meeting Minutes:
✔ Name of the organization or committee
✔ Type of meeting (regular, special, etc.)
✔ Date, time, and place of meeting
✔ Name of presiding officer and minute-taker
✔ Notation of reading of previous minutes
✔ All major meeting motions (except those withdrawn) and
points of order or appeals. Include name of person making the
motion

✔ Names of committee chairpersons, their reports and

statement of committee assignment with due date
✔ Adjournment time, along with date, time, and place of
next meeting
3.3.3. Some Hints on Writing Meeting Minutes:
✔ Use full names, not nicknames
✔ Ask the presiding officer to restate a motion if you are
unsure of exact phrasing
✔ Use a tape recorder, if that’s easier for you (if you are
writing minutes later); just be sure to check with the meeting
officers and members first
✔ Ask the name of the person making the motion if you’re
not sure of their name
✔ State whether or not the motion passed
✔ Identify major items of business in outline form or by
underlining, bolding, etc.
✔ Include any and all committee and officer reports along
with new business.
A formal meeting takes place in three stages:
AGENDA
MEETING
MINUTES

An agenda for a meeting is a document given to all attendees

before the meeting that lists, in order, the matters to be discussed.
It is also known as order of business or meeting timetable.
Meeting refers to the procedure of the meeting held. A standard
committee will have well laid out rules regarding frequency and
duration of meetings and the quorum required to set a meeting.
There shall be a chairperson for the smooth conduct of the
meeting. He/ she shall make sure that all the members present
have a fair chance to express their views, no speaker is interrupted
and the agenda is followed as per the order.
The minutes of a meeting summarizes the important points which
were discussed in the meeting. The minute of the meeting will be
detailed for having a clarity of the meeting.

All formal meetings are conducted by a chairperson. Sometimes,

the secretary looks into the functional aspects of the meeting such
as preparation of documents, informing members etc.
Figure 1. Model of Writing Agenda

Figure 2. Format of Writing Minutes of a Meeting(i)

Figure 3. (cont.) Format of Writing Minutes

3.4. MEMO WRITING

Memo is the short form of ‘memorandum’. The term is derived
from Latin word memorare which later changed to memorandus
which means ‘to provide information’. A memo is usually an
internal working paper written to share information and/or
instructions among peers, most often those working for the same
organization or those working together on a common project even
though they represent different organizations. Because they are
informal working papers, memos are rarely sent to outsiders,
especially those you or your organization want to impress. A
business letter is considered more formal, more serious, more
forceful, and more impressive than a memo.
Because they are written to people who are involved in or at least
familiar with your work, your organization, and the standard
practices of your profession, memos use an informal style in
which jargon, abbreviations, and short-form references to people
and organizations are acceptable.
Most memos request specific information, respond to previous
questions, share new information, or give instructions to do
something. They may also be written to create a "paper trail" for
future reference.
Note: In recent years and in many organizations, e-mail has
increasingly taken the place of hard-copy memos. In fact, the
basic format of email is a direct adaptation of memo format.
Consequently, many of the guidelines for writing e-mail and for
memo writing are totally interchangeable.
3.4.1. Some tips to be followed:
✔ state the subject clearly and precisely.
✔ get to your main message directly.
✔ make your sentences short and simple.

✔ give preference to direct statements using personal
pronouns if necessary.
e.g., instead of saying,
“The chairman has desired that all section heads prepare monthly
reports on the implementation of the project and submit the
same to the undersigned for compilation.” You can say- “I
have been asked by the Chairman to compile all monthly
reports on the implementation of the project. Please send me a
report pertaining to your section by the 7th of the month.”
✔ break up your message into points.
✔ make it brief because your reader may be a busy person
and may not have time to read a long message.
3.4.2. Memo format and set-up suggestions:
✔ Some people like to center the work MEMORANDUM at
the top of the page.
✔ Some use a DATE: heading above the other headings or
inserted between the FROM and RE lines.
✔ SUBJ: or SUBJECT: are often used as an alternative on
the RE line.
✔ Titles may be added on the same line and immediately
after a person’s name or on the next line, intended to align with
the start of the person’s name.
✔ The departments in which the TO and FROM people work
may also be included on the line beneath their names.

✔ Traditionally, the writer initials or signs first name only—

Full signatures are almost never used —after or over their
name on the FROM line of the original memo. Additional
copies are usually left unsigned.
✔ Bottom notes, if needed, are added under the body of the
memo and aligned with the left margin.
✔ Initials and capitalization identify a secretary and the type
of help provided in preparing the memo.
✔ cc: (meaning carbon copies) or c: (copies) followed by
names identifies people whose names are not listed in the TO
line who are also being sent copies of the memo.
✔ Enclosures: or Attachments: are reminders meant to
ensure that the recipient gets everything promised in the body
of the memo.
3.4.3. FORMAT
(COMPANY NAME OR MEMORANDUM)
TO: _______________________
FROM: _____________________
DATE: ___/___/___
SUBJECT: _________________________
(NOTICE)

EXAMPLE:
MEMORANDUM
TO: The Security Manager
FROM: Director (Building)
DATE: 04/11/2022
SUBJECT: Security Measures
After three incidents of theft of scooters in the previous week
from our parking shed, it is important that security measures
should be tightened with immediate effect. A strict check at the
entrance and exit gates is required. Only permanent token
holders should be allowed to park their vehicles in the parking
shed.
1. (a) Please issue identity cards to all the employees of the
establishment with their recent photographs.
(b) Each employee should be given a token for his/her vehicle.
2. A full time parking shed caretaker should be appointed with
immediate effect. Financial sanction be obtained. Manager
(Personnel) be consulted about the recruitment rules.
3. Please discuss these and other security measures with
members of the staff.
Their suggestions will be welcome.
Sd/
Director (Building)

In short, office memos are neither letters nor notices. They give
instruction and information.
Exercise:
1. Prepare a memo as a Manager of a company to be circulated
among staff for preparing the documents for the upcoming ISO
Audit decided next month.
2. Prepare a memo as the Manager of a Bank to complete the
pending work before the annual financial year closing due next
week.
3.5. EMAILS
Email is a very specific form of communication—it is a quick,
inexpensive and convenient way of communicating with a small
or large audience, who may be next door or across the world. It is
a great way to make arrangements—provided that they are not
urgent. Instant delivery does NOT mean the recipient will read it
immediately. It is an excellent way to get information to a wide
range of people— as long as your subject line is relevant or
interesting enough to get them to read it. It is a simple way of
asking for a response—as a follow up, not as a long explanation
and request for action. It is a wonderful way to send
information—as attachments not in the body of the email. An
email is not a letter, a report or the minutes of a meeting—but it
is an excellent way of sending information to an audience, or
asking for a response.
A crucial point to be aware of is:
→ any email can end up anywhere with anyone!

→ It is so easy: to put the incorrect addressee to accidentally hit

“Reply to All” for the person who receives your email to send it
to anyone.
→And it stays on the server, even if you delete it from your
machine.
Remember: an email is a business document.
3.5.1. Structure of emails
Emails are by far the most common method of communication
for internal office correspondence, and they are fast replacing
letters in all but the most formal business situations. Most people
in companies use emails for a wide range of purposes: to confirm
appointments and meetings, request help or action, provide
information, etc.
Here is the explanation of some terms you will come across while
composing a new email message:
Figure 1. Format of an e-mail

To: this line is for providing the address of the person you are
mailing to.
Subject: this is for providing the title of the message. It should
be brief.

Cc: you can enter an address here to send a copy of a mail to

someone else other than the person to whom you are mailing.
Bcc: it means blind copy. As with the cc line, a copy of the
message will be sent to the address you provide in the Bcc line.
However, the recipient of the original message will not be able to
tell that the Bcc address received a copy.
Attachments: this option is to attach and send files on the
computer along with the message.
The big blank area: this is where you type your message (body
of the text)
3.5.2. Differences between letters and emails

● Letters can be formal, while emails tend to be less formal in tone
and style. Letters use conventions for opening and closing a letter,
while emails have few standard conventions.
● Letters start with "Dear (name)". Emails often start without a
name, or with "Hello" or "Hi".
● Letters provide a permanent, written record, while emails can be
easily deleted.
● Letters tend to be longer, while emails are better for brief
responses or notices.
● Letters tend to have a clear paragraph structure, while in emails,
the paragraphs tend to be shorter.
● Letters are used more for external correspondence, while emails
are suitable for internal memos and messages.

3.5.3. Structure of emails – layout

Emails are generally shorter and more informal than letters.
Unlike letters, emails don't have conventional openings and
closings and a variety of salutations can be used. Because emails
are often written quickly - sometimes as an immediate response
to a request or query - they can often look like notes, with short
one-sentence paragraphs and abbreviations.
3.5.4. An email may contain:
- Subject line
- (Salutation - optional)
- Reason for writing
- Main point
- (Development of point - optional)
- (Additional points - optional)
- (Closing - optional)
3.5.5. Guidelines for writing emails
Be brief
Get straight to the point with your reason for writing. Edit
carefully so that your email contains only the most important
information. Less important information can be sent in a separate
email.
Be clear
Use a descriptive subject line that tells your reader what your
email is about. If necessary, change the original subject line if it's
too vague or if the conversation has moved on to other areas.

