Water Quality standards a 6.1 INTRODUCTION een eatlier that the quantity of usable wate tice the available supply. on the earth is extremely small, any waste of As we have st this by making it polluted will further red ; Da Polluted water is hardly of any use for most purposes. It can not be utilized for drinking because of its inherent health risk, Water with high salt content is not suitable for agriculture and for most industries. The quality of water also interferes with the aesthetic and economic pursuits of water bodies by affecting the fish and other biological life. However, the water which is not suitable for drinking may be good for irrigation, or water unsuitable for irigation may be quite suitable for industrial cooling or fish growth, Thus, it can be seen that each use of water has its own limits on the degree of pollution it can accept. Every use of water requires a certain minimum quality of water with regard to the presence of dissolved and suspended materials of both chemical and biological nature. This minimum quality of water should ensure no harm to the user. ‘The achievement for this minimum quality of water for water quality criteria, water quality objectives and water quality standards. Water quality criteria can be considered as a specific requirement on which a decision or judgement to support a particular use will be based. The criteria for the various uses are developed from the experimental data, and our current knowledge of the health, and ecological and economic effects of water quality. The criteria levels for drinking water source have to be based upon removability of the SS ‘weament plats su vl ts on the human health, The criteria for the cclititudines deme wait and'lend, Gr ay be based on the nature of the industry and effects of their ns \d land. Criteria are not a set of static values bi i i as the scientific data get updated and more and more knowl s but are subject to modification ‘Water quality objective can be defined aS eee to be athieved. It is not as rigid and ainkoie ac goal with regard to the water quality which is element of requirements, eas a standard ard does not have the enforcement diverse uses has led to the formulation ofdards pote vay ‘ tem standard applies to any definite principle or mensure established bs centration of constituents in waters which ensure the safe use of water “The fact that it has been established by y an authority by cing £0 and safeguard the ie ‘ "authority makes standards somewhat rigid, en! jal or quasi-legal. Standards, sometimes, may not be fair and based on sound scientific knowledge, off sae that they might heive been established somewhat arbitrarily on the basis of inadequate tis PO i , asit isa tempered by & cautious factor of safety. Due to these ts, the standards may change nic e scientific ae re aecuntuation of more scientific knowledge and on other considerations witl x va tli ett Toattain the desired water quality objectives, the standards can be applied in two ways. One type. re applicable to the qui sources and on the land. ity of the muni jed“efluent standart al, agricultural or industrial waste charge into the Water T he other type of the standards are concerned with Se rater eeceiving or being affected by the effluents, ‘These ate culled ‘stream standards” and refer to Mx nsouTces like rivers, lakes, estuaries, oceans oF ground water water 62 DRINKING WATER STANDARDS inview of the direct consumption of water by human beings, the domestic water supply is considered ote most critical use of water. In India, agencies like Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Bureau of Indian Standards and Ministry of Works and Housing have formulated certain drinking water standards which are being followed by different authorities. World Health Organization (WHO) has also laid down drinking water standards which are considered international standards. Some important dcinking water standards are given in Table 6.1. Table 6.1. Drinking water standards World Health Ministry of Works and Housing, Characteristics Organization (WHO) (1975) Highest ‘Maximum Acceptable Cause of desirable permissible rejection Physico-chemical Tubidity (.T.U.) 50 25.0 25 10.0 Colour (Pt-scale) 5.0 50.0 50 250 Taste and Odour nothing disagreeable | unobjectionable | unobjectionable pH 70-85 65-92 70-85 65-92 Total solids 500 1500 500 1500 Total hardness 100 500 200 0 Chlorides 200 om 200 1000 Sulphates (as $0,) 200 400 200 400 Fluorides (as F) 10 15 10 1s Nitrates (as NO,) 45 45 45 45 Caleium (as Ca) % 200 15 200 Magnesiom 20 150 30 150 Fron (as Fe) 01 Lo Ol 10 Manganese (as Mn) os 05 00s as46 To O05 50 15.0 pe so a 00! bom Zine ? Phenotic compounds] 0001 - 02 10 Detergents. an 92 30 00! 