Electrical conductors

These are materials that allow the essentially free passage of current when
connected to a battery or other source of electrical energy.
A good conductor has an approximate resistivity range from
10−8 ¿ 10−3 Ω ∙ m.
Most common conductor materials and their resistivity value:
−8
Silver = 1.64 ×10 Ω∙ m (best conductor but high cost)
−8
Copper = 1.724 ×10 Ω∙ m (commonly used in electrical engineering)
−8
Aluminum = 2.83 ×10 Ω∙ m (commonly used in transmission
system)

Electrical insulators
These are materials that possess low conductivity or offer a relatively high
resistance to the flow of electric current. They are also called dielectrics.
6 18
Insulator has an approximate resistivity range from 10 ¿ 10 Ω∙ m.
Most common insulator materials and their resistivity value:
10
Glass = 1 ×10 ω ∙m
15
Mica = 1 ×10 ω ∙m
14
Amber = 5 ×10 ω ∙ m
16
Rubber = 1 ×10 ω ∙ m

Electrical semiconductors
These are materials that have conductivity about midway between
conductors and insulators.
−3 6
Semiconductor has an approximate resistivity range from 10 ¿ 10 Ω∙ m.
Most common semiconductor materials and their resistivity value:
2 −1
Silicon = 6.4 × 10 ω ∙ m .Germanium = 4.6 × 10 ω ∙ m
Insulation resistance
Conductor is provided with an insulation of suitable thickness.
The opposition offered by the insulation to the leakage current is called
insulation resistance.
The insulation resistance offered to the leakage current by elementary
cylindrical section of the insulation under consideration is:
ρ r2
R= ln
2 πl r 1
Where: R = insulation resistance (Ω)
ρ = resistivity of the insulating material (Ω∙ m)
l = length of the conductor (meter )
r 1 = radius of the conductor (meter )
r 2 = radius of the outer surface of the insulator (meter )

Example 1: a liquid resistor consists of two concentric metal cylinders of

diameter d = 35 cm and d = 20 cm respectively with water of specific
resistance ρ = 8,000 Ω-cm between them. The length of both cylinders is 60
cm. Calculate the resistance of the liquid resistor.
Solution:
Length of liquid resistor, l=60 cm=0.6 m
d 20
Radius of inner cylinder, r 1= 2 = 2 =10 cm∨0.1 m
D 35
Radius of outer cylinder, r 2= 2 = 2 =17.5 cm∨0.175 m
Resistivity of water, ρ=8,000 Ω∙ cm=80Ω ∙ m
Insulation resistance of the liquid resistor,
ρ r 80 0.175
R= ln 2 =¿ ln =¿ 11.88 ohms¿ ¿
2 πl r 1 2 π ( 0.6) 0.1
Capacitance
Capacitor – a two-terminal device that consists of two conducting bodies
that are separated by a non-conducting material which is the insulator or
dielectric.
Capacitance (C ) – the property of material to store electric charges.
Farad ( F ) – the unit of capacitance named after michael faraday. A
capacitor is said to have a capacitance by 1 farad if 1 coulomb of charge
stored in its plates raises its potential to 1 volt.
Q
C= ∨frequently written as Q=CV
V

Capacitance
Elastance ( S) – the reciprocal of capacitance.
Daraf – the unit of elastance. Farad spelled backwards.
Permittivity (ε ) – the ability of a medium to concentrate electric flux.
Farad per meter (f/m) – the unit of permittivity in mks.
Dielectric strength – the ability of a dielectric to withstand a potential
difference without arcing cross the insulator.
Volt per meter (v/m) – the unit of dielectric strength.

Capacitance
Factors affecting capacitance (parallel plate capacitor of uniform dielectric
medium):
• Directly proportional to the size (area) of the plate, A i. e .C ∝ A
• Inversely proportional to the distance between plates, d i. e . C ∝ 1/ d
• A permittivity constant, depending upon the nature of dielectric,
ε i . e . ε=constant
 −12
Such that ε =ε o ε r where ε o=8.854 × 10 farad per meter (permittivity of
free space or air) and ε r (relative permittivity of the dielectric).
A εA ε o ε r A
Thus , C ∝ ∨C= =
d d d

Example 2: determine the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor

composed of tin foil sheet 25-centimeter square separated by a glass
dielectric 0.5 cm thick with relative permittivity of 6.
Solution:
2
Surface area of plates, A=0.25 ×0. 25=0.0625 m
Dielectric thickness or distance, d=0.5 cm=0.005 m
Capacitance of the capacitor,−12
ε o ε r A (8.854 ×10 )(6)(0.0625)
C= = =664 . 05 picofarads
d 0.005

Energy stored
Energy stored (w) – located at the dielectric medium of a capacitor.
Joule (j) – the unit of energy stored in a capacitor named after james
prescott joule.
1 1 Q2 1
W = C V 2= = QV
2 2 C 2
Example 3: a capacitor of capacity one microfarad is charged to 10 kv and
then discharged through a wire. Find the heat produced in the wire.
Solution:
Voltage across the capacitor, V =10 kv =10,000 v
Heat produced in wire = energy discharged by the capacitor
1 1
W = C V 2= ( 1 ×10−6 ) ( 10,000 )2=50 joules
2 2
Capacitors in series
The negative plate of one capacitor is connected to the positive plate of the
next capacitor.
All capacitors connected in series has the same amount of charge:
Qtotal =Q1 =Q2=⋯=Qn
Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage
drops:
V total =V 1+V 2 + ⋯+V n
The equivalent capacitance of the series circuit would be based on the
relationship with
1 charge
1 1and voltage:
1 1
= + + ⋯+ ∨C total=
Ctotal C1 C 2 Cn 1 1 1
+ + ⋯+
C 1 C2 Cn
Example 4: three capacitors of 100 µf, 150 µf, and 200 µf are connected in
series, across a voltage of 500 v. Calculate the total capacitance, voltage,
and charge as well as the individual voltages and charges on each capacitor.
Solution: 1
C total=
C
Substitute 1 =100 µf , C =150
2 1 µf ,∧C =200 µf : 1 1 1
=46.154 microfarads C + C + C
3
C total=
1 1 1 1 2 3
+ +
100 150 200
Substitute V total =500 volts for the total charge using the equation, Q=CV
Qtotal=C total V total=( 46.154 × 10 ) ( 500 )=23.077 millicoulombs
−6

Individual charges would be equal to the total charge, Q total

Qtotal =Q1 =Q2=Q3=23.077 millicoulombs
Calculate the individual voltages using the equation, Q=CV
Q 0.023 Q 0.023
V 1= 1 = =230.77 volts V 2= 2 = =153 . 847 volts
C 1 100 ×10 Q 3−6
0.023 C 2 150 ×10−6
V 3= = =115 . 385 volt s
C 3 200× 10−6
Capacitors in parallel
One plate of each capacitor is connected to the positive terminal of the
supply while the other plate of the capacitor is connected to the negative
terminal of the supply.
The total voltage in a parallel circuit is equal to the individual voltages.
V total =V 1=V 2=⋯=V n
Total charge in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual branch
charges.
Qtotal =Q 1 +Q2 +⋯ +Qn
The capacitance of the system is equal to the arithmetic sum of their
individual capacitances.
C total =C1 +C 2+ ⋯+C n

Example 5: three capacitors of 100 µf, 150 µf, and 200 µf are connected in
parallel, across a voltage of 500 v. Calculate the total capacitance, voltage,
and charge as well as the individual voltages and charges on each capacitor.
Solution:
Substitute c 1=100 µf , c2 =150 µf ,∧c3 =200 µf : C total =C1 +C 2+ C3
C total =100+150+200=450 microfarads
Substitute V total=500 volts for the total charge using the equation, Q=CV
Qtotal=C total V total=( 450 × 10 ) ( 500 )=225 millicoulombs
−6

Solution:
Individual voltages would be equal to the total voltage, V total =500 volts
V total =V 1=V 2=V 3=500 volts
Calculate the individual charges using the equation, Q=CV
Q1=C 1 V 1= ( 100× 10 ) ( 500 )=50 millicoulombs
−6

Q2=C 2 V 2 =( 150 ×10 ) ( 500 ) =75 millicoulombs

−6

Q3=C 3 V 3=( 200 ×10 ) (500 )=100 millicoulombs

−6
 Characteristics of capacitors
• The current through is zero if the voltage across is constant.
• Acts like an open circuit to dc voltage.
• Never dissipates energy but only stores it.
• Resists an abrupt or instantaneous change in voltage across it.
• A finite amount of energy can be stored even if the current through
capacitor is zero, such as when the voltage across it is constant.
• It is impossible to change the voltage across by a finite amount current
through it.

Inductance
• Inductor – A two-terminal device that consists of a coiled conductor wire.
• Self inductance ( L) – or simply inductance. The property of the coil due to
which it opposes any increase or decrease of current or flux through it.
• Henry ( H ) – The unit of inductance named after Joseph Henry. A coil is
said to have a self-inductance of 1 henry if a current if 1 ampere flowing
through a coil produces flux linkage of 1 weber-turn.
NΦ
L=
I
Where NΦ=1Wb ∙ turn
¿ I =1 A
• Magnetic flux (Φ ) – The totality of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic
field.
• Weber (Wb) – The unit of magnetic flux in mks system named after
Wilhelm Eduard Weber.
• Maxwell (Mx) – The unit of magnetic flux in cgs system named after James
Clerk Maxwell. 1 weber (Wb )=10 8 maxwells ( Mx)
• Permeability ( μ) – The ability of material to conduct magnetic flux through
it.
• Henry per meter (H/m) – The unit of permeability in mks.
• Magnetic field strength – Ability of a magnetic field to exert a force on
moving electric charges.
• Ampere per meter (A/m) – The unit of magnetic field strength.

Factors affecting inductance:

• Directly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the core,
A i. e . L ∝ A
• Directly proportional to the square of the number of turns,
2
N i. e . L ∝ N
• Inversely proportional to the length of the core, l i. e . L∝ 1/l
• A permeability constant, depending upon the nature of the core,
μ i . e . μ=constant
−7
• Such that μ=μ o μ r Where μo =4 π ×10 Henry per meter
(permeability of free space or vacuum) and μr (relative permeability
of material surrounding the poles).2 2
μA N μ o μ r A N
2
AN
Thus , L∝ ∨L= =
l l l

Example 6: A toroid has a core of square cross-section 2,500 mm2 in area

and a mean diameter of 250 mm. The core material has a relative
permeability of 1,000. Calculate the number of turns wound on the core to
obtain an inductance of 1 henry.

Solution:
• Length of core, l=π ×d =π × 0.25=0 .25 π m
2 2
• Area of cross-section of core, A=2,500 mm =0.0025 m
• Relative permeability of core material, μr =1,000
 −7
• Permeability of free space or vacuum, μo =4 π ×10 h /m 2
μ o μr A N
• Number of turns on the coil given inductance, L=
l

N=
√ L ×l
μo μr A
=
√ 1 ×0 .25 π
( 4 π ×10−7 ) ( 1,000 ) ( 0.0025 )
=500 turns

• Energy stored
• Energy stored (w) – located in the magnetic field of the inductor.
• Joule (j) – the unit of energy stored in an inductor named after james
prescott joule. 2
1 2 1 ( NΦ ) 1
W= LI = = NΦI
2 2 L 2
• Example 7: calculate the value of stored energy in an inductor if the value of
inductance is 20 h and 4 a of current flows through it.
Solution:
1 2 1 2
• Stored energy in an inductor, W = 2 L I = 2 ( 20 ) ( 4 ) =160 joules

• Mutual inductance
• Mutual inductance (m) – the ability of one coil (or circuit) to produce an
emf in a nearby coil by induction when the current in the first coil changes.
• Coefficient of coupling (k) – the ratio of mutual flux to the total flux
produced in a coil. It is a measure of the degree of coupling for magnetically
coupled circuits.
N 2 Φ 12
M=
mutual flux IΦ12 M
k= = =
total fux Φ 1 √ L1 L 2

Inductors in series
• The total inductance of equivalent inductors in series is equal to the
arithmetic sum of their individual inductances.
 Ltotal =L1 + L2+ ⋯+ Ln

• Three inductors of 10 mh, 30 mh, and 50 mh are connected in a series

combination with no mutual inductance between them. Calculate the total
inductance of the series combination.
Solution:
the total inductance,
Ltotal=L1 + L2+ L3=10+30+50=90 millihenries

• The total inductance of series aiding inductors (additive inductance) is:

Ltotal=L1 + L2+ 2 M
• The total inductance of series opposing inductors (subtractive inductance)
is:
Ltotal=L1 + L2−2 M

Example 9: two inductors of 10 mh and 20 mh is connected in series. Their

mutual inductance is 5 mh. Calculate the total series aiding and opposing
inductances.
Solution:
series aiding inductance,
Ltotal=L1 + L2+ 2 M =10+ 20+2 (5 )=40 millihenries
series opposing inductance,
Ltotal=L1 + L2−2 M =10+20−2 ( 5 )=20 millihenries

• The total inductance in parallel is like the relationship of individual

resistances in1parallel:
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+ ∨Ltotal=
Ltotal L1 L2 Ln 1 1 1
+ +⋯+
L1 L 2 Ln
 Example 10: Three inductors of 10 mh, 30 mh, and 50 mh are connected in
a parallel combination with no mutual inductance between them. Calculate
the total inductance of the parallel combination.
Solution:
The total inductance,1 1
Ltotal= = =6.522 millihenries
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
L1 L2 L3 10 30 50
Inductors in parallel
• The total inductance of parallel aiding inductors (additive inductance) is:

L1 L2−M 2
Ltotal=
L1+ L2 −2 M
• The total inductance of parallel opposing inductors (subtractive inductance)
is:

L1 L2−M 2
Ltotal =
L1+ L2 +2 M

Example 11: Two inductors of 10 mh and 20 mh is connected in parallel.

Their mutual inductance is 5 mh. Calculate the total parallel aiding and
opposing inductances.
Solution:
Parallel aiding inductance,
L1 L2−M 2 (10)(20)−(5)2
Ltotal= = =8.75 millihenries
L1+ L2 −2 M 10+20−2( 5)

Parallel opposing inductance,

2
L1 L2−M (10)(20)−(5)2
Ltotal= = =4.375 millihenries
L1+ L2 +2 M 10+ 20+2(5)
Fundamentals of Direct Current (DC)
Classifications of electric current
Direct Current (DC) – flows in one direction only, remains constant with
time.
Alternating Current (AC) – reverses direction periodically, varies
sinusoidally
with time.

Network theorem terminologies

Circuit – It is a closed conducting path through which an electric current
either flows or intended to flow.
Parameters – These are the various circuit parameters of an electric circuit
like resistance, inductance, and capacitance. These may be lumped or
distributed.
Linear circuit – It is a circuit whose parameters are constant i.e., they do not
change with voltage or current.
Non-linear circuit – It is a circuit whose parameters change with voltage
or current.
Bilateral circuit – It is a circuit whose properties or characteristics are the
same in either direction. The usual transmission line is an example of a
bilateral circuit.
Unilateral circuit – It is a circuit whose properties or characteristics change
with direction of its operation. A diode rectifier is an example of a unilateral
circuit.
Electrical network – It is a combination of various electrical elements,
connected in any manner whatsoever.
Passive network – It is a network which contains no source of emf in it.
Active network – It is a network which contains one or more sources of
emf.
Branch – A group of elements connected in series or in parallel and having
two terminals.
Node – Part of the network at which at least two or more branches meet.
Loop – A closed path in a circuit in which no elements or node is
encountered
more than once. A loop that contains at least one new element which is not
in the other loop of network is said to be independent.
• The circuit shown in Figure 4.2 has 6 loops.
• Independent Loops:
• Loop 1 – 10-V source, 5-Ω, and 2-Ω resistors
• Loop 2 – 2-Ω and 3-Ω resistors
• Loop 3 – 3-Ω resistor and 2-A source
Non-independent Loops:
• Loop 4 – 10-V source, 5-Ω, and 3-Ω resistors (2-Ω resistor in
between)
• Loop 5 – 2-Ω resistor and 2-A source (3-Ω resistor in between)
• Loop 6 – 10-V source, 5-Ω resistor, and 2-A source (2-Ω and 3-Ω
resistors in between)
Mesh – A loop that contains no other loop in it.
• The circuit shown in Figure 4.2 has 3 meshes:
Loops 1, 2, and 3.
NOTE: A network with “b” branches, “n” nodes, and “m” meshes will
satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology: 𝒃 = 𝒎 + 𝒏 – 𝟏.
Example 1: Determine the number of branches, nodes, and meshes in the
following circuits shown.

Solution:
Using the fundamental theorem of network topology
5 branches, 3 nodes, 3 meshes.

Example 2: Determine the number of branches, nodes, and meshes in

the following circuits shown.

Solution:
Using the fundamental theorem of network topology
4 branches, 3 nodes, 2 meshes.

Dc network theorem
Kirchhoff’s laws – this was developed by the german physicist Gustav
Robert kirchhoff.
 Kirchhoff’s current law (kcl) – it is stated that in any electrical
network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction is
zero. (σ 𝑰 = 𝟎)
 Sign Convention for Kirchhoff’s Current Law
a) (+) for current entering a node.
b) (–) for current leaving a node.
• For Kirchhoff’s Current Law, the equation for currents is, 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 +
𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟒 − 𝑰𝟓 = 𝟎 o𝒓 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟑 + 𝑰𝟒 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟓
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) – It states that the algebraic sum of
all the voltage drops of resistances across each of the conductors in
any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the
emf’s connected in the path is zero. (σ 𝑽 = 𝟎)
• Sign Convention for Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
• For voltage supply,
• (+) if the KVL loop enters negative and leaves positive.
• (–) if the KVL loop enters positive and leaves negative.
• Sign Convention for Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
• For voltages across the resistor,
• (+) if the flow of conventional current, 𝑰, is against its direction with
• The KVL loop.
• (–) if the flow of conventional current, 𝑰, has its same direction with
• The KVL loop.
• From Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, the equation
• For voltages is, 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑰𝑹𝟏 − 𝑰𝑹𝟐 − 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑰𝑹𝟑 = 𝟎
• O𝒓 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑)
 Example 3: Use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the currents flowing in
each branch of the network shown.

Solution:
• By KCL at node a, 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 (eq. 1)
• By KVL at mesh 1, 12𝑉 − 𝐼3 8 Ω − 𝐼1 10 Ω =0
10 𝐼1 + 8 𝐼3 = 12 (eq. 2)
 By KVL at mesh 2, −10𝑉 + 𝐼2 1 Ω + 𝐼3 8 Ω = 0 𝐼2 + 8 𝐼3 = 10 (eq. 3)
 Solving three equations simultaneously, • 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕 𝑨 • 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎.
𝟖𝟓𝟕𝟏 𝑨 • 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟗

Delta (Δ) & Wye (Y) Transformation – In the analysis of networks, it is

often helpful to convert Y-connected load to an equivalent delta-connected
load and vice versa. This was discovered by the American electrical
engineer Arthur Edwin Kennelly.