Don't write your email in dense paragraphs. Shorter paragraphs

(even if only one line long) help your reader to easily scan for
information.
Plan
For longer emails, a plan helps you focus on the objective of your
email and keeps your ideas linked and concise.
Be accurate
Use your spell check to eliminate spelling or typing errors.
Delete previous emails
Delete original emails if they are long or unconnected to your
present email. Instead, refer to parts of the previous email with
angle bracket keys: < and > or << and >>
Use a plain background
It is better to use black text on white background to be sure that
your email is easy to read. Patterns or motifs in the body of the
email risk making you look childish or immature – stick to a plain
white background.
Be polite
Avoid writing sarcastic or angry comments. It's far better to delay
sending an email until after you've had time to cool off than send
something you might later regret.
Starting an email
You don't need to write "Dear ..." at the beginning of the email,
especially if you are writing to people within your company. As
the name of the person you are writing to appears in the To: box
of the email, you can start writing your message immediately. If

you're writing to people outside your company, or to friends, you

can use "Dear..." to create a friendly tone. In some situations, for
example when you are emailing a group of people, you can leave
out "Dear ...(name)" and start with the objective of the email.
Examples:
"Please find attached the memo we have sent to all our suppliers."
"A new security code for the front door will be in operation from
January 12th."
Ending an email
There are a variety of ways to end your email. If you start with
"Dear..." you can choose one of the endings used also in letters:
The email starts "Dear Mary".
The email ends with "Best wishes" or "Kind regards".
The email starts "Dear Mr Johnson".
The email ends "Yours sincerely" or "Sincerely" in American
English.
If your email did not start with "Dear" and a name, then you can
use any of these endings:
"Best wishes"
"Thanks"
"Thanks and regards"
"Kind regards"
"Yours"

"Cheers" (very informal, particularly British English meaning

"Thanks")
"All the best" (British English meaning "Best wishes")
If you're writing an email to someone within your company, you
can leave out an ending:
For example:
From: Clare
Subject: Forms I've attached the forms for you.
Punctuation in emails Capital letters
Use capital letters only where necessary, such as for names,
places and days of the week. Don't write the whole email in
capital letters as this looks as if you're shouting at your reader.
However, remember to capitalize 'I' when you are writing about
yourself. It's distracting for the reader to see ‘i’.
Abbreviations
Some email writers abbreviate as much as possible, making their
emails difficult to understand.
You should avoid using 'wld' for "would", 'cld' for "could", 'plse'
for "please", 'thks' for "thanks", 'rgds' for "regards" or 'wkr' for
"with kind regards".
If you abbreviate words down to consonants, your reader may not
understand your email. Using too many abbreviations looks as if
you can't be bothered to write words out in full. However, there
are some standard abbreviations which are generally understood,
such as:
asap = "as soon as possible"

etc = "et cetera"

i.e. = "that is to say"
e.g. = "for example"
re = "regarding" (about)
Language of emails - writing concisely
Emails tend to be shorter than letters, and the points you make in
your email will be more concise. Letters often contain 'standard'
phrases, which you can rewrite in a shorter form in emails.
Here are some common examples:
I regret to inform you (letters)
Sorry to tell you (emails)
I would be grateful if you could... (letters)
Could you... (emails)
Regarding... (letters)
About... (emails)
I would like to confirm... (letters)
Just to confirm (emails)
We look forward to seeing you on... (letters)
See you on... (emails)
Thank you for your attention (letters)
Thanks (emails)
In response to your letter, (letters)

Following (emails)
Please confirm (letters)
Please let us know (emails)
Exercise:
1. Prepare an email to inform the Class tutor that you are not
keeping well and hence you will not be able to attend the class for
the next three days.
2. Prepare an email to the Manager of the Bank that you have an
account. You want to get the monthly statement of transactions
via email. Request him/her to do the same.
3.6. LETTER WRITING

Letter Writing is an important channel of communication
between people who are geographically distant from one another.
In earlier times when the telephone and email were not available,
the only means of communication between people was through
letters.
Letter-writing is a skill that has to be developed. In general, there
are two types of letters:
● Formal, that are written to convey official business and
information and
● Informal, which are personal letters to communicate with
friends and family.
Formal letters are sent out when we need to write to various public
bodies or agencies for our requirements in civic life. For example,
we might have to ask for a certificate or to inform a change in our

address. A letter is usually one in a series of exchanges between
two people or parties.
3.6.1. Formal letters can be divided into two different categories:
i. Official
ii. Business
3.6.1.1. Official Letters

Official letter is written in an official capacity to correspond with
a colleague, senior or any other member in an office.
3.6.1.2. Business letters
A business letter is written to a company/organization/industry
from another official firm regarding various issues such as
placing orders, settling payments, making complaints etc.
● The format of a business letter is that of a formal official letter.
It is straightforward and specific.
● Avoid using long and complicated sentences. Keep the
vocabulary simple.
● One should avoid making any grammatical or spelling
mistakes in an official letter.
Formal letters are usually written for some of the following:
– To apply for a job.
– To make a complaint.
– To order goods.

– To the editor of a newspaper.

– To ask for something – a form, an appointment.
– To ask for information.
– To make a booking for a holiday etc.
– To invite someone to an event or to visit such as a school
open day or annual day celebration.
Most formal letters have the following parts:
1. Sender’s Address / Letterhead
You should add your address at the top left of the letter.
Institutions will write to you on their official letterheads,
which include their name, address and contact details such as
telephone and fax numbers, e-mails or website address.
2. Date
This will be followed by the date on which the letter is being
written/ sent. It is advisable to use one date format consistently
in all your correspondence. For the sake of simplicity and
clarity it is recommended that you use the alphanumeric
format as on 1 January 2022.
3. Reference Number (if any)
Companies and institutions use this alphanumeric notation to
file the letter. It is advisable to quote it in continuing
correspondence. In the letter it will be usually labelled as
‘Ref:’, which is followed by the actual reference number.
4. Receiver’s Address
Then you will include the name and the address of the receiver
(also called addressee) of the letter. If you are writing to a
specific individual, you must include the name and designation

of the person.
5. Subject Line
Labelled usually as ‘Sub:’, the subject line is a short
description, not more than one line, that highlights the purpose
of your letter.
6. Salutation
Use ‘Dear’ followed by the title (Dr, Professor, Mr, Ms) and
the surname of the person you are writing to; for example,
Dear Dr Bhatt, or Dear Ms Verma. In case you do not know
the name of the addressee, you can write Dear Director or Dear
Manager.
7. Body
Your text constitutes the body. It can be divided into two or
three paragraphs as per the requirement.
8. Closing
You close your letter with ‘Yours truly’ or ‘Yours sincerely’.
It is wrong to say Your’s. Be careful with the apostrophe.
9. Signature Area
After the complimentary close, remember to sign the letter.
Below your signature, you will also need to have your name
written/ printed in upper case.
10. Enclosure Notation
Next to the label ‘Encl.’ you will list the additional documents
being sent with the letter.

Nowadays all the parts of a letter are aligned on the left. This style
is called the Full-Block style.
● The date and signature are very important in letters.
● We do not use commas after every line in the address.
● Do not begin your letters with hackneyed expressions like,
‘With reference to your letter dated 10 January’. Instead, use
personalized variations like, ‘I was glad to receive your letter
of 10 January…’ or ‘We were happy to note from your letter
that the goods have reached you safely…’
● Never end your letters with hanging participles like ‘Thanking
you’ or ‘Awaiting your reply’. Instead write, ‘Thank you’ or
‘We/I await/look forward to your reply’.
Format of formal letter
Ritu Patel
Manager, Customer Services
Vijayanagar Gas Company
121, Ameerpet
Hyderabad 500 016
12 November 2005.
Mr Shagun Thomas
801, Vijay Apartments
Begumpet
Hyderabad 500 016
Dear Mr Thomas,
Sub: Your application No. F323 for a new gas connection

————————————————————————
————————————————————————
————————————
————————————————————————
————————————————————————
————————————
————————————————————————
——————
With regards,
Yours sincerely,
(Sd/-)
RITU PATEL
3.6.2. An informal letter

● An informal letter is addressed to a personal relation such as
parents, friends, relatives etc.
● It is casual in tone wherein you can relax and express your
emotions accordingly. One should use simple and natural style
of writing here.
● There is no specified rule regarding the length, format or
expression in it.

3.6.2.1 Format of an Informal letter

Hyderabad
12 November 2005
Dear Sujata,
—————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
—————————————————————————
—————
Bye,
Yours affectionately/With love/
All the best/Take care etc.
(Signature)
3.6.3. Application Letter

● It is very important to be able to write a good letter when you
are applying for a job. This kind of letter is called a letter of
application.
● Sometimes you will have to fill in an application form, but at
other times you will be asked to write a letter.
● Many people send a Curriculum Vitae, or CV for short, with a
letter of application.

● A CV gives all the basic details about you and means your
letter of application can be quite short.
● If you have not prepared a Curriculum Vitae/CV, you will
need to give all the important details about yourself in your
letter.
● These are important things which an employer needs to know
about you.
– age.
– school attended.
– educational record.
– work experience.
– any special skills.
– hobbies or interests.
– have you got references?
– are you available for an interview?
3.6.3.1. Planning an application letter

First paragraph: Identify your objective/ goal exactly
In the first paragraph, say specifically the position/ job you are
applying for and how you came to know about it- through an
advertisement or someone known to you. Sometimes, you may
apply without knowing that a position exists or is available. Use
the opening paragraph to show what kind of position you are
qualified for. Also state the reasons for your interest to work in
that particular company.

Second paragraph: Give sufficient evidence of your ability /

qualifications for the position.
In the second paragraph, explain why you are qualified for the
position/ job. Do not repeat what you have written in the resume.
But mention briefly your education or work experience and
indicate the particular points relevant to the position applied for.
As a pass-out graduate, mention in your education important
courses or special projects that have enriched your preparation
and enhanced your sustainability for the position you are seeking
for. Give here your extracurricular activities, if any, that show
your qualities of leadership or abilities to organize and coordinate
or functionally form a part of your education. Show how your
project work/ industrial visits/ work experience is related to the
position you want.
Third paragraph: Ask for an interview opportunity
At the end, suggest that you would like to come for an interview
at the employer’s convenience. The purpose of your letter is to
make the prospective employer decide to meet you.
In writing an application letter, we should remember that we are
selling those merits which the employer needs. And further we
shall be able to write the application letter effectively if we
remember the important principles of writing such as
✔ Coherence
✔ Concreteness
✔ Simplicity
✔ Emphasis
✔ Originality

✔ Sincerity
✔ Empathy
✔ Convention
Keep your letter brief. Like the resume it should be spotless,
nicely typed or written and centred on a white page of about 21
cm by 29.5cm. Address your letter to a specific person by name,
if possible. If the advertisement does not give the name of the
concerned person and mentions only the Post box office number,
then mail it according to the address given in the advertisement.
Sign your letter prominently.
Example of an Application Letter
49 Broome Avenue
Nottingham
NJT 3JT
02 June 2022
Mrs Loise John

Human Relations Manager
Temple Street
London
6221111
Dear Mrs John,

Sub: Application for the Post of Telephone
Executive (Marketing)

I am interested in applying for this post as advertised in today’s

Nottingham Post.
I have been employed as Part-time Administration Assistant in
Nottingham Technical College for the last 6 months while
studying there on an Administration Course. My Course finishes
soon and I am keen to join a progressive company such as Arora
Holdings.
My full particulars are shown on my enclosed Curriculum Vitae.
I shall be happy to attend an interview at any time, and looking
forward to hearing from you soon.
Yours sincerely
(signature)
ADRIENNE LANGSTON (Miss)
Enc.
Exercise:
1. Write a letter to the Editor of a newspaper calling attention to
the negligence on the part of the authorities regarding disposal of
waste in your area.
2. Write a letter as a Librarian of a school to Reading Publishers
Pvt Ltd. WB to claim compensation for 50 books (Indian History)
which arrived in a damaged condition. Alternatively, request a
replacement at the publisher’s cost.

3.7. CURRICULUM VITAE (CV) / RESUME

Curriculum vitae is Latin, literally meaning ‘the course of one’s
life’. A curriculum vitae (CV) sets out your personal details,
education, qualifications and working experience. Make sure you
organise all the information logically under headings and use
columns where appropriate. All your details can then be found at
a glance. It is known by several names such as resume, personal
profile, biodata, personal data sheet, qualification sheet, summary
and so on. A CV/ Resume is a self-introduction to promote
yourself. To be able to advertise yourself successfully, you need
to know how to prepare a good resume. In other words, it is the
standard representation of credentials within academia.
● The full CV is only used when applying for academic positions
in four-year institutions.
● Do not use a CV when applying to community colleges—use
a teacher-focused resume instead.
● Tailor your CV to the specific positions to which you are
applying and place more relevant sections earlier in the
document.
–For a position at a teaching-focused liberal arts college, the CV
will strongly emphasize teaching.
–For a position at a research-intensive university, the CV will
stress research.
● Format can vary by field, so also seek disciplinary-specific
advice from advisers, professors, and others within your field.
● There are no length restrictions for CVs.

3.7.1. FORMATTING
● Your CV must be well organized and easy to read.
● Choose an effective format and be consistent.
● Use bolds, italics, underlines, and capitalization to draw
attention.
● List all relevant items in reverse chronological order in each
section.
● Strategically place the most important information near the top
and/or left side of the page.
–In general, place the name of the position, title, award,
or institution on the left side of the page and associated dates
on the right.
● Use a footer with page numbers and your last name, in case
pages get separated.
DESCRIBE YOUR EXPERIENCES

● Articulate what you have done and take advantage of the
opportunity to describe your research and teaching
experiences—do more than simply list them.
● Avoid the bland phrase “responsibilities included.” This can
sound like a dull job description. Instead, use bullets to
describe your activities, accomplishments, and successes.
3.7.2. SECTIONS TO INCLUDE

The Basic Sections
Heading: Name, email address, mailing address (only one), and

phone number
Education: List academic degrees, with in progress or most
recently earned first.
● Name of institution, city and state, degree type and major,
month and year of when the degree was (will be) awarded
● Thesis title and advisor, if applicable
Relevant Experience: List positions that show off your skills and
expertise. You can group experiences into relevant categories to
enhance your CV (e.g., Research, Teaching, and Administration).
For each position, include:
● Title, organization name, city and state, dates position was
held.
● Bullet points that summarize your activities/duties,
accomplishments, and successes. Use action verbs.
Publications: Give bibliographic citations for articles,
pamphlets, chapters in books, research reports, or any other
publications that you have authored or co-authored. Use the
format appropriate to your particular academic discipline for a
clean look.
Presentations (Oral and Poster): Give titles of professional
presentations, name of conference or event, dates and location,
and, if appropriate in your discipline, also include a brief
description. Use the format appropriate to your particular
academic discipline for a consistent and clean look.
Honours and Awards: Receipt of competitive scholarships,
fellowships, and assistantships; names of scholastic honours;
teaching or research awards.
References: Three to five are appropriate. If you are responding

to an advertisement that asks for references, include those
requested on a separate addendum sheet.
3.7.3. OPTIONAL SECTIONS

Qualifications or Skills: A summary of particular or relevant
strengths or skills which you want to highlight. Typically, this is
not included as a separate section, but addressed in other sections.
Occasionally, it may be appropriate to list special computing or
language skills.
Grants Received: Include name of grant, name of granting
agency, date received, and title or purpose of research project.
Institutional Service: List institutional committees you have
served on, including offices held, student groups you have
supervised, or special academic projects you have assisted with.
Certifications: List all relevant certifications and the year
received.
Professional Associations: Memberships in national, regional,
state, and local professional organizations. Also, list significant
appointments to positions or committees in these associations.
Student memberships in professional associations are
appropriate.
Recent/Current Research: Description of research projects
recently conducted or in progress. Include the type of research
and a brief description of the purpose.
Community Involvement: Appropriate and relevant volunteer
work, church work, community service organizations, etc.

Educational Travel: Names of countries, dates, purpose.

Note: There are several styles for writing a CV or resume. Below
is given a generally used chronological format.

Sample CV
AKSHITA MEHRA
21/A, AMRITA SHERGIL MARG. NEW DELHI- 110003
Phone (011) 24620980/24692993, 9810455654
Email: akshita123@yahoo.com
JOB OBJECTIVE
Initially I want to work as a management trainee in an industry where my

education in management, with a major in marketing, may be developed. My
ultimate goal is to be a senior executive in marketing.
PERSONAL PROFILE
Date of birth 7 June 1980

Marital Status Single
SPECIALIZATION
Marketing and Sales

Human Resource Management
EDUCATION
Postgraduate Diploma in Business Management from XLRI,

Jamshedpur-2004
Bachelor of Arts – Sociology Honours, Lady Shri Ram College
(LSR), New Delhi- 2002
Senior Secondary (XII) CBSE – Humanities, Sardar Patel
Vidyalaya, New Delhi-1999
Higher Secondary (X) CBSE, Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, New Delhi
– 1997
SCHOLARSHIPS/ AWARDS
Shri Ram Swaroop Ahuja Award for Outstanding performance in

Sports -1998
Shri Jaswant S Pandaya Award for Outstanding Performance in
Athletics- 1996
Govt. of India Sports Talent Search Scholarship Scheme - 1997

INTERESTS AND ACHIEVEMENTS
President of National Sports Organization 2001-2002 at Lady Shri

Ram College.
Awarded certificate of merit for Contribution to Sports
First Degree International Black Belt in Tae- Kwon- Do (Korean
Martial Art)
Held Merit Positions in Basketball, Volleyball, Badminton, Table
Tennis and Judo.
Won 9 medals including 7 Golds.
Master of Ceremony for the following events organized by Amity
Business School.
Alumni Meet
Mentor Meet
Corporate Meet
Acumen 2003, Organized by Business Today
PERSONAL OBJECTIVES
My desire is to create a truly competitive arena wherever I work. I want to bring

my enthusiasm and sense of confidence to the organization and to the people I
work with. My involvement in various areas of activities at college has taught me
crucial lessons on leadership and teamwork.
STRENGTHS
Team Player
Self-Confident and Goal oriented
Fast learner with an ability to excel
WORK EXPERIENCE
Worked as a Trainee in Enterprise Nexus, Ad Agency in the

Research and Planning Department.
Conducted research for General Motors undertaken by Enterprise
Nexus
REFERENCES
Available on request

Exercise:
1. What is a CV?
2. prepare a job application letter based on the following facts.
Applications are invited for the post of Software Engineer. The
candidate should be an MCA or MSc in Computer Science. Apply
within 15 days to HRD manager, HI-TECH Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad.
Pin: 500 081
3.8. RESEARCH /PROJECT PROPOSAL

After evaluating the problem, you have to prepare and write down
a proposal, synopsis, or a plan for undertaking the project work.
It would include a statement of the problem, and its significance,
formulation of hypothesis(es) (if any), the methods indicating the
selection of sample(s), tools, techniques to be used in the
collection and analysis of data and a detailed bibliography.
A project proposal/ research proposal is a systematic plan, which
brings to focus the preliminary planning that will be needed to
achieve the objectives of the proposed project. The initial draft of
the proposal is subject to modifications in the light of the
constructive criticism, comments and suggestions of the experts
in the field. The experts include your supervisor, counsellors,
colleagues or research specialists in the concerned field. The
research/ project proposal always goes through the
developmental phases, and therefore, deficiencies, if any, may be
corrected by discussing the same with experts. You may note that
an acceptable research/project proposal, therefore, is usually the
result of several modifications. The proposal should be prepared
with all care and caution.

In other words, a research/ project proposal is to allow the student

to place the proposed study within a coherent, organised
framework, which is also standardized. The proposal should be
based on the topic/ scope of work assigned by the organization.
Project proposal will enhance the student’s understanding, grasp
and clarity of the subject matter, the context of the problem and
the research problem. This is necessary for the direction and
procedure of the study to be brought within the required scope,
coverage, and rigour, and also for enhancing the quality of the
research effort, with the inputs of the expert panel to identify and
suggest rectification of possible problems in the proposal.
A research/ project proposal must have information about:
● What are you proposing to do;
● How you plan to do it;
● Why you select the proposed strategy
The following categories of information should be carried in the
proposal:
● Definitions, problems and limitations;
● A statement of the objectives of the study;
● A list of hypotheses (if you are testing any);
● The research instrument(s) you are planning to use;
● The information on sample size and sampling design;
● Information on data processing procedures;
● An outline of the proposed chapters for the report; (if
possible)
● A proposed time-frame.
The project proposal should appear in the following order:

Page i: Cover page
Page ii: Second title page
Page iii: Certificate of approval
Page iv: Approval of organizational and faculty guides
Page v-vi: Abstract
Page vii: Acknowledgement
Page viii: Table of contents
Page ix: List of figures
Page x: List of tables
Page xi: List of appendices
Page xii: Abbreviations
Page I: Introduction
Page II: Background of the study / Review of Literature
Page III: Methodology
Page V: Proposed Chapter Division
Page…: References/ Bibliography
Time Schedule
Page….: Appendices
Cover Page: the format of the cover page of a project proposal
is as below:
Project Title
A Project Proposal for
Course Title
By
Your name
Under the guidance of

Shri [Name of the supervisor] Dr/Prof. [Name of the faculty]
Designation Designation
Second title page: see the
Organization format below
Institution
Certificate of approval: see the format below
Second page

Approval of organizational and faculty guides: the format is below

Certificate of Approval
The following Project Report titled “ABC….” is hereby approved as a
certified study in [Discipline: Languages, sociology, management studies
etc.] carried out and presented in a manner satisfactory to warrant its
acceptance as a prerequisite for the award of [Course Title: Postgraduate
Programme in Management] for which it has been submitted. It is understood
that by this approval the undersigned do not necessarily endorse or approve
any statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn therein but
approve the Project Report only for the purpose it is submitted.
Project Report Examination Committee for evaluation of Project Report
Name signature
1. Faculty Examiner _____________ _______________

2. Project Coordinator __________________ ________ ________
Certificate from Summer Project Guides

This is to certify that Mr/ Ms [ Student’s Name], a student of the
[Course Title], has worked under our guidance and supervision. This
project Proposal had the requisite standard and to the best of our
knowledge no part has been reproduced from any other summer
project, monograph, report or book.
Institute Faculty Guide Organizational Faculty Guide
Designation Designation
MDI, New Delhi Organisation
Address
Date Date

Abstract: Each project report must include an abstract of a

maximum of two pages in single space (about 800 – 1000 words).
It should state clearly and concisely the topic, scope, method, and
conclusions. The emphasis should be on the conclusions and
recommendations. The word limit should be strictly adhered to.
Acknowledgements: Students are advised to acknowledge help
and support from faculty members, library, computer centre,
outside experts, their sponsoring organizations and so on.
Table of Contents: A project proposal must contain a table of
contents that provides a view of the organisation of the report
material.
List of tables, figures and abbreviations: If the project proposal
contains tables, figures and abbreviations used, they should be
listed immediately following the table of contents. Each of these
lists begin on a separate page.
See the format for List of Figures below:
List of figures
Figure No. Description Page
_____________________

The title
The title of the research/ project proposal should do no more than
name the topic. In selecting a title, you are advised to consider
two things:
i) The title should not be burdened by pompous words and should
not include terms of unscientific, rhetorical, emotional or biased
nature.
ii) The title should not be too lengthy or too involved. It should
be specific to the area of study.
Introduction
Introduction of the proposal should include:
● The statement of the problem – the definition of the
problem which has a specific part in the introductory part
of the proposal. It means the expansion of the title with a
focus on the stated goals.
● Significance of the problem under discussion. A good
research/ project proposal should specify the worth and
urgency of the project.
● Definitions, assumptions, limitations and delimitations- it
is important to define all the unusual terms and concepts
that could be misinterpreted.
● Research objectives that facilitate the execution of
activities of the project in a planned manner.
Background of the study/ Review of Literature

Review of related literature available in research journals, books,
dissertations, theses and project reports is helpful to a researcher

to acquaint himself/ herself with current knowledge in the area in

which the study is to be conducted. It enables the researcher to
define the limits of the field and scope of the study. The review
brings the researcher up-to-date on the work which others have
done and thus to state the objectives clearly and concisely.
Background study and review is often helpful in avoiding
unintentional duplication of well-established findings and thus
helps in the formulation of hypotheses.
Methodology
This section explains various methods used for study by the
researcher.
Proposed Chapter Division
In this part, we give a brief idea about the division of chapters in
the final project report.
Bibliography/ Reference
The research/ project proposal should include a list of books,
journals and other documents that have been used in identifying
and selecting the problem and which may be used during the
tenure of project work.
Time Schedule
For completing the project work, you should also prepare a
realistic time schedule keeping in view other requirements of the
project and your own personal commitments. Dividing the project
work into phases and assigning dates for completion of each
phase will help you to use your time systematically.

3.9. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE (SOP)

There are two types of essays for academic purpose:
i) Personal Statement.
ii) Statement of Purpose.
Before getting into Statement of Purpose, let us understand
Personal Statement.
Personal Statement is a story about your personal experiences,
your work, your voluntary experiences and so on in the past that
has made you the person that you are today and led you to arrive
at this juncture where you are motivated to apply to college. Now,
a personal statement is typically used by the admission’s office to
figure out whether you fit into their student community or their
student body. Personal Statement should be limited to 750
words.
A Statement of Purpose (SOP), on the other hand, is a bridge
between your past experience and the future that you want to
build at this programme specifically at this university. The SOP
is used by the admission counsellors to decide whether you are a
right fit for that programme.
Generally, undergraduate programmes ask for a personal
statement. SOP is required usually for admissions to graduate
schools (PG programmes, research etc). Sometimes additionally
a personal statement and a resume as well.
Before writing SOP, divide all the credentials into three
categories:
1. Information you want to write on your CV or resume (One
page)
2. Information you want to write on your SOP.

3. Stories you want to talk about in your personal statement.
Six P’s to be followed
1. Purpose
● Clear articulation of your goals and interests
● Questions to be asked yourself:
- Why do you want to do graduate studies?
- Why do you want to pursue this particular course?
● Talk about your research interest, if the programme is
research based.
● What skills and knowledge do you hope to gain?
● What do you want to do after you complete this
programme?
2. Past experience
● Some of the questions to think about:
- What kind of and how much past experience?
- What skills do you hope to gain from this
programme?
● Share vivid, concrete examples of your work (project work/
presentation etc.)
3. Programme
● Crux of the SOP
● Questions to be answered:
- Why do you want to study in that country? (Skip this

question if you are applying to USA)
- Why do you want to study at that college in particular?
(Use right vocabulary)
- How does your work connect with the programme?
- How does the programme fulfil your needs and
interests?
- What are your expectations from the programme and
how are you going to contribute to the programme?
- Does the department have a particular research
methodology that you like or does it have certain
facets of the curriculum that appeal to you?
- Is there any professor that you would like to work
with?
- You can contact the professor beforehand if
necessary.
4. Personality
● Apart from your work and education, what makes you
unique?
● What are the one or two things about your personality that
you want to showcase to the admission officer?
● What do you know about the student body?
● How you think you are going to fit in is also an aspect of
connecting your personality to the personality of the
college.

The key to writing a good SOP is to be unique and standing

out. You can begin the SOP with a quote, an anecdote or an
experience.
5. Plain English
● You need to communicate clearly, effectively and logically.
● Make it simple and effective.
● Write appropriate words
● Make it very easy to read
● Write it yourself.
● Authenticity, uniqueness and genuineness is the hallmark of
a good SOP.
6. Process
If the process is right, the end result is definitely going to be
perfect.
i) Begin early – give 3-4 months to write the SOP.
ii) Never lift a single line from anyone else’s SOP
iii) Always follow directions
iv) Proof-read.
v) Get feedback from a number of people from different fields.
vi) Avoid overusing the word ‘I’ and don’t use slang or short
forms.
vii) Never let your SOP exceed two pages.

viii) In an SOP keep your personal information limited. Try using

a reading app to proofread the SOP.
In short, the Statement of Purpose (SOP) is your personal
statement about who you are, what has influenced your career
path so far, your professional interests and where you plan to go
from here. It need not be a bold statement of facts as several
successful SOPs address these questions through anecdotes,
stories or by describing their hero. But whether your SOP is subtle
or to the point, it must be well written to have a positive impact
on your application. This is because the SOP is the only part of
your application packet over which you have full control. Your
academic and extra-curricular records are in the past. It is
important to choose recommendation letter writers carefully, but
while you hope they give you the best possible recommendation,
this is not within your control.
The SOP is your chance to talk directly to the admissions
committee, to make yourself stand out from among a multitude
of similarly qualified candidates and to convince the committee
that you have the spark, the thirst for knowledge that could add
value to your class.
A good SOP will certainly improve your chances of getting
admission to the school of your choice, and even compensate for
weaker portions of your application such as less-than-perfect
grades. A bad SOP, on the other hand, has the potential to drag
down an otherwise strong application.
If you plan correctly, you can give yourself enough time to submit
a well-written, thoughtful, polished essay that will boost your
chances for admission. Equally important, this is a great
opportunity to look inside yourself and be rewarded for a better
understanding of who you are.

Writing a reasonably good Statement of Purpose is not an

impossible task. It requires care, attention and patience. And
enough time for you to be able to write several drafts, show them
to people and polish the essay till you get a version you are happy
with. Done right, this will even turn out to be an enjoyable
process. And you will be richer and happier.
Language Guidelines
Please keep in mind the following when writing your essays and
SOP:
● Flow
While each paragraph should make a complete statement on its
own, the essay should logically progress from paragraph to
paragraph. Read your essay for flow, or have someone else read
it, and ask yourself if there seems to be an abrupt shift between
ideas in two consecutive paragraphs.
● Structure
This follows naturally from flow. Do all the paragraphs mesh
together to form a cogent whole? Does the essay, through a
logical progression of ideas, demonstrate your interest,
enthusiasm, and fit in the department you have applied to?
● Language
Avoid slang and abbreviations. For acronyms, use the full form
the first time and show the acronym in parentheses. Use
grammatically correct English and ALWAYS read your essay
carefully for spelling mistakes before you send it off -your
computer's spell check may not flush out all the errors. Try to
make your essay crisp, cutting out unnecessary adverbs, articles
and pronouns (for instance, a careful reading may yield several
"the's" that are superfluous).
● Tone
Use a consistent tone throughout the essay -it will only confuse
the admissions officers if you alternately sound like Ernest
Hemingway and Shakespeare. This is definitely not going to
impress them. While you should avoid flowery language and
cliches, there is no harm in looking for the most apt phrase or
sentence. However, be careful while using humour -it can
backfire and harm your chances for admission.
Exercise:
Prepare an SOP for joining a reputed university abroad.
1. The applicant desires to pursue a PhD in Cultural
Anthropology. His/ her M.A was in English language and
literature
3.10. REVIEWS
3.10.1. FILM REVIEW
A film review is a short description of a film. It is written to give
a description and evaluation of a film. It gives viewers someone’s
opinion and recommendation about whether (or not) they should
watch a film. The film review is a popular way for critics to assess
a film’s overall quality as well.
Preparing to Write the Review
● While film reviews tend to be fairly short (approximately 600
to 1200 words), they require a lot of preparation before you
begin writing.
● Prior to viewing the film, you may want to get a sense of the
bodies of work by the director, writer, or individual actor. For
instance, you may watch other films by the same director or

writer in order to get a sense of each individual style. This will
enable you to contextualize the film and determine whether it
works as a continuation and/or disruption within the broad
trends of the director’s or writer’s work.
● Writing a film review often requires multiple viewings of the
film. Plan to watch the film two or even three times.
Writing the Film Review
Most of the film reviews include:
1) Introduction
- In the opening of your review, provide some basic information
about the film. You may include the film's name, year, director,
screenwriter, and major actors (cast of the film).
- Your introduction, which may be longer than one paragraph,
should also begin to evaluate the film, and it should point to the
central concept of the review. A film review does not have to
contain a thesis or main claim, but it should focus on a central
analysis and assessment.
2) Summary Plot
- Remember that many readers of film reviews have not yet seen
the film. While you want to provide some plot summary, keep
this brief and avoid specific details that would spoil the viewing
for others.
3) Description
- While the plot summary will give the reader a general sense of
what the film is about, also include a more detailed description of
your particular cinematic experience watching the film. This may

include your personal impression of what the film looks, feels,

and sounds like. In other words, what stands out in your mind
when you think about this particular film?
4) Analysis
- In order to explain your impression of the film, consider how
well the film utilizes formal techniques and thematic content.
How do the film’s formal techniques (such as cinematography,
editing, mise-en-scène, lighting, diegetic and non-diegetic sound,
genre, or narrative) affect the way the film looks, feels, and
sounds to you? How does the thematic content (such as history,
race, gender, sexuality, class, or the environment) affect your
experience and interpretation? Also, do the formal techniques
work to forward the thematic content?
5) Conclusion/Evaluation
- The closing of your film review should remind the reader of
your general thoughts and impressions of the film. You may also
implicitly or explicitly state whether or not you recommend the
film. Make sure to remind the reader of why the film is or is not
worth seeing.
A film review may be formal or semi- formal in style, depending
on its intended readership, and is usually written in present tense.
Exercise:
1. attempt a film review on a recent movie that you have seen. A
classroom discussion on the review written can be conducted.

3.10.2. BOOK REVIEW

There are two approaches to book reviewing:
1. Descriptive reviews give the essential information about a
book. This is done with description and exposition, by stating
the perceived aims and purposes of the author, and by quoting
striking passages from the text.
2. Critical reviews describe and evaluate the book, in terms of
accepted literary and historical standards, and support this
evaluation with evidence from the text. The following
pointers are meant to be suggestions for writing a critical
review.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS
To write a critical review, the reviewer must know two things:
● Knowing the work under review: This demands not only
attempting to understand the author's purpose and how the
component parts of the work contribute to that purpose, but
also knowledge of the author: his/her nationality, time period,
other works etc.
● Requirements of the genre: This means understanding the art
form and how it functions. Without such context, the reviewer
has no historical or literary standard upon which to base an
evaluation.
REVIEWING ESSENTIALS
● Description of the book. Sufficient description should be
given so that the reader will have some understanding of the
author's thoughts. This account is not a summary. It can be
woven into the critical remarks.

● Discuss the author. Biographical information should be

relevant to the subject of the review and enhance the reader's
understanding of the work under discussion.
● Appraise the book.
A review must be a considered judgment that includes:
- a statement of the reviewer's understanding of the author's
purpose
- how well the reviewer feels the author's purpose has been
achieved
- evidence to support the reviewer's judgement of the author'
achievement.
While you read:
● Read the book with care.
● Highlight quotable passages.
● Note your impressions as you read.
● Allow time to assimilate what you read so that the book can
be seen in perspective.
● Keep in mind the need for a single impression which must
be clear to the reader.
THE REVIEW OUTLINE
A review outline gives you an over-all grasp of the organization
of the review, to determine the central point your review will
make, to eliminate inessentials or irrelevancies, and to fill in gaps
or omissions.

● Examine the notes you have made and eliminate those with no
relationship to your central thesis.
● By organizing your discussion topics into groups, aspects of
the book will emerge: e.g., theme, character, structure, etc.
● Write down all the major headings of the outline and fill in the
subdivisions.
● All parts should support your thesis or central point.
First draft
Opening paragraphs set the tone of the paper. Possible
introductions usually make a statement about the:
- Thesis
- Authorial purpose
- Topicality of the work or its significance
- Comparison of the work to others by the same author or
within the same genre
- Author.
The body of the review logically develops your thesis. Follow
your outline or adjust it to further your argument. The aim should
be to push your central point. Put quoted material in quotation
marks, or indented, and properly footnoted.
Concluding paragraph sums up or restates your thesis or it may
make a final judgement regarding the book. Do not introduce new
information or ideas in the conclusion.

Revising the draft

● Allow time to elapse, at least a day, before starting your
revision.
● Correct grammatical mistakes and punctuation as you find
them.
● Read your paper through again looking for unity,
organization and logical development.
● If necessary, do not hesitate to make major revisions in your
draft.
● Verify quotations for accuracy and check the format and
content of references.
REVIEWING CONSIDERATIONS FICTION

Rule number one: do not give away the story!
Character
● From what sources are the characters drawn?
● What is the author's attitude toward his characters?
● Are the characters flat or three dimensional?
● Does character development occur?
● Is character delineation direct or indirect?
Theme
● What is/are the major theme(s)?
● How are they revealed and developed?

● Is the theme traditional and familiar, or new and original?

● Is the theme didactic, psychological, social, entertaining,
escapist, etc. in purpose or intent?
Plot
● How are the various elements of plot (eg, introduction,
suspense, climax, conclusion) handled?
● What is the relationship of plot to character delineation?
● To what extent, and how, is accident employed as a
complicating and/or resolving force?
● What are the elements of mystery and suspense?
● What other devices of plot complication and resolution
are employed?
● Is there a sub-plot and how is it related to the main plot?
● Is the plot primary or secondary to some of the other
essential elements of the story (character,
● setting, style, etc.)?
Style
● What are the "intellectual qualities" of the writing (e.g.,
simplicity, clarity)?
● What are the "emotional qualities" of the writing (e.g.,
humour, wit, satire)?
● What are the "aesthetic qualities" of the writing (e.g.,
harmony, rhythm)?

● What stylistic devices are employed (e.g., symbolism,

motifs, parody, allegory)?
● How effective is dialogue?
Setting
● What is the setting and does it play a significant role in
the work?
● Is a sense of atmosphere evoked, and how?
● What scenic effects are used and how important and
effective are they?
● Does the setting influence or impinge on the characters
and/or plot?
BIOGRAPHY
● Does the book give a "full-length" picture of the subject?
● What phases of the subject's life receive the greatest
treatment and is this treatment justified?
● What is the point of view of the author?
● How is the subject matter organized: chronologically,
retrospectively, etc.?
● Is the treatment superficial or does the author show
extensive study into the subject's life?
● What source materials were used in the preparation of the
biography?
● Is the work documented?

● Does the author attempt to get at the subject's hidden

motives?
● What important new facts about the subject's life are
revealed in the book?
● What is the relationship of the subject's career to
contemporary history?
● How does the biography compare with others about the
same person?
● How does it compare with other works by the same
author?
HISTORY
● With what particular period does the book deal?
● How thorough is the treatment?
● What were the sources used?
● Is the account given in broad outline or in detail?
● Is the style that of reportorial writing, or is there an effort
at interpretive writing?
● What is the point of view or thesis of the author?
● Is the treatment superficial or profound?
● For what group is the book intended (textbook, popular,
scholarly, etc.)?
● What part does biographical writing play in the book?
● Is social history or political history emphasized?

● Are dates used extensively, and if so, are they used

intelligently?
● Is the book a revision? How does it compare with earlier
editions?
● Are maps, illustrations, charts, etc. used and how are these
to be evaluated?
REVIEWING POETRY
● Is this a work of power, originality, individuality?
● What kind of poetry is under review (epic, lyrical, elegiac,
etc.)?
● What poetic devices have been used (rhyme, rhythm,
figures of speech, imagery, etc.), and to
● What effect?
● What is the central concern of the poem and is it
effectively expressed?
CONCLUSION
● Relate your argument to other books or authors:
Support your argument for or against the author's opinions
by bringing in other authors you agree with.
● Relate the book to larger issues: How did the book
affect you? How have your opinions about the topic
changed? How is the book related to your own course or
personal agenda?
● Tie together issues raised in the review.
● Briefly restate your main points and your thesis
statement if your teacher requires it.
● Also, if required, indicate how well the book has achieved

its goal, what possibilities are suggested by the book, what
the book has left out, how the book compares to others on
the subject, what specific points are not convincing, and
what personal experiences you’ve had related to the
subject.
Exercise:
1. Students can select a few recently published books in English.
They can attempt a brief review on each and the same can be
presented to the class for discussion.
3.11. CASE STUDIES

A successful case study analyses a real-life situation where
existing problems need to be solved. It should relate the theory to
a practical situation; for example, apply the ideas and knowledge
discussed in the coursework to the practical situation at hand in
the case study.
1. Identify the problems.
2. Select the major problems in the case.
3. Suggest solutions to these major problems.
4. Recommend the best solution to be implemented.
5. Detail how this solution should be implemented.
There are usually eight sections in a case study:
1. Synopsis/Executive Summary
• Outline the purpose of the case study.

• Describe the field of research.

• Outline the issues and findings of the case study without the
specific details.
• Identify the theory that will be used.
• Note any assumptions made (you may not have all the
information you'd like so some assumptions may be necessary
e.g.: "It has been assumed that…", "Assuming that it takes half an
hour to read one document…").
2. Findings
• Identify the problems found in the case by:
- analysing the problem, supporting your findings with
facts given in the case, the relevant theory and course
concepts.
- searching for the underlying problems
• This section is often divided into subsections.
3. Discussion
•Summarise the major problem/s.
•Identify alternative solutions to this/these major problem/s.
•Briefly outline each alternative solution and evaluate its
advantages and disadvantages.
•There is no need to refer to theory or coursework here.
4. Conclusion
• Sum up the main points from the findings and discussion.
5. Recommendations
• Choose which of the alternative solutions should be adopted.

• Briefly justify your choice explaining how it will solve the major
problem/s.
• This should be written in a forceful style as this section is
intended to be persuasive.
•Here integration of theory and coursework is appropriate.
6. Implementation
• Explain what should be done, by whom and by when.
• If appropriate, include a rough estimate of costs (both financial
and time).
7. References
• Make sure all references are cited correctly.
8. Appendices (if any)
• Attach any original data that relates to the study but which
would have interrupted the flow of the main body.
3.11.1. HOW TO WRITE A CASE STUDY

There are two types of case studies:
(1) factual ones depicting real organizations, people, and
situations and
(2) fictional ones that, although usually based loosely on actual
people and events, do not use real organization's or people's
names.

The advantages of factual case studies are that they can provide a
wealth of detail, give credibility to situations and problems, and,
most important, provide real outcomes. Actual results give those
who analyse a case real-world solution:
How did the organization or manager solve the problems? Did the
solutions work?
Although factual cases furnish concrete, not theoretical,
solutions, they also have some drawbacks. Often students or case
analysts get hung up debating the details of the case as they may
remember them. Some analysts claim inside information or refer
to later outcomes that bring the organization's solutions into
question. When discussing factual cases, analysts tend to focus on
the accuracy of the details rather than on the appropriateness of
the solutions.
Factual cases tend to become outdated as organizations,
strategies, problems, and people change over time. Also, if a
factual case portrays real organizations or people in a negative
way, questions of taste, fairness, and even libel can arise. Finally,
in a factual case writers must obviously stick to the facts, which
means that they are limited to dealing with only those
management topics that are implicit in the case. The most
effective use of factual cases is for describing current
organizational problems, then analysing and attempting to solve
the problems using a consultative approach.
Fictional cases have the drawback that students can never know
if a solution worked or not. Fictional cases are theoretical ones,
and thus often do not have the credibility that factual ones do. On
the other hand, fictional case writers are not constrained by the
facts. Case writers can exercise their poetic license and embellish
on problems, issues, situations, and people in order to focus only
on the problems they want to address. Often the best solution for
teaching is to write fictional cases that closely parallel factual

situations.
3.11.2. CASE STUDY ORGANIZING TIPS
Before beginning to outline a case study, writers must decide on
less than six dominant problems.
Case writers must ask, "What is this case study about?" Each
problem (topic meant for discussion) should be written in the
form of a simple question (For example: What types of sales goals
are effective?). If it takes several sentences to ask a problem-
defining question, then it is too complicated and not likely to be
recognized or understood by readers. If there are more than five
problems in a case, readers are apt to become confused and fail to
focus on the important problems the writer intended to address. A
case study with more than five problems is difficult to discuss in
a practical amount of time (a class period, for example) and apt
to require many hours of rambling discussion. If the situation
being studied contains more than five problems, then the case
study should be written in several sections. Each section, in
addition to being a continuation of the narrative, should be able
to find possible solutions to the problems (answers to the
questions). (For example: Billing or revenue goals are not the
most effective ones, activity and task-oriented goals are better.)
Many case writers may want to tie problems to topics discussed
in assigned reading material. There are often multiple approaches
to solving problems, several answers to the questions. However,
case writers should know what the potential solutions are and
have a sense of what the best solutions are.
Case studies do not have to be restricted to problems and how-
not-to situations; they can show solutions and how-to situations
also. A case study can address several problems and show what
was done right in solving them.
Often the best teaching cases are those that contain both
appropriate and inappropriate problem solutions. By using this
technique, writers do not signal to readers that all the solutions
are either right or wrong--case analysts have to figure it out for
themselves.
The next step is to select or create situations that give readers a
clear delineation of the problems and point the way to a
discussion about possible solutions. The most effective way to
depict a problem is to write situations or scenes that have conflict
in them: scenes in which the characters have opposite points of
view, disagreements, or different solutions.
Each situation or scene in a case study should either:
(1) carry the narrative forward,
(2) relate directly to one of the major problems in the case, or
(3) provide insight into the personality and motives of one or
more of the characters. The ideal situation is one that the writer
knows will elicit conflicting opinions about potential solutions.
3.11.3. CASE STUDY WRITING TIPS
a. Keep your audience in mind: Remember that you are writing
for students or discussants who may not be familiar with the back-
ground, details, and terminology of the situation. Keep jargon to
a minimum.
b. Use short-story-writing techniques: A case has flesh-and-
blood characters who should be intriguing. Each story element
should move the narrative forward.
c. Openings: Grab the reader with a character facing his or her
biggest problem: set the scene for the confrontations, the
frustrations, and the main conflicts.
d. Present situations and scenes without any attempt at

analysis: Scenes must follow a logical order and should illustrate
a point, concept, or issue that relates to the problems that the
writer wants to have analysed. Do not give any signals that one
solution might be preferred.
e. Provide relevant details: After an opening that sets up the
situation, provide relevant details about goals, strategies,
dilemmas, issues, conflicts, roadblocks, appropriate research,
relevant financial information, people, and relationships. Be
stingy with numbers; they must help solve the problems, not
confuse readers or send them off on unproductive analytic
tangents.
f. Use as much dialogue as possible: Make the characters come
alive with dialogue. Straight narrative is boring.
g. Endings: Leave the reader with a clear picture of the major
problems--either ask or imply "what is to be done now?"
3.12. GROUP DISCUSSIONS (GD)

A GD is a formal discussion which involves six to fifteen
participants who sit in a group to discuss a topic or a case given
for this purpose. It is a methodology used by an organization to
measure whether a candidate possesses certain personality traits
and / or skills that are desired of him/ her. In GDs, the group
members have to interpret, analyse, and argue, so as to discuss
the topic or case threadbare as a team.
3.12.1. Difference between GD and Debate
A GD is not the same as a formal debate. In a debate, you are
supposed to speak either for or against a motion. In GDs, on the
other hand, all the members of the group are expected to

deliberate upon the issue extensively, and it is possible for any of
them to change their stand if they find themselves convinced
about the other side of the perspective. In GDs, the discussion just
evolves naturally without anything to be proved from the onset.
The very nature of GD, therefore, demands flexibility on the part
of the participants, and a lack of it, or a consequent stubbornness
or rigidity is seen as a serious flaw in their personality.
Number and Duration
In a formal GD, there are six to fifteen members in a group and
they are asked to sit in a circular, semi-circular, or U-shaped
seating style (senate room sitting). They may be familiar or
unfamiliar to each other. They are given fifteen or forty-five
minutes to discuss a topic or a case study depending on its nature.
Personality Traits to be Evaluated
Following are the most important personality traits that a
candidate should possess to do well in GDs:
● Reasoning ability
● Leadership
● Openness
● Assertiveness
● Initiative
● Motivation
● Attentive listening
● Awareness