030 oot i Mineral oil an nas ans tty Anenic e oot ce a -” 0.05 a0: . cae 0.10 010 0.10 —¥ on 001 001 Sclenium ba dot 0.01 001 Cadmun ~ 00! 0.001 0.001 Mercury - M 02 e PCBs (ug/L) - 02 30 i Grows alfa-activity - 30 qo 3 Gross beta-activity : 300 300 00 (PCL) Water Poy, 7 Bacteriological Standards WH.O. Ministry of Works and Housing (a) Water Entering Distribution System: If disinfected, coliform count in any samle of 100 mL should be zero. (b) Water in the Distribusion System: Ndeally all samples taken from the distribution system including consumer's premises should be free from coliform organisms. Since in practice it is not always possible, following standards can be followed (i) Throughout any year, 95% of the samples examined should not have any coliform organisms. Gi) E. coli count in 100 mL of any samples should be zero. (iif) Coliform organisms not more than 10 per 100 mL shall be present in any sample. (iv) Coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100 mL of any two consecutive samples. (@ Coliform count in any sample of 100 ml, should be zero. (b) Water in the distribution system shall satisfy all the three criteria indicated below: (® &. coli count in 100 mL of any sample should be zero, Gi) Coliform organisms not more than 10 per 100 mL shall be present in any sample. (iii) Coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100 mL of any two consecutive samples of more than 50% of the samples collected for the year. Note: alt-the values are in mg/L. except pHi, otherwise stated,oT dards ually Stan eter “ jARIGATION STANDARDS the quality of water for itrigation, the ms regard (0 t ion, the major parameters of cone nity denoted wi owed solids and conductivity, potentially toxic trace elements and herbie ies ins oy dso aia Is also an important parc vi eer ci a High valve the excess quant ; wantities of which fof sodium may also damage the sensitive pheaieteaate jn waters ‘am in 8 sedi rea be cafeutated by the followin aeters e inna Tops because of sodium phytotoxicit an be denoted by percent sodium and “sodium absorption ratio” TSAR cet formulae. The values of individual constituents are taken % Sodium = Table 6.2 indicates the suitability of waters with different constituents, for irrigation. Tables 6.3 and 6.4 provide the li mits for SAR and trace elements in irrigation water used continuously for crops. Jable 6.2: Suitability of water with different constituents, for irrigation. Class TDS ppm | Sulphates of water Chlorides | % | Boron) EC Suitable For | ppm ppm | Sodium | ppm | wmko | irrigation 0-142 | 0-60 | 0-05 | 0-750 |e 1 0-700 0-192 w | geod for | irrigation \ Tr 700-2000 | 192-480 142-355 | 60-75 Gowd 10 | injurious, | | suitable only | | with per meable soil \ and moderate | leaching. harmful | to sensitive crops >2000 >480 >355 >75 >20 52250 | Untit for irrigationWay lop Inrigation with different vatues oy sap 48 for. Table 6.3: Suitably of water Suitability for irrigation itable for all types of exvpa and all types of soit s : ty 3 0-10 for those crops which are highly Sensitive ty Soi Suitable for coarse textured or organie soi i 10-18 permeability. Relatively unsuitable in fing texturey Boog Soi), Harmful for almost all types of soils, Re, i ir, 18-26 drainage, high leaching and gypsum addition"? Boe Unsuitable for irrigation Table 6. Aluminium Arsenic Boron Cadmium Chromium Cobalt Copper Lead Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Selenium Zine 6.4 STREAM STANDARDS Water quality object . itigation ae a i jor eshwaters take into Account several major uses to which water is pat together withthe fact that aI power Seneration, recreation and even for discharging waste wate suai i led tothe concepr of got IS ae no ecessarily required to meet all poten! ality has t vee, ¢lassification and 20ni i i cate that tel quality has to meet the Tequirement of ONE oF more of the a Oe ee an wins 400Ve po! tential uses. st ~ at Use. Based on this any water body or its stretch call The water Tesources be termed 83 “dees x an be classifi lesignated best use’. “ater. The Central Pollution Control eee OF zoned depending upon the designated best use of i a ard along with State Poltution Control Boards has 2600er weter Quality Standards 49 heme of eassiication and zoning of water hodies (Table seh eation is given in Table 6.6 for feshwatrs (Tyagi et ahss 5). The water quality criteria for this 1991). Table 6.5: Classification and zoning of water bodies (CPCB 1979). Designated-best-use Nomenell FRESH WA’ 7 ~ Drinking water source without conventional Class A treatment but after disinfection class of water 2, Outdoor batting Class B 3. Drinking water source with conventional Class C treatment followed by disinfection 4, Propagation of wildlife, fisheries Class D 5, Irrigation, industrial cooling, and controlled Class E waste disposal SEA WATERS (Including Estuaries and Coastal waiers) 1, Salt pans, shell fishing, contact sport swI 2, Commercial fishing, non-contact recreation sw Il 3, Industrial cooling sw Il 4, Harbour swiv 5. Navigation, controlled waste disposal swv Table 6.6: Water quality criteria for freshwater classification (CPCB 1979). Classes Criteria Class A Dissolved oxygen (minimum 6 mg/L), BOD (maximum 2mg/L), MPN of coliforms per 100 mL (maximum 50), pH (6.5-8.5) Class B Dissolved oxygen (minimum 5mg/L), BOD (maximum 3mg/L), MPN of coliforms per 100 mL (maximum 500) pH (6,.5-8.5) Class C Dissolved oxygen (minimum 4 mg/L), BOD (maximum 3 mg/L), MPN of coliforms per 100 mL (maximum 5000) pH (6.0-9.0) Class D Dissolved oxygon (minimum 4 mg/L) pH (6.5-8.5), Free ammonia as N (maximum 1.2 mg/L) Class E pH (6.0-8.5), Electrical conductivity (maximum pmhos 2250), Sodium absorption ratio, SAR (maximum 26), Boron (maximum 2 mg/L)OT img low pn Water Potton 50 68 EFF rae quits oF ate WN originating from ‘As indicated earlier. In these standards restrict the quantity of commun ct gree of qreatinent ‘Some important effluent standards polfutants i” th sre given in Table 7 parameter ‘Standards Sh. Parameter No. |__—_—§—7 : Finland surface] Public Land for Marine coasta 7 water sewers irrigation area J @ o) ©) @ 1, | Colour and odour * . * * | 2, | Suspended solids, 100 600 200 (a) For process mg/L, Max. waste water -100 (&) For cooling water effluent-10 per cent above total suspended matter of influent . cooling water. 3.| Ps i 7 ee ” ol ee (a) Floatable spended solids clea solids, Max. 3 mm (b) Settleable solids, Max. 850 - : mi 4. Dissolved solids | 2100 2100 2100 oe (inorganic), = mg/L, Max. 5. | pH value 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 6.| Temperature °C, | Shall not 45 at the ane snes Max. exceed 40 i . = 45 at the point of, in | point of disch any section of| discharge ischarge the stream : within 15 metres down stream from the effluent outlet & contd.)Water Quality Standards st St.| Parameter Standards No. —— : |Intand surface, Public | [__ tater newer Land for irrigation area (a) ‘ Oil and grease, =| 10 mg/L, May 8,| Total residual chlo} 1.0 | : Fine, mel, Max | 9.) Ammomical mitre 50 | 50 50 t gen (as N), mg/l, | Max | 10.) Total Kjeldahl 100 | - 3 | nitrogen (as N), | mg/L, Max 11.| Free ammonia 5.0 - (as NHy), mg/L, Max. 12. Biochemical 30 350 100 oxygen demand | (5 days at 20°C), | Max. 13.| Chemical 250 - oxygen demand, mg/L Max. 14,| Arsenic (as As), 0.2 02 mg/L, Max. 15.| Mereury (as 0.01 Hg), mg/L, Max. 16.} Lead (as Pb), ol 10 mg/L, Max. .| Cadmium (as 2.0 Cd), mg/L, Max. 18.| Hexavalent 0.1 2.0 chromium (as Cr‘) mg/L, Max. 19, Total chromium 2.0 20 (as Cr), mg/L, | Max. | 20.| Copper (as Cu), 3.0 3.0 | y | me/L, Max, 0.01 8|} =| 3 Tne 2 _| Percent sodium. | Residual sodium Cyanide (as CN), water | mg/L. Max. = Selenium (as Se). mel. Max. | Nickel (as Ni. Max. carbonate, mg/L. Mat. 0.2 mg/L, Max. 9s, | Chloride (as CD, 1000 mg/L, Max. Fluoride (as F), 20 mg/L, Max. | 90. | Dissolved phos- 5.0 phates (as P), mg/L, Max. | 31.