Journal of Applied Geophysics 89 (2013) 68–75

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Applied Geophysics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jappgeo

Magnetic susceptibility and Cs-137 inventory variability as influenced by

land use change and slope positions in a hilly, semiarid region of west-central Iran
Mohammad Reza Rahimi a, Shamsollah Ayoubi a,⁎, Mohammad Reza Abdi b
a
Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran
b
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Isfahan, Isfahan 81747-73441, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The objective of this study was to explore the slope position and land use change effects on the variability in mag-
Received 14 September 2012 netic susceptibility and 137Cs inventory as the soil redistribution indicators in a hilly semiarid calcareous area in
Accepted 19 November 2012 Iran. The selected study area is located in a hilly region with pasture and cultivation land use of Fereydunshahr,
Available online 29 November 2012
Isfahan Province in west-central Iran. In the two mentioned dominant ecosystems, four slope positions including
summit, shoulder, backslope and footslope were identified and in each land use and slope position, three cores
Keywords:
Magnetic susceptibility
were selected to collect 72 soil samples from three depths (0–10, 10–20, 20–30 cm) in an area of 15×15 cm. Ad-
Cs-137 inventory ditional 28 soil samples were collected from the reference site for soil loss and deposition calculations by using the
Slope position Cs-137 measurement. The results of the study with the use of the Cs-137 technique showed that the average soil
Land use change loss in the pasture land (46.4 t ha−1 yr−1) was significantly (p b 0.05) lower than the average soil loss in the cul-
tivated land (80.4 t ha−1 yr−1). The highest soil loss in both land uses was obtained in the shoulder position, 60.1
and 84.4 t ha−1 yr−1, respectively, for the pasture and cultivated lands. Moreover, the highest rates of soil depo-
sition was observed in a footslope position in both land uses and they were 34 and 32.4 t ha−1 yr−1 for the pas-
ture and cultivated lands, respectively. Magnetic susceptibility was significantly (pb 0.05) greater in pasture
(χlf =41.51×10−8 m3/kg) than in the cultivated land (χlf =34.90×10−8 m3/kg). The pasture land with a
lower soil loss rate, indicated significantly higher magnetic susceptibility in all landform positions as compared
to that in the cultivated land. The results of the correlation analysis showed that among the studied soil
physico-chemical properties, χlf (r=0.83, pb 0.01) in the pasture land had the highest correlation with the
Cs-137 inventory. Throughout the non-linear regression analysis, χlf was introduced for relating soil parameters
and the cesium inventory explained 68% and 79% of the total variability of 137Cs in the pasture and cultivated
lands, respectively. The results implied that the variability in the magnetic susceptibility within the hillslope is
consistent with the variation of the Cs-inventory; and the results thus demonstrate the slope and land use effects
on soil redistribution.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction rates. Cesium-137 is an artificial radionuclide with a half-life of

Soil erosion and sediment deposition give rise to serious problems
worldwide, especially in the hilly regions with undulating topography
(Li et al., 2009). Soil erosion is a major cause in reducing soil produc-
tivity through the loss of precious soil organic carbon (SOC) and plant
nutrients, and consequently soil erosion/deposition could drastically
affect the soil quality and soil health (Ayoubi et al., 2011). Therefore,
the use of different approaches and techniques has been explored by
researchers to evaluate soil redistribution.
Several techniques have been developed and used to measure soil
erosion and deposition throughout the world (Sac et al., 2008). Use of
nuclear techniques in erosion monitoring and especially for the quanti-
fication of soil loss, offers a fast and economical tool to estimate erosion
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 311393475; fax: 98 3113913471.
E-mail address: ayoubi@cc.iut.ac.ir (S. Ayoubi).
30.2 years, which has been released into the environment as a result
of nuclear weapon tests primarily during the 1950–1970 (Ritchie and
Ritchie, 2007). Cesium-137 fallout reaches the earth's surface mostly
as a result of precipitation, and is strongly and rapidly adsorbed by
fine soil colloidal particles such as clay minerals and organic matter in
the topsoil. Chemical or biological removal of 137Cs from soil particles
is limited; and it is assumed that only physical processes moving soil
particles such as soil erosion and tillage practices are involved in the
137
Cs transport (Ritchie and Ritchie, 2007; Sac et al., 2008; Walling
and Quine, 1991).
A number of studies have been made to employ Cs-137 inventory
to estimate soil loss in the hilly region of Iran (Afshar et al., 2010;
Ayoubi et al., 2012; Kalhor, 1998). For instance, Ayoubi et al. (2012)
used Cs-137 in the Chelgerd District in the Zagrous region in western
Iran, and reported that the highest soil losses were observed in shoulder
position with a mean of 96.1 t ha−1 yr−1. This value was significantly
more than that in the stable surfaces such as a summit.

0926-9851/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2012.11.009
 M.R. Rahimi et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 89 (2013) 68–75
The most commonly and easily measured magnetic property of
soils is the magnetic susceptibility, which is defined as the ratio of the
magnetization induced in a sample to the magnetic field inducing it
(Mullins, 1977), K = M/H, where K is the volume magnetic susceptibil-
ity, M is the total magnetic field per unit volume, and H is the inducing
magnetic field per unit volume. Soil scientists have generally measured
the mass magnetic susceptibility as: χ = k/d, where χ; mass magnetic
susceptibility (m3 kg−1), and d; density of the material (kg m −3)
(Karimi et al., 2011; Mullins, 1977). Field measurements of volume
magnetic susceptibility are typically reported in dimensionless volume
units (×10−5), whereas laboratory measurements of mass susceptibil-
ity are reported in mass based units (×10−8 m 3 kg−1) (Mullins, 1977).
Magnetic measures provide a rapid, accurate, non-destructive, and
relatively easy method to study soil erosion/deposition and to track top-
soil transportation within the landscape. Since Dearing et al. (1985)
first reported by using soil magnetism to study the distribution of
soil erosion, several studies have demonstrated that soil magnetism
profiling is a sound technique for estimating soil losses on landscapes
(e.g., Ayoubi et al., 2012; Gennadiev et al., 2002; Mokhtari Karchegani
et al., 2011; Olson et al., 2002; Royall, 2007; Sadiki and Faleh, 2009).
Hatchinson (1995) determined sediment source and erosion rates in a
British upland watershed by incorporating magnetic and radiometric
measurements. In the Canadian Prairies, de Jong et al. (1998) used soil
magnetism in combination with a fallout 137Cs to document soil erosion
and reported that the upper and middle positions along the slope had a
much higher χlf (mass magnetic susceptibility at a low frequency) than
in the lower slope positions.
Hussain et al. (1998) found that mass magnetic susceptibility was
higher in uncultivated soils than in the cultivated ones. Their results indi-
cated that 10.6 cm, or 47%, of the upper soil layer has been eroded from
the hill slope since 1855 as a result of accelerated erosion induced by cul-
tivation. Ventura and Nearing (2001) employed polystyrene plastic beads
embedded with a magnetic powder (magnetite) as the tracer to investi-
gate soil erosion. Royall (2001) used mineral magnetic measurements to
investigate soil redistribution in a small agricultural catchment in a lime-
stone terrain. Royall (2007) assessed the use of mineral-magnetic data to
determine the spatial distribution of long-term cumulative soil loss from
agricultural fields; and compared the results with those obtained by the
universal soil loss equation (RUSLE). The results showed that the RUSLE
and magnetism models were in good accordance. Sadiki and Faleh
(2009) revealed that the impact of land use appeared to be a key factor
affecting the distribution of χlf in the soil profile. Also, they reported
that there were large differences in the average χlf in different land
uses. The soils that were cultivated had significantly lower χlf values
than did those that were covered by natural vegetation.
Mokhtari Karchegani et al. (2011) by using magnetic measures to
assess soil redistribution following deforestation in a hilly region in
western Iran, reported that the magnetic susceptibility could be ap-
plied for monitoring soil redistribution along the slope in calcareous
hilly areas in the semi-arid regions. Ayoubi et al. (2012) in Chelgerd
region in the Zagrous Mountains found that the slope gradient and
slope position were the key factors controlling the variability in mag-
netic susceptibility within the landscape, which reflects the effects of
the slope on soil redistribution. Magnetic susceptibility within the
landscape might be affected by lithology (e.g., Lu, 2000) induced by
the presence of magnetic minerals in parent materials and also by
soil drainage conditions (Kravchenko et al., 2002; Mathe and
Leveque, 2003), in which poor drainage causes the reduction of mag-
netic minerals to diamagnetic minerals.
A few studies have been made on the use of 137Cs (Afshar et al., 2010;
Ayoubi et al., 2012) and magnetic properties (Mokhtari Karchegani
et al., 2011) to assess soil redistribution in calcareous soils in western
Iran. Attempts have not yet been made to explore the impacts of the
slope position and pasture degradation on the variability of magnetic
susceptibility and Cs-137 inventory in the semiarid regions of Iran.
Therefore, this study was conducted to (i) evaluate the efficacy of
69
magnetic measurements for assessing soil redistribution by comparing
with the results of 137Cs in natural pasture and adjacent cultivated
soils, and (ii) to determine the impact of the slope position and land
use change on magnetic susceptibility variability and Cs-137 inventory
in two calcareous hillslopes containing soils formed in Cretaceous lime-
stone in the Fereydunshahr District in Isfahan Province, west-central
Iran.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Description of the study site and field survey
The study area is located between 49° 36′ and 50°19′ E longitudes and
32° 33′ and 37° 4′ N latitudes in the hilly regions of the Fereydunshahr
District in Isfahan Province in west-central Iran (Fig. 1). The mean eleva-
tion of the area is approximately 2750 m a.s.l; and the mean annual tem-
perature and precipitation in the selected areas are 8 °C and 600 mm,
respectively.
The geology of the selected hillslopes is dominated by Cretaceous
limestone formation. The selected field was originally covered by na-
tive oak, but following land use change, it has been used as a natural
pasture for the past 50 years, covered by Astragalus sp. and Mucronata
sp. During the last 50 years, some hillslopes have been completely de-
graded and converted into cultivated land (Forest and Rangeland
Organization, 1999). In cultivated land, bed preparation included
chisel plowing, followed by disking in each fall before planting the
grain cereals. Typical depth of cultivation is about 30 cm and the
abovementioned management practice has been followed by the
local farmers at the site for the last 30 years.
In the selected study area, two adjacent hillslopes with two men-
tioned land uses and ecosystems (pasture and cultivated land) were
selected (Fig. 1a and b). The transaction of the studied hillslopes in
the studied area is illustrated in Fig. 1c. Soil surface soils were domi-
nantly loam to clay loam in the two studied land uses. Generally, the
soils of the studied areas were classified as Typic Calcixerepts
according to the Soil Survey Staff (2010). Soil samples were collected
based upon the landform features (summit, shoulder, backslope and
footslope), from the 0–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm soil depths at the
three cores in each landform positions as replicates. In total, from
the two hillslopes, 72 soil samples from an area of 15 × 15 cm were
collected during June 2011. At the deposition site, deeper soil samples
(from a depth of 30–50 cm) were also collected. Reference soil sam-
ples were collected from a nearby site (at a distance of less than
1 km) located on the summit position with relatively high soil devel-
opment features. This site had the same parent material, elevation
and precipitation as did the study site. The selected reference site
had not been affected by accelerated soil erosion or deposition over
the last 50 years; and had a permanent cover of grass and shrubs
(Astragalus sp. and Mucronata sp.). Three selected cores from the ref-
erence site were drilled and soil samples were collected from 0 to
40 cm depth by an increment of 5-cm to evaluate the Cs-inventory
and χlf at the reference site.
137
2.2. Laboratory analysis and Cs measurements
Soil samples were air-dried in the laboratory, and sieved by using a
2-mm sieve. Samples weighing 500 g were then placed in Marinelli bea-
kers and sealed for 137Cs analyses. The 137Cs activity (Bq kg−1) was de-
termined during 2011 at the Department of Physics, Isfahan University
of Iran, from the net area under the full-energy peak at 662 keV (ISO,
11929-1, 2000) by using gamma spectroscopy with a high-resolution
germanium detector. The reference material no: IAEA-375 from the Inter-
national Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Analytical Quality Control Ser-
vices was used for quality control. The count time was approximately
130 min, and the counting error was kept at b 10% at the 95% confidence
level. The 137Cs activities (Bq kg−1) were converted to area activities
70 M.R. Rahimi et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 89 (2013) 68–75
Fig. 1. Location of the study site in the Fereydunshahr District, Isfahan Province, west-central Iran (a): natural pasture and (b): cultivated land use in the study site.
(Bq m−2) (Walling et al., 2002). Soil bulk density was measured by using
the core method (Blake and Hartge, 1986). Soil organic carbon (SOC) con-
centration was measured by using a wet combustion method (Nelson
and Sommers, 1996) and total nitrogen (TN) by the Kjeldahl digestion
method (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982). Extractable potassium (Kava)
was measured by using 1 N ammonium acetate as the extractant
(Richards, 1954). Calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE) was measured by
Bernard's calcimeter method (Black et al., 1965). Soil particle size distri-
bution and texture were obtained by the Bouyoucos hydrometer method
(Gee and Bauder, 1986).
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) was measured at low (0.47 kHz; χlf)
and high (4.7 kHz; χhf) frequencies by using a Bartington MS2 dual
frequency sensor. The χ value is proportional to the concentration
of the ferrimagnetic minerals (magnetite and maghemite) in the sam-
ple, and is also sensitive to the magnetic grain size (Dearing, 1999).
The percentage of frequency dependence (χfd %) was calculated by
the following equation:
χfd ¼ ðχlf −χhf Þ=χlf  100:
2.3. Computation of soil loss and deposition rates
Several approaches have been used to convert 137Cs measurements to
quantitative estimates of erosion and deposition rates (Walling and He,
1999, 2000). Simplified Mass Balance Model (SMBM) was applied to con-
vert 137Cs areal activities into soil redistribution rates (t ha−1 yr−1)
(Walling and He, 1999; Walling et al., 2002). For an eroding site
(A(t) b Aref), assuming a constant erosion rate R (mm −2 yr −1), the
total 137Cs inventory (A, Bq m−2) at year t (yr) can be expressed as
in Eq. (2). The total 137Cs inventory (A, Bq m−2) at year t (yr) can be
expressed as:
t−1963
AðtÞ ¼ Aref ð1−P R=dÞ : ð2Þ
The above equation can be rearranged to derive the erosion rates
as follows:
h i
1=ðt−1963Þ
Y ¼ 10 Bd=P 1−ð1−X=100Þ
where, Aref = local reference inventory (Bq m −2); Y = mean annual
soil loss (t ha −1 yr −1); d = depth of plow or cultivation layer (m);
B = bulk density of soil (kg m −3); X = percentage reduction in total
137
Cs inventory (defined as (Aref − A) / Aref × 100); and P = particle
size correction factor.
The sediment deposition rate for a depositional site (A(t) > Aref),
assuming a constant deposition rate R′ (kg m −2 yr −1) at the site,
can be estimated from the 137Cs concentration of the deposited sedi-
ment Cd(t0) (Bq kg −1) by using the following equation:
Aex ðtÞ AðtÞAref
0
R ¼ t  0  λðtt0 Þ 0 ¼ t  0 0
ð4Þ
∫1963 Cd t e dt ∫1963 Cd t eλðtt Þ dt0
where Aex(t′) = the excess 137Cs inventory of the sampling point over
the reference inventory at year t′ (defined as the measured inventory
less than the local reference inventory) (Bq m −2); Cd(t) = 137Cs con-
centration of deposited sediment at year t′ (Bq kg −1); λ = decay con-
ð1Þ stant for 137Cs (yr −1).
2.4. Statistical analysis
Classical descriptive parameters including mean, minimum, max-
imum, coefficient of variation (CV), standard deviation (SD), and
skewness were determined by using the SPSS (Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences), v.16. The distribution of variables was evalu-
ated by using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (Massey, 1951). The cor-
relations among the variables as well as of 137Cs and magnetic
measures with physicochemical properties were computed by using
the SPSS software (Swan and Sandilands, 1995).
Factorial arrangement in a completely random design with three
replicates was used for the statistical analysis. The overall statistical
arrangement of the treatments was: two land use treatments (pas-
ture land, cultivated land), and four slope positions (summit, shoul-
der, backslope and footslope). The data were analyzed by using the
analysis of variance (ANOVA) in the SAS statistical program (SAS
Institute, 1992). Mean comparison was done by using the Duncan's
multiple range method. Statistical significance was evaluated at the
ð3Þ
p b 0.05 probability level.
 M.R. Rahimi et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 89 (2013) 68–75 71

Table 1 in the west of Iran. On the other hand, Ayoubi et al. (2012) obtained
Descriptive statistics for 137Cs, soil magnetic parameters and physico-chemical param- the CV value of 103.9% for 137Cs inventory in the Chelgerd District in
eters in selected transects in pasture land use in the Fereydunshahr District, west of
Iran (n = 96).
the west of Iran; and the authors suggested that a high variability in
the 137Cs distribution was induced by soil erosion and deposition
Variable Unit Min Max Mean SD CV (%) Skewness along the studied transects.
137
Cs Bq/m 2
671.30 3508.40 1865.60 994.40 58.30 −0.33 The highest and lowest CV values for the soil chemical properties
Kava mg/kg 331.70 743.1 525.5 121.03 23 0.19 in the natural pasture were attributed to CCE (89.5%), and Kava
SOM % 0.98 2.98 2.10 0.56 26.8 −0.13
(23%), respectively. In the cultivated land use, the highest and lowest
CCE % 2.00 37.00 23.9 8.27 89.5 1.66
Clay % 24.5 41.5 32.6 3.53 10.8 −0.02 CV values for the soil chemical properties were ascribed to CCE
Silt % 29.00 47.00 36.5 4.56 12.5 0.67 (56.4%), and SOM (23.9%), respectively. It seems that the high vari-
Sand % 20.50 42.50 31.00 6.50 20.95 −0.25 ability in CCE is associated with diverse effective rainfall and water in-
BD g cm−3 1.19 1.78 33.10 0.06 4.30 0.32 filtration in various geomorphic surfaces and also with accelerated
χlf 10−8 m3/kg 21.90 61.12 41.54 12.53 27.80 −0.28
erosion in the study area. These results (high variability in CCE) are in
χhf 10−8 m3/kg 22.90 64.10 47.00 13.04 27.80 −0.27
χfd % 1.58 5.28 3.97 0.81 20.40 −0.57 accordance with the results obtained in the hilly regions of northern
Iran (Ayoubi et al., 2011; Khormali et al., 2009) and western Iran
Min: minimum; Max: maximum; SD: Standard deviation; CV: coefficient of variation;
Kava: available potassium; SOM: soil organic matter; CCE: calcium carbonate (Ayoubi et al., 2012; Mokhtari Karchegani et al., 2011). In general, the
equivalent; BD: Bulk density; χlf: magnetic susceptibility at low frequency; χhf: high variation for the selected soil properties in the hilly region of the
magnetic susceptibility at high frequency; χfd: frequency dependence. studied site indicated likely soil redistribution during the long-term cul-
tivation of the cultivated land and natural soil detachment and deposi-
A stepwise regression procedure was used by regressing magnetic tion at different positions of the hill slope (Jones et al., 2008).
susceptibility on the 137Cs inventory and soil physico-chemical prop-
137
erties. Selection of the factors for inclusion in the model was based on 3.2. Cs inventory and soil redistribution assessment
the probability b 0.05 (Freund and Littell, 2000).
The 137Cs inventory of the two reference cores collected from the
reference site had a mean value of 2067 ± 40 Bq m −2 (Fig. 2). The
3. Results and discussion mean value obtained in the present study was similar to those reported
by Afshar et al. (2010), Ayoubi et al. (2012), and Kalhor (1998) in the
3.1. Descriptive statistics semiarid regions of Iran. They reported values of 2339, 2130 and
2107.6 Bq m −2 for the reference sites in Lorestan Province, and
Descriptive statistics of 137Cs inventory, soil magnetic and Charmahal & Bakhtiari Province, respectively.
physico-chemical parameters in the natural pasture and cultivated The mean 137Cs inventories obtained in the natural pasture soils
soils are given in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. All parameters in the ranged from 671.3 to 3508.4 Bq m−2 (Table 1); and in the cultivated
two land uses were normally distributed, except CCE, as confirmed by soil it ranged from 218 to 3545.1 Bq m −2 (Table 2). The higher CV for
the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, and as indicated by the skewness values, the 137Cs inventories (see Tables 1 and 2) in the cultivated land use
which varied from −1 to 1 (Tables 1 and 2). The coefficients of rather than in the natural pasture, might be attributed to a greater un-
variation (CV) of the 137Cs concentration in the natural pasture and cul- stable condition in the cultivated land. By using the Cs-137 technique,
tivated land uses were 58.4% and 80%, respectively. According to the average soil loss in the pasture land (46.4 t ha−1 yr−1) was significantly
classification proposed by Wilding (1985), 137Cs in the two land uses, (pb 0.05) lower than the average soil loss in the cultivated land
was classified as highly variable (CV > 0.35), while SOC and total nitro- (80.4 tha−1 yr−1). The estimation of erosion rates by SMBM for the
gen (TN) were classified as moderately variable (0.15b CVb 0.35). These pasture land (64.1 t ha−1 yr−1) was significantly (pb 0.05) lower than
results show a high variability in the 137Cs distribution induced by soil the average soil loss in the cultivated land (140.1 t ha−1 yr−1). The ero-
erosion and deposition along the studied transects, especially in the cul- sion rate from the sloping cultivated land is greater than 2 times as
tivated land use caused by extensive tillage practices. Du and Walling much as that from the pasture land, indicating that serious soil loss oc-
(2011) within a 7 ha of cultivated field located near Colebrooke in curred during the period of cultivation after pasture degradation. Afshar
Devon, UK, reported a CV = 26.59% for Cs-137, while the CV for other et al. (2010) by using SMBM reported that soil erosion rate ranged from
soil properties generally varied from 10 to 30%. Afshar et al. (2010) 4.8 to 183.9 t ha−1 yr−1 in the Ardal District, west of Iran.
obtained a CV value of 50% for the 137Cs inventory in the Ardal District The soil losses in the summit position, obtained by the SMBM, were
54.66 and 120 t ha−1 yr−1, respectively, showing significant differences
Table 2 (pb 0.05) for the pasture and cultivated lands (Fig. 3). The erosion rate
Descriptive statistics for 137Cs, soil magnetic parameters and physico-chemical param- in the shoulder position ranged from 3.94 to 90.1 t ha−1 yr−1 for the
eters in selected transect in cultivated land use in the Fereydunshahr District, west of
natural pasture and varied from 86.41 to 159.3 t ha−1 yr−1 for the cul-
Iran (n = 96).
tivated soils. Among the studied slope positions, the shoulder position
Variable Unit Min Max Mean SD CV (%) Skewness showed the highest soil loss in both land uses (Fig. 3). The erosion
137
Cs Bq/m2 218.00 2545.10 1496.30 1103.20 80.00 0.13 rate in the shoulder position determined by the SMBM ranged from
Kava mg/kg 210.40 665.40 420.80 116.54 27.70 0.26
SOM % 0.87 1.98 1.20 0.32 23.90 0.46
CCE % 6.00 42.00 17.02 9.60 56.40 1.09
Clay % 20.50 38.50 28.10 5.50 19.57 0.11
Silt % 36.00 56.50 44.23 4.39 9.29 0.72
Sand % 18.50 36.50 27.54 4.73 17.20 0.15
BD g cm−3 1.33 1.51 1.40 0.05 3.52 0.70
χlf 10−8 m3/kg 7.32 57.27 34.90 17.40 49.90 −0.14
χhf 10−8 m3/kg 7.57 59.77 36.36 18.10 49.80 −0.15
χfd % 1.41 5.80 3.92 1.01 25.70 −0.18

Min: minimum; Max: maximum; SD: standard deviation; CV: coefficient of variation; Kava:
available potassium; SOM:soil organic matter; CCE: calcium carbonate equivalent; BD:
bulk density; χlf: magnetic susceptibility at low frequency; χhf: magnetic susceptibility at Fig. 2. Vertical distribution of 137Cs inventory in the reference site core no. 1 at the
high frequency; χfd: frequency dependence. selected site in west-central Iran.
72 M.R. Rahimi et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 89 (2013) 68–75
Fig. 3. Soil erosion and deposition rate in different positions of hillslope in two land
uses of the studied site at west-central Iran.
54.01 to 94.65 t ha−1 yr −1; and in the cultivated soil, it ranged from
133.41 to 185.96 t ha−1 yr−1. Exposure of subsurface calcareous parent
materials during observations in the field in the shoulder at the surface
horizon, especially in the cultivated soils, corroborated the findings of
the Cs-137 estimates. Loss of vegetation cover and tillage practices,
and subsequent water erosion in the steep slopes of the shoulder in
the cultivated land use were considered as the major factors affecting
soil loss in the studied area. These results are consistent with the results
obtained by Ayoubi et al. (2012) in the Chelgerd District and Mokhtari
Karchegani et al. (2011) in the Lordegan District.
Soil deposition rate was observed in the backslope and footslope po-
sitions in both land uses (Fig. 3, positive values on the Y coordinate indi-
cate soil deposition). Obviously, the footslope position receives sediments
transferred from the upslope positions (e.g., shoulder position). More-
over, the highest rates of the soil deposition were observed in the
footslope position; and they were 41.14 and 38.1 t ha−1 yr−1 for the
pasture and cultivated lands, respectively. There was no significant differ-
ence (pb 0.05) between the two land uses for the backslope and footslope
positions according to soil deposition (Fig. 3). These findings are consis-
tent with those by Ayoubi et al. (2012), Khormali and Ajamai (2011),
and Sac et al. (2008), who reported that the highest soil erosion rate
was in the shoulder position and the highest accumulation rate was in
the downslopes.
3.3. Magnetic parameters of soils in different slope positions and land
uses
Pedogenic formation of ferrimagnetic minerals can enhance soil
magnetic susceptibility, which depends on parent material, climate,
topography and vegetation (Mullins, 1977). Three major mechanisms
have been proposed for the generation of magnetic minerals in soils,
i) magnetic minerals are inherited from the parent material (Grimley
et al., 2004), ii) pedogenesis and other processes are the second prob-
able source of magnetic susceptibility in the soil, and iii) mechanism
relates to the effects of various industrial activities in enhancing mag-
netic susceptibility of the surface soils (Blundell et al., 2009). The
latest pathway of the enhancement of magnetic susceptibility in the
studied region was ignored and because of that the studied area is
far from the industrial and urban activities.
Vertical distribution of χlf for the reference site is presented in Fig. 4.
As seen in the figure, the highest value of χlf (46 × 10−8 m 3 kg−1) was
obtained for the first layer (0–5 cm) and showed a decreasing tendency
to depth. The minimum value of χlf was observed for the 35–40 cm
depth with a mean of 20× 10−8 m 3 kg−1. The measured χlf for
rock parent material for the two hillslopes was about 6.65± 0.75
(×10 −8 m 3 kg−1). Increase in magnetic susceptibility in the surface
horizons, even in 35–40 cm as compared to the parent material mainly
is attributed to pedogenic processes. Since the limestone parent materi-
al has low magnetic potential (Ayoubi et al., 2012), measured χlf could
be ascribed to the pedogenic formation of very fine magnetic particles
Fig. 4. Vertical distribution of χlf for the reference site in the west-central Iran. Bars on
the rows stand for standard deviations.
(Dearing et al., 1985; Mokhtari Karchegani et al., 2011). The values of
magnetic susceptibility at various frequencies were used to obtain in-
formation on the magnetic characteristics of the soil particles in the
soils studied. There were positive and highly significant correlations be-
tween χlf and χfd (r= 0.83, p b 0.01) and (r= 0.84, p b 0.01) in the pas-
ture and cultivated lands, respectively (Tables 3 and 4); these results
also proved that the χlf was increased by pedogenic processes including
the increase in the superparamagnetic particles (Hu et al., 2007). The
significant correlation between χlf and χfd (r= 0.89, p b 0.01) in the
present study is similar to that reported by Ayoubi et al. (2012) in cal-
careous soils in the west of Iran; and this also confirms the results
that the χlf was enhanced by the pedogenic processes in the study
area. Mokhtari Karchegani et al. (2011) also reported a significant corre-
lation between χlf and χfd (r= 0.82, p b 0.01) in calcareous soils of the
hilly region of western Iran and emphasized that soil pedogenesis was
a major factor for enhancing χlf.
χlf in the pasture land was significantly (p b 0.05) higher than in
the cultivated land with a higher soil loss rate. The pasture land
with a lower soil loss in the summit and shoulder positions (Fig. 3),
showed higher χlf rather than in the pasture soils (Fig. 5). In all land-
form positions, the pasture soils showed higher χlf as compared to
that in the cultivated land particularly in the down slope positions.
The lowest χlf was observed in the shoulder position in both land
uses; and this was associated with the highest soil loss rate which
was approximately similar to the background value of χlf in the par-
ent material. In contrast, the highest χlf value was found in the
footslope position (Fig. 5) with the highest soil deposition rate in
both land uses (see Fig. 3). Furthermore, in the downslope positions,
especially in the pasture land, the pedogenic process was enhanced
because of moisture received from the upslope, which caused the
leaching of carbonates and increased χlf (Singer et al., 1996).
Overall, we conclude that very fine ferrimagnetic mineral parti-
cles, especially nano-particles of magnetite and maghemite produced
by pedogenesis process, have been redistributed by the soil erosion
and deposition processes together with clay particles along the hill
slope.
137
3.4. Relationships between Cs, magnetic measures and soil properties
The linear correlation coefficients of Cs-137 inventory with the se-
lected soil physico-chemical and magnetic parameters in the pasture
and cultivated lands are given in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The calci-
um carbonate equivalent (CCE) had a negative significant correlation
coefficient with SOM in the pasture (r= −0.41, p b 0.05) and cultivated
(r= −0.53, p b 0.01) land uses (Tables 3 and 4), implying the occur-
rence of the decalcification processes in the stable and flat positions
 M.R. Rahimi et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 89 (2013) 68–75 73

Table 3
137
Correlation coefficients of Cs inventory with magnetic parameters and selected soil physico-chemical properties in natural pasture land use (n = 96).
137
Cs Kava SOM CCE Clay Sand Silt BD χlf χfd
137
Cs 1
Kava 0.78⁎⁎ 1
SOM 0.67⁎⁎ 0.87⁎⁎ 1
CCE −0.54⁎⁎ −0.53⁎⁎ −0.41⁎ 1
Clay 0.62⁎⁎ 0.59⁎⁎ 0.46⁎ −0.46⁎ 1
Sand −0.66⁎⁎ −0.49⁎ −0.18 0.56⁎⁎ −0.73⁎⁎ 1
Silt 0.30 0.23 −0.10 −0.44⁎ 0.25 0.66⁎⁎ 1
BD 0.07 0.11 0.02 −0.13 0.30 0.24 0.21 1
χlf 0.83⁎⁎ 0.67⁎⁎ 0.42⁎ −0.63⁎⁎ 0.70⁎⁎ −0.85⁎⁎ 0.64⁎⁎ 0.24 1
χfd −0.25 −0.15 −0.17 −0/14 −0.30 0.23 0.08 −0.02 0.83⁎⁎ 1

Kava: available potassium; SOM:soil organic matter; CCE: calcium carbonate equivalent; BD: bulk density; χlf: magnetic susceptibility at low frequency; χfd: frequency dependence.
⁎ Significance at the 0.05 probability level.
⁎⁎ Significance at the 0.01 probability level.

Table 4
137
Correlation coefficients of Cs inventory with magnetic parameters and selected soil physico-chemical properties in cultivated land use (n = 96).
137
Cs Kava SOM CCE Clay Sand Silt BD χlf χfd
137
Cs 1
Kava 0.76⁎⁎ 1
SOM 0.67⁎⁎ 0.87⁎⁎ 1
CCE −0.73⁎⁎ −0.64⁎⁎ −0.53⁎⁎ 1
Clay 0.83⁎⁎ 0.68⁎⁎ 0.60⁎⁎ −0.72⁎⁎ 1
Sand −0.46⁎ −0.43⁎ −0.30 0.54⁎⁎ −0.63⁎⁎ 1
Silt −0.26 −0.27 −0.42⁎ 0.30 −0.56⁎⁎ −0.27 1
BD 0.27 0.15 0.38⁎ −0.30 0.45⁎ −0.29 0.10 1
χlf 0.89⁎⁎ 0.71⁎⁎ 0.61⁎⁎ −0.71⁎⁎ 0.89⁎⁎ −0.59⁎⁎ −0.27 0.30 1
χfd −0.02 −0.05 −0.20 −0.10 0.01 −0.33 0.32 0.06 0.84⁎⁎ 1

Kava: available potassium; SOM:soil organic matter; CCE: calcium carbonate equivalent; BD: bulk density; χlf: magnetic susceptibility at low frequency; χfd: frequency dependence.
⁎ Significance at the 0.05 probability level.
⁎⁎ Significance at the 0.01 probability level.

with high SOM concentration and high leaching rate. These results
imply the antagonistic effects between SOM and CCE; and these results
are in agreement with the finding of Ayoubi et al. (2012) and Mokhtari
Karchegani et al. (2011) in the west of Iran.
In the natural pasture, significant correlation coefficients between χlf
and Kava (r= 0.67, p b 0.01), χlf and clay content (r= 0.70, p b 0.01), and
χlf and silt content (r= 0.64, p b 0.01) were observed (Table 3). Signifi-
cant correlation coefficients between χlf and Kava (r= 0.71, p b 0.01),
χlf and clay content (r= 0.89, p b 0.01) were obtained (Table 4) for the
cultivated land. There is also positive correlation between χlf and select-
ed soil properties such as SOM, and a negative correlation with CCE.
These results are consistent with the finding of Dankoub et al. (2011)
in central Iran.
In both selected land uses, the 137Cs inventory showed consistent
significant correlation coefficients with CCE, Kava, clay, χlf, and sand
(Tables 3 and 4). The highest correlation coefficient for Cs-137 was
observed with χlf in both land uses. These high statistical correlations
between the soil properties and Cs-137 indicated that hydrological
and erosional processes in the hilly regions likely control the variability
of the selected soil properties within the hillslope. In other words,
detachment and accumulation of some soil elements such as SOM, soil
nutrients, and magnetic minerals and Cs-inventory associated with
fine particles are regulated simultaneously along the hillslope. On the
other hand, the magnetic parameters could be used as an alternative
tool for the 137Cs studies with the aim of reducing the number of
137
Cs samples required for estimating soil redistribution.
The results of the correlation analysis showed that among the
physico-chemical and magnetic properties χlf (r = 0.83**, p b 0.01) in
the pasture land had the highest correlation with the Cs-137 inventory
(Table 3). Therefore, the simple linear regression model could explain
68.8% and 79.2% of the total variability of the Cs-137 inventory in the
site studied for the pasture and cultivated soils, respectively.
Also, a non-linear relationship was established to develop a more
powerful model between Cs-137 and magnetic susceptibility. In this re-
spect, a non-linear relationships regression was established between χlf
and the 137Cs inventory in both land uses (Fig. 6a and b). The relationship
between 137Cs and χlf was positive and significant in both land uses. The
following non-linear equations (Eq. (5)) for the pasture soils, and Eq. (6)
for the cultivated soils were developed between 137Cs and χlf which could
explain 74% and 76% of the total variability of Cs-137 in the pasture and
cultivated lands, respectively.

137
Cs ¼ −0:9 þ 0:19ðχlf Þ–0=0:015ðχlf Þ2 R2 ¼ 0:74; pb0:01 ð5Þ

137
Cs ¼ 0:21 e0:04ðχlf Þ R2 ¼ 0:76; pb0:01: ð6Þ

The results imply that soil redistribution (erosion and redeposition)

could likely explain the variations in magnetic susceptibly and there-
Fig. 5. Comparison of mean magnetic susceptibility at low frequency (χlf) in selected fore, magnetic variations have potential to be used as a proxy for soil
slope position in two land uses at the selected site in west-central Iran. erosion monitoring in hilly regions.
74 M.R. Rahimi et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 89 (2013) 68–75
Fig. 6. Non-linear relationships between 137Cs and magnetic susceptibility (χlf) in the
studied site (a): natural pasture land and (b) cultivated land in the studied site.
4. Conclusions
Our estimates of soil erosion along the hillslopes of the natural pas-
ture and cultivated land uses in calcareous soils in west-central Iran ac-
count for the soil loss since 1963, by using the 137Cs measurements. By
using the Cs-137 technique, the average soil loss in the cultivated hill-
slope was about 1.78 times greater than in the pasture land. The pasture
soils with a lower soil loss showed significantly higher χlf in all landform
positions as compared to the cultivated land. The lowest χlf was ob-
served in the shoulder position of both land uses in the company of
the highest soil loss rate. In contrast, the highest χlf value was found
in the footslope position with the highest soil deposition rate for both
land uses. The non-linear regression model could explain 74% of the
variability of the Cs-137 inventory by χlf in the cultivated soils, while
79.2% of the Cs-137 variability was accounted for by the inclusion of
χlf in the linear model for pasture soils. Overall, it is concluded that
that very fine ferromagnetic mineral particles produced by pedogenesis
process have been transported by soil erosion and deposition processes
together with clay particles associated with Cs-137 along the hillslopes.
It is suggested that in the future studies, complementary magnetic mea-
sures such as saturation isothermal remnant magnetization (SIRM) and
isothermal remnant magnetization (IRM100mT) could be employed as
the proxies for soil redistribution monitoring.
Acknowledgment
Our special thanks are due to Professor Kanwar L. Sahrawat for his
valuable comments and suggestions on the original manuscript.
References
Afshar, F.A., Ayoubi, S., Jalalian, A., 2010. Soil redistribution rate and its relationship
with soil organic carbon and total nitrogen using 137Cs technique in a cultivated
complex hillslope in western Iran. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 101,
606–614.
Ayoubi, S., Khormali, F., Sahrawat, K.L., Rodrigues de Lima, A.C., 2011. Assessment of
soil quality indicators related to land use change in a loessial soil using factor anal-
ysis in Golestan province, northern Iran. Journal of Agricultural Science and Tech-
nology 13, 727–742.
Ayoubi, S., Ahmadi, M., Abdi, M.R., Abbaszadeh Afshar, F., 2012. Relationships of 137Cs
inventory with magnetic measures of calcareous soils of hilly region in Iran. Journal
of Environmental Radioactivity 112, 45–51.
Black, C.A., Evans, D.D., White, J.L., Ensminger, L.E., Clark, F.E., 1965. Methods of Soil
Analysis. Part 2. Agronomy Monograph, vol. 9. ASA, Madison, WI.
Blake, G.R., Hartge, K.H., 1986. Bulk density, In: Klute, A. (Ed.) second ed. Methods of
Soil Analysis. Part I: Physical and Mineralogical Methods Agronomy Monograph,
vol. 9. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, pp. 363–375.
Blundell, A., Dearing, J.A., Boyle, J.F., Hannam, J.A., 2009. Controlling factors for the
spatial variability of soil magnetic susceptibility across England and Wales.
Earth-Science Reviews 95, 158–188.
Bremner, J.M., Mulvaney, C.S., 1982. Total nitrogen, In: Page, A.L. (Ed.) Methods of Soil
Analysis, Agron, No. 9, Part 2: Chemical and Microbiological Properties, 2nd ed.
AM. Soc. Argon, Madison, WI, USA.
Dankoub, Z., Ayoubi, S., Khademi, H., Lu, S.G., 2011. Spatial distribution of magnetic
properties and selected heavy metals as affected by land use in calcareous soils
of the Isfahan region, central Iran. Pedosphere 22, 33–47.
De Jong, E., Nestor, P.A., Pennock, D.J., 1998. The use of magnetic susceptibility to
measure long-term soil redistribution. Catena 32, 23–35.
Dearing, J.A., 1999. Environmental Magnetic Susceptibility, Using the Bartington MS2
System. Chi Publishers, Kenilworth, UK . (54 pp.).
Dearing, J.A., Maher, B.A., Oldfield, F., 1985. Geomorphological linkages between soils
and sediments: the role of magnetic measurements. In: Richards, K.S., Arnett, R.R.,
Ellis, S. (Eds.), Geomorphology and Soils. Allen and Unwin, Boston, pp. 245–266.
Du, P., Walling, D.E., 2011. Using 137Cs measurements to investigate the influence of
erosion and soil redistribution on soil properties. Applied Radiation and Isotopes
69, 717–726.
Forest and Rangeland Organization, 1999. Effects of Land Use Changes on Land Degrada-
tion and Flooding in Karun Watershed. Iranian Forest and Rangeland Organization
Press.
Freund, R.J., Littell, R.C., 2000. SAS System for Regression. SAS Inst, Cary, NC.
Gee, G.W., Bauder, J.W., 1986. Particle-size analysis, In: Klute, A. (Ed.) 2nd ed. Methods
of Soil AnalysisAgron. Monogr, vol. 9. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 383–409.
Gennadiev, A.N., Olson, K.R., Chernyanskii, S.S., Jones, R.L., 2002. Quantitative assessment
of soil erosion and accumulation processes with the help of a technogenic magnetic
tracer. Soil Science 35 (1), 17–29.
Grimley, D.A., Arruda, N.K., Bramstedt, M.W., 2004. Using magnetic susceptibility to
facilitate, rapid, reproductive and precise delineation of hydric soils in Midwestern
USA. Catena 58, 183–213.
Hatchinson, S., 1995. Use of magnetic and radiometric measurements to investigate
erosion and sedimentation in a British upland catchment. Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 20, 293–314.
Hu, X.F., Su, Y., Ye, R., Li, X.Q., Zhang, G.L., 2007. Magnetic properties of the urban soils
in Shanghai and their environmental implications. Catena 70, 428–436.
Hussain, I., Olson, K.R., Jones, R.L., 1998. Erosion patterns on cultivated and uncultivated
hill slopes determined by soil fly ash contents. Soil Science 163 (9), 726–738.
ISO 11929-1, 2000. Determination of the Detection Limits and Decision Threshold
for Ionizing Radiation Measurements. Part 1: Fundamentals and Application to
Counting Measurements without the Influence of Sample Treatment.
Jones, R.J.A., Verheijen, F.G.A., Reuter, H.I., Jones, A.R., 2008. Environmental assessment
of soil for monitoring. Procedures & Protocols, vol. V. JRC. European Commission.
Kalhor, M., 1998. Comparison of Cs-137 and USLE methods to estimate the soil loss
of Rimeleh Watershed (Lorestan Province). MSc thesis in Soil Science, College of
Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan.
Karimi, R., Ayoubi, S., Jalalian, A., Sheikh-Hosseni, A.R., Afyuni, M., 2011. Relationships
between magnetic susceptibility and heavy metals in urban topsoils in the arid
region of Isfahan, central Iran. Journal of Applied Geophysics 74, 1–7.
Khormali, F., Ajami, M., Ayobi, S., Srinivasarao, Ch., Wani, S.P., 2009. Role of deforestation
and hillslope position on soil quality attributes of loess-derived soils in Golestan prov-
ince, Iran. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 134, 178–189.
Khormali, F., Ajami, M., 2011. Pedogenetic investigation of soil degradation on a deforested
loess hillslope of Golestan Province, Northern Iran. Geoderma 167, 274–283.
Kravchenko, A.N., Bollero, G.A., Omonode, R.A., Bullock, D.G., 2002. Quantitative map-
ping of soil drainage classes using topographical and soil electrical conductivity.
Soil Science Society of America Journal 66, 235–243.
Li, M., Li, Z., Yao, W., Liu, P., 2009. Estimating the erosion and deposition rates in a small
watershed by the Cs-137 tracing method. Applied Radiation and Isotopes 67, 362–366.
Lu, S.G., 2000. Lithological factors affecting magnetic susceptibility of subtropical soils,
Zhejiang Province, China. Catena 40, 359–373.
Massey Jr., F.J., 1951. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test of goodness of fit. Journal of the
American Statistical Association 46, 70–71.
Mathe, V., Leveque, F., 2003. High resolution magnetic survey for soil monitoring:
detection of drainage and soil tillage effects. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
212, 241–251.
Mokhtari Karchegani, P., Ayoubi, S., Lu, S.G., Honarju, N., 2011. Use of magnetic
measures to assess soil redistribution following deforestation in hilly region. Journal
of Applied Geophysics 75, 227–236.
Mullins, C.E., 1977. Magnetic susceptibility of the soil and its significance in soil science —
a review. Soil Science 28, 223–246.
Nelson, D.W., Sommers, L.E., 1996. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. In:
Bartels, J.M., Bigham, J.M. (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis Part 3: Chemical
Methods. American Society of Agronomy, Madison WI., USA, pp. 961–1010.
 M.R. Rahimi et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics 89 (2013) 68–75
Olson, K.R., Jones, R.L., Gennadiyev, A.N., Chernyanskii, S., Woods, W.I., Lang, J.M., 2002.
Accelerated soil erosion of a Mississippian mound at Cahokia site in Illinois. Soil
Science Society of America Journal 66 (6), 1911–1921.
Richards, L.A., 1954. Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkaline Soil. USDA
Handbook, Office, Washington DC . (6 pp.).
Ritchie, J.C., Ritchie, C.A., 2007. Bibliography of Publications of 137-Cesium Studies
Related to Erosion and Sediment Deposition. Available from: http://www.ars.usda.
gov/Main/docs.htm?docid¼15237.
Royall, D., 2001. Use of mineral magnetic measurements to investigate soil erosion and
sediment delivery in a small agricultural catchment in limestone terrain. Catena
46, 15–34.
Royall, D., 2007. A comparison of mineral-magnetic and distributed RUSLE modeling in
the assessment of soil loss on a southeastern U.S. cropland. Catena 69, 170–180.
Sac, M.M., Ugur, A., Yener, G., Ozden, B., 2008. Estimate of soil erosion using Cs-137
tracer models. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 136, 461–467.
Sadiki, A., Faleh, A., 2009. Using magnetic susceptibility to assess soil degradation in the
Eastern Rif, Morocco. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 34, 2057–2069.
SAS Institute, 1992. SAS user's guide. statistic. SAS Institute, Cary, NC.
Singer, M.J., Verousb, K.L., Fine, P., Tempas, J., 1996. A conceptual model for the enhance-
ment of magnetic susceptibility in soils. Quaternary International 34–36, 243–248.
75
Soil Survey Staff, 2010. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, eleventh edition. NRCS, USDA, USA.
Swan, A.R.H., Sandilands, M., 1995. Introduction to Geological Data Analysis. Blackwell
Science, USA.
Ventura, E., Nearing, M., 2001. Developing a magnetic tracer to study soil erosion.
Catena 43, 277–291.
Walling, D.E., He, Q., 1999. Improved models for estimating soil erosion rates from Cs-137
measurements. Journal of Environmental Quality 28, 611–622.
Walling, D.E., He, Q., 2000. The global distribution of bomb-derived 137Cs reference inven-
tories. Final Report on IAEA Technical Contract 10361/RO-R1. University of Exeter.
Walling, D.E., Quine, T.A., 1991. Use of 137Cs measurements to investigate soil erosion
on arable fields in the UK: potential applications and limitations. Soil Science 42,
147–165.
Walling, D.E., He, Q., Appleby, P.G., 2002. Conversion Models for Use in Soil-erosion,
Soil-redistribution and Sedimentation Investigations. In: Zapata, F. (Ed.) .
Wilding, L.P., 1985. Spatial variability: its documentation, accommodation, and impli-
cation to soil surveys. In: Nielsen, D.R., Bouma, J. (Eds.), Soil Spatial Variability.
Pudoc, Wageningen, Pudoc Publisher, The Netherlands, pp. 166–194.