Dynamics of Group Behaviour/ Group Etiquette and

Mannerisms
In any group task- be it project or presentation or discussion – the
behaviour of the group really matters. It is important to keep the
purpose, goal, or task in mind, and bring the discussion back to
the stated focus when it goes off the track now and then. This is a
shared responsibility of all, because as a participant in a GD,
every member has to ensure that the discussion takes place in a
smooth and proper manner. Logical ideas, poised demeanour,
supportive attitude, balanced view and team spirit are some of the
most important ingredients of a successful GD.
Following are some of the points you should keep in mind to
exhibit your positive group etiquette:
● Being friendly and approachable
● Encouraging participation from co-participants
● Avoiding emotions
● Avoiding peer discussion
● Leadership is important because a group without a leader can
be as wayward as a ship without a captain. Some of the
attributes of leadership are clarity, objectivity, discernment,
expression, composure, erudition, maturity, amiability,
patience, motivation.
3.12.2. Types of GD
GDs are of two types
1. Topic – based
2. Case- based

Topic based can be divided into three types:

i) Factual topics -these are related to day-to-day socio-
economic facts or environmental issues. For example:
Growth of Tourism in India, Higher Education in India etc.
ii) Abstract topics are given at the higher level. These are
usually intangible in nature. You need to approach these
topics with innovative and lateral thinking. For example,
topics like Blue is Better than Green, All are Equal but
Some are More Equal than Others etc.
iii)Controversial topics are controversial in nature.
Participants are bound to have divided opinions. These
topics are given to observe the maturity level of participants
on such issues. You should not lose your temper or give a
narrow interpretation of issues being discussed. For
example, debatable topics like Reservation Should be
Abolished in India or Women are Unfit for Defence Services
etc.
Case studies- based discussion- these are real-life simulated
situations. Usually, these involve some kind of problems which
are to be resolved. The key to such topics is that there is no right
or wrong answer, but your approach to the solution is highly
important.
Opening of a GD
You should open the GD only when you have enough points to
set it in motion. Any of the participants can initiate the discussion,
but always try to speak and contribute as early as possible. The
participant / the leader has to not only introduce the topic by
providing the background but also raise pertinent questions to
steer the discussion.

Summarizing a Discussion
Just as the beginning of a GD is crucial, so is its ending. If you
plan to conclude the GD, keep it brief and concise. You should
avoid raising new points. You should not state only your
viewpoint. In fact, you should try to include the major points
discussed by the whole group. Moreover, an abrupt ending in a
GD is perplexing and annoying.
3.12.3. Some tips for Group Discussions
Do’s
● Sit comfortably
● Keep track of time
● Share time fairly
● Encourage participation from others
● Rope in the reticent/ diffident ones
● Listen to the topic
● Organize ideas
● Speak at the earliest
● Allow supporters to back your ideas
● Sound cogent and convincing
● Avoid reproach
● If derailed, bring it back to the track
● Look relaxed and comfortable
● Identify supporters/ opponents

● Maintain eye contact

● Connect to the ideas of others
● Avoid clashes and heated debates
● Reveal and induce friendship
● Feel and reveal keenness to share
● Transcend personal choices
● Take mental notes
● Provide vital points
● Steer the discussion smoothly
Don’ts
● Be in hurry
● Be silent
● Dominate vocally/ physically
● Assume the role of the chairperson
● Be aggressive
● Take extreme stance
● Look at evaluators
● Put up an uninspired and boring performance
● Be curt and dismissive
● Appear to be impatient/ restless

● Indulge in peer discussion

● Look stubborn/ snobbish
● Move/ shift excessively
● Speak fast
● Digress and deviate
● Indulge in debate and altercation
● Get emotional
● Use slang
● Thrust greatness upon yourself
● Ever start your GD with a decisive, firm stand or a conclusion
● Throw all ideas at one shot
● Feel trapped or scared
Exercise:
Read and prepare arguments for the following topics:
1. Social media have effectively divided the society
2. Vegetarian food is better for both physical and mental health.
3.13. PRESENTATION SKILLS

Presentations are made every day – to your teacher, to your boss
in the workplace, in front of your customers, and even for friends
and relatives. Academic presentation is an effective speech made
by a person on a particular subject. To make an academic
presentation successful the speaker should have mastery over a

number of skills such as:
● His use of language should be suitable to the kind of audience
he is speaking to.
● He should know the art of speech, and
● He must have a thorough knowledge of the subject he is
dealing with.
There are certain conditions for a successful presentation:
3.13.1. THE AUDIENCE
Having an idea about the nature of the audience is key to a
successful presentation. You must know the audience as you draft
material for your presentation. You must establish a good rapport
with your audience so that they feel you are one among them.
Audiences can be categorised into two.
1. Primary audience
2. Secondary audience
Primary audiences are those who have lent you their ears. They
are the formal audience who participate in the room where you
are presenting. They are active listeners. Their age, education,
culture and economic status are of vital importance to you.
Secondary audience consists of the opinion leaders who are
responsible for the political, cultural and religious opinion that
your primary audience has. They can be the director of the
company or they may be people who decide whether you deserve
a scholarship or not. In an academic presentation you should
know who is present there. Always remember that your secondary
audience is also your friends and family – people who helped you

design your presentation. Be very careful while distributing

hand-outs. They travel beyond your primary audience and hence
avoid making unverified comments in them.
3.13.2. THE OBJECTIVE OF PRESENTATION
It is extremely important to know the objective of your
presentation:
● Are you speaking to persuade?
● Are you speaking to inform?
An academic presentation is generally a mix of informative and
persuasive speaking. An academic presentation is a mix of
persuasion and information.
The following areas should be decided before beginning to
deliver your presentation:
1. Language: your language should reveal clearly what your
audience wants to know
2. Trimming your presentation: delete all unnecessary
information
3. Ice breaking: a good way to identify the objective of your
presentation is to begin with an ice breaking session where
you gather information about your audience by asking them
to participate in a group activity. Different presenters use
different techniques to make their presentation effective.
Some often circulate handouts and questionnaires to gather
information.

3.13.3. TECHNIQUES OF EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

● First and foremost, surprise and grab attention
● Practice exercise
● Beginning
● Repetition
● Summarizing
3.13.4. STRUCTURE OF THE PRESENTATION

The usual sequence in presentation is as follows:
● Introduction (3 minutes)
● Main body (15 minutes)
● Conclusion (2 minutes)
● Question and Answers (10 minutes)
3.13.5. VISUAL PRESENTATION AIDS

A presentation of statistical data, figures, diagrams and so on is
made clear by the use of visual aids. Through visual display of
ideas, we make our audience see what they hear. We help the
listeners receive our message effortlessly. We keep them
immersed in the presentation. The visual projection of the
message also enables the speaker to keep to the structure of the
presentation.

Use of Visual Aids

Visual aids should be used to:
● Present numerical and statistical data.
● Present topics related to art, design, or any subject which
involves display of material.
● Present new data or plan of which the audience is not aware.
The new information will be better understood when seen. For
instance, a complex business plan can be orally presented. But
it will be better understood if supported visually as well.
● Present comparative statements of facts and figures, especially
graphic and diagrammatic forms. Visual presentation of
comparisons always helps comprehension. Suppose you want
to compare two structures; the point of comparison can be
better appreciated when shown rather than described.
Advantages of Visual Aids
● We can easily respond to what we see.
● It promotes interests and arrests the attention of the audience.
● It saves time a lot.
● It increases the effectiveness of communication
How to use Visual Aids?
● Do not use too many visuals.
● Plan the visuals according to your main points.

● Prepare it in bold, clear letters that can be seen even by the

person sitting at the other end of the room.
● Do not fill a slide with too many words.
● Use different colours to distinguish different points.
● Number the slides to avoid confusion.
● Explain the purpose and content of the slide when you show
it.
Different kinds of Visual Aids
● Board – Black/white
It is the primary aid used in classrooms. The use of a board
helps listeners attend with concentration. The board should be
used skilfully. On a black board white chalk is used and on a
white board, dark marker is used. Do not leave the board
written over, when you end a talk/ lecture.
● Flip charts
A flip chart is a large pad of papers on a stand used as a visual
aid for presenting information to a small group of 15 to 20
persons. They can be prepared in advance for presenting well-
drawn diagrams, bar charts, and all kinds of graphs. Flip charts
are of great use for creating and presenting the audience's
feedback, suggestions, comments, or any other kind of
observation, at the end of the talk.
● Overhead Project
The most often used visual aid in presentation is an overhead
projector (OHP). By using it, the presenter can speak while
looking at the audience. The bright and large images projected
on the screen hold the audience’s attention.
● Power Point Projection

PowerPoint Projection is the computer-based modification of
OHP. This is a very useful visual aid for professional or
academic presentations. This is projected with the help of a
multimedia projector. An enlarged computer screen displays
the information to a large audience. The visual impact is
impressive and absorbing.
● Video
Video gives you a chance to show stimulating visual
information. Use video to bring movement, pictures and sound
into your presentation. Always make sure that the clip is
directly relevant to your content. Tell your audience what to
look for. Avoid showing any more films than you need.
● Artifacts or props
Sometimes it can be very useful to use artifacts or props when
making a presentation. If you bring an artifact with you, make
sure that the object can be seen and be prepared to pass it
around a small group or move to different areas of a large room
to help your audience view it in detail. Remember that this will
take time and that when an audience is immersed in looking at
an object, they will find it hard to listen to your talk. Conceal
large props until you need them; they might distract your
audience’s attention.
Place of Presentation
Before presenting, check the size, ventilation, and seating
arrangement of the room for the audience. The presenter should
place the screen according to the number of persons and the size
of the room. Keep enough space between you and the screen to
indicate the points on the screen with a pointer. Stand as close to

the audience as possible.
3.13.6. CLARITY AND PERSUASION

A clear presentation is an effective presentation. Following are
the ways to make your presentation effective:
1. You must have an in-depth knowledge of the topic.
2. Use language appropriate for the audience.
3. Establish a good rapport with the audience.
4. A well -structured presentation will lead to clarity of
thought and expression.
5. The examples and illustrations that are meaningful will
help the audience to get clarity of the concept.
6. Effective use of audio-visual tools will enhance the
impact and clarity of your presentation.
In short, the clearer you are, the more persuasive your
presentation is likely to be.
3.13.7. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Body language
Since the presentation is a live performance, your non-verbal
skills while speaking will influence the audience. Attention is
drawn to the following aspects of your non-verbal behaviour such
as:
● Appearance
● Maintaining good/ positive posture

● Eye contact
● Gesture – use positive gestures and hand movements to
reinforce your argument.
● Do not stand fixed like a statue.
● Smile and look relaxed while answering questions.
Rehearsal
To give a good presentation, you should rehearse your full
performance to be able to:
● Coordinate speech and visual projections
● Know if the information has been properly edited
● Check if the duration is as allowed and specific.
● Minimize your stage fright.
Some guidelines for an effective presentation

● Involve the audience and encourage their participation.
● Avoid doing things that would reduce audience involvement.
● Visualise the successful end of your presentation. Prepare
well. Perform well. The presentation is bound to end well.
● Don’t speak too low in a feeble voice that cannot be heard.
● Don’t shout which makes you sound angry and jarring.

To arouse interest among the audience, do the following:

● Maintain eye contact with the whole group throughout your
presentation
● Be simple and clear.
● Put interesting questions to the audience.
● Invite volunteers to role-play.
● Stand close to the audience in a way that you are fully visible
to them.
● Make the presentation sound well researched and
enthusiastically presented.
● Final tip for effective presentation is to treat stage fright to be
a natural experience of all presenters. Use it as a positive
source of nervous energy essential for performing well.
3.13.8. OPENING AND CLOSING

Opening
You get a very short time to grab the attention of your audience
and get them interested in your topic, say 30 to 45 seconds. A
pleasant expression on your face, a confident posture, definite eye
contact will help you connect with the audience. A brief, sharp
opening statement uttered with conviction and enthusiasm is all
that is needed to set you off. Follow some of the tips given below
to begin your presentation:
1. Pose a question to the audience.
2. Narrate an incident that arouses curiosity.

3. Use some interesting statistics.

4. Challenge a popular notion/ idea.
5. Use an anecdote.
Note: be natural
Closing
The way you close is as important as the way you begin. You
want your presentation to be a memorable incident for your
audience, something that was informative as well as delightful.
Here are some ways to close your presentation:
1. A summary statement that captures the gist of your
presentation.
2. A positive ending that makes the audience feel elevated.
3. An appeal for action.
3.13.9. TIME MANAGEMENT

In a presentation, the speaker should always keep in mind the time
taken to communicate. To be able to observe it, plan your time
judiciously to wind up your presentation on time. The audience
should not feel rushed through. Your pace of presentation should
not exceed 110-120 words per minute. The discussion of the
problem is equally important. The audience/ listener should never
be made to feel a passive captive listener. Hence, we keep time
for questions and answers at the end of the presentation. It is
always important that you conclude your argument.

Note: the key to time management lies in preparing your

presentation well.
● Organise your argument well in advance.
● Make swift transitions.
● Do audience research to anticipate queries and refutations.
● Make an impressive introduction so that people want to
hear you.
● Be objective- do not be carried away by your subject or
your oratory.
Exercise:
Prepare a presentation for the following topics:
1. Indian Constitution and Freedom of expression
2. Challenges faced by students in Higher Education
3. Reading habits and the adverse influence of new media
REFERENCES:
Anderson, Marilyn, et.al. Critical Thinking Academic Writing and
Presentation Skills. Pearson, 2008.
Bordwell, David and Kristen Thompson. Film Art: An
Introduction. McGraw Hill, 2006.

Corrigan, Timothy. A Short Guide to Writing about Film.

Longman, 2001.
Hood, J. H. How to Book of Writing Skills (Improve Your
English Report, email, or business writing skills). Word
Craft Global Pty. Ltd, 2013.
Kumar, Sanjay and Pushpa Lata. English Language and
Communication Skills. Oxford University Press,2012.
Rao, N. V. D Prasada (revised). Wren and Martin High School
English Grammar and Composition. S. Chand & Company,
2008.
Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. Oxford University
Press, 2008.
T. R, Dr. Muralikrishnan, et.al. Functional Grammar and
Communication in English. Calicut University Press, 2022.
Taylor, Shirley. Communication for Business: A Practical
Approach. Pearson, 2005.
—. Model Business Letters, Emails, and Other Business
Documents. Pearson, 2012.
W. Bly, Robert. Webster's New World Letter Writing Handbook.
Wiley Publishing. Inc., 2004.
Whitmell, Clare. Business Writing Essentials: How to Write
Letters, Reports, and Emails, eBook, 2014.

FIRST SEMESTER DEGREE EXAMINATION

ENG1A02: FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR AND
Model Question Paper
Time: 2 Hours Maximum:60
Marks
Section A
Do as directed
1. He pleaded ignorance of the law. (Change into a complex
sentence)
2. Neither of them _______ ready to undertake the journey. (Use
the appropriate form of ‘be’)
3. It was ______ a sunny day _____ January that she got married.
(Fill in with prepositions)
4. No other metal is as precious as Gold (Use the superlative
form)
5. That must have been a ________ experience. (Use the
appropriate form of ‘terrify’)
6. He had closed the window. (Rewrite into passive form.)
7. The proposal was accepted by _____ unanimous vote. (Use an
appropriate article)
8. Hardly had I reached the station ______ the train steamed off.
(Use the appropriate connective)

9. You play tennis, _______? (Use the correct form of the tag)
10. Do you speak Tamil? (Convert into negative sentence)
11. You are lucky. You came _______ car but I came ______
foot. (Identify the missing prepositions)
12. It _______ rain tonight. Look at those dark clouds. (Use
either ‘may’ or ‘might’)
(Ceiling – 20 marks)
Section B
Answer the following (5 marks)
13. Rewrite in Indirect speech:
When I finished my lunch I asked the waitress, “Do you know
the girl who was sitting over there?”
“No sir, I do not know her to speak of. I notice she has lunch
here on Saturdays”
“Doesn’t she come any other day”
“I never see her on other days”
14. Punctuate the following:
Once three men met in the course of the conversation one of
them turned to the other and said what would you do if you
woke up one fine morning found yourself a millionaire pat
came the reply from the first man i would build a big house the
second man thought for a while and said i would take the next
flight to paris and enjoy my life the third man said i would go
to sleep again and make another million

15. Explain a few barriers to communication and the means

of overcoming them.
16. Your local gas cylinder distributor is charging Rs. 120 for
each consumer card as against the normal charges messaged
by the company. Your local dealer has not given any response
to the complaint that you have raised. Prepare an email to the
LPG Corporation asking for a refund of the excess charges
from the local distributor.
17. You are the secretary of the Film Society in your town.
You plan to organise a Film Festival named Kaleidoscope so
as to exhibit films of great Indian filmmakers. A meeting has
been convened by the society executive committee. Prepare an
agenda and minutes of meeting.
18. Prepare a presentation on the topic “Greenhouse Effect
and Climate Change”
19. Differentiate formal and informal communication.
Section C
Answer any one (10 marks)
20. Prepare a Curriculum Vitae for the sake of submitting an
application to CEE TV NETWORK Pvt Ltd for the post of
Journalist Trainee. Provide all necessary details. The basic
qualification is graduation with requisite skills in news
reporting. Attach a covering letter also.
21. Organise a Group Discussion and report the same on the
topic: “Classroom teaching: Have the age-old practices
become obsolete in Pandemic times?”
*****

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FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR AND

COMMON COURSE FOR B.A.

FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR AND

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 2

MODULE I: BASIC CONCEPTS OF SYNTAX

Word order and Sentence pattern – Concord/ Subject-Verb Agreement

MODULE II: BASIC FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR

Use of major tense forms (Emphasis on tense forms in use in everyday

MODULE III: SKILLS FOR COMMUNICATION

Aspects of Formal Communication – Barriers to Communication –

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 3

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 4

1.1. WHAT IS SYNTAX?

Syntax is a form of grammar. It is chiefly concerned with word

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 5

Hence, it should be understood that English is not just a collection

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 6

1.1.2. Transformational Rules

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 7

1.2. WORD ORDER AND BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS

B. When we make simple English sentences, we usually follow

2. The fat cat is chasing a mouse.

C. Some verbs can be followed by two objects without an ‘and’

D. Sometimes a preposition is put in front of the indirect object.

Subject Verb Direct Preposition Indirect

1. My has sent a letter to me.

2. My showed his new to me.

3. The sent a present to their

4. Betty has a beautiful for her best

E. Subject + Verb+ Subject complement (SVC)

Subject Verb Subject

2. His brother became a soldier

3. Gopal looks sad

4. The children kept quiet.

F. Subject + Verb+ Object+ Complement (SVOC)

Subject Verb Object Complement

1. The named the child angelina.

2. He painted the house yellow.

1.1.2. PARTS OF SPEECH

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 11

5. Adverb (ADV) – a word which modifies a verb, adjective,

The descriptive approach offered by structuralists provides the

The open classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

Closed class words, better known as function words, are those

to relate from class words to each other. They include

1. His success made his parents happy.

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 14

e.g., He is a hard-working student.

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 15

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 16

3. The chairman seldom arrives on time.

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 17

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 19

1.2. CONCORD/ AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT

There are three persons:

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 20

1.2.1. Compound Subjects

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 21

[Assignment is the subject of the verb was].

Functional Grammar and Communication in English 22

Everyone at the meeting was upset over the policies

The trousers are hanging in the closet.