| Sulphate as (SO | 1000 mg/L, Max. 32. Sulphide (as S), 20 mg/L, Max, | 33. Pesticides Absent, | { 3 34. Phenolic compoun-| 1.0 4s (as C,H,OH) mg/L, Max, | 3.0 60 2.0 165 Absent 5.0 2.0 1000 Absent 2.0 15 5.0 Absent 5.0 Radioactive material ‘a) Alpha emitters [1977 uC/mi, Mex, ° (6) Beta emitters 10% nCfmL, Max 107 10% 107 107 10% " efforts should ‘i be made to remove colour and unpleasant odour as far as practicable.Wator Quality Standards 6.6 MINIMAL NATIONAL STANDARDS (MINAS) The MINAS are the industry specific effluent standards which are being evolved at the national level. ‘As they are formulated at ni ational level, state authorities are not required to relax them except when the Ae ae amen te ee seine uitiens ca to it the location. This envisages the treatment was standards regardless of the type of waste waters and locations. The minimum treatment that can be provided to any waste water aims at removal of the pathogens, toxic substances, colloidal and dissolved organic solids, mineral oils, and adjustment of pH. The MINAS are evolved for different types of industries considering the treatability of the waste waters by various unit processes available, cost involved for each stage in cach process. performance. of each stage of treatment in the process expressed as percentage removal of pollutants, and cost percentage for cach process of the annual turnover of the industry. The formulation of MINAS is, therefore, linked to the techno-economic acceptability of the suggested treatment and ratio of the total annual cost of pollution control to the annual turnover of the industry. The stage of the treatment whose cost remains under the critical percentage of annual tumover can be accepted as the minimal stage of treatment and the quantities of pollutants in this treated effluent as MINAS. What percentage of annual pollution control cost to the dnnual turnover should be considered critical and supercritical is decided by the industry committee. . ‘The industry can be classified as soft if the pollution control cost remains below the critical percentage of annual turnover. The industry is hard if this percentage is above supercritical percentage, And medium hard, when it falls between critical and supercritical percentages. For example, the paper and pulp industry can be classified as a soft industry because the annual cost of pollution control remains below the critical percentage of the total turnover (critical percentage is $ in this case) for all the unit processes available for treatment, The minimum reduction of BOR and suspended solids possible by the best process is upto the limits of 30-50 mg.L"' and for COD up to 1000 mg.L hence, they can be considered MINAS for this industry.Drinking Water Treatment and Water Softening See eS Samm 25.1 INTRODUCTION Potable or drinking water is that water which is free from pathogenic microorganisms and chemicals that are deleterious to human health. However, other factors such as turbidity, taste, odour, and colour must also be absent in potable water, Most natural waters, which serve as the source for drinking water supply, contain sufficient nutrients to support growth of various organisms, for example algae, There are many ‘photolithotrophic’ or ‘chemolithotrophic’ bacteria, which are able to grow in environments with exceedingly diluted nutrients. Once these autotrophs flourish, a succession of heterotrophs emerges as they decompose organic matter originated from dead autotrophic cells or organic matter introduced by wind, rain or surface run-off. Tastes and odours of microbial origin are probably the most complex of any that create problems in the (reatment of a water supply. Among the wide array of microorganisms incriminated in production of tastes and odours are various species of algae, protozoans and iron bacteria. In addition, some produce colour and slime, which cause clogging of water filters and pipes. The prominent bacteria which have been identified as taste and odour producers and filter clogging bacteria are Siderocapsa, Sphaevotilus, Clonothrix, Leptothrix, Crenothrix, Caulobacter and Galionella. Surface or ground waters when polluted by faecal material become potential carriers of pathogenic organisms, such as causative agents of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, dysentery, cholera, and even viral diseases like hepatitis and polio. These waters besides pathogens, also contain Escherichia coli and other Enterobacteriaceae, as well as faecal Streptococci and various species of intestinal Clostridium which are present in large numbers. Many soil saprophytes such as Spirillum, Vibrio, Sarcina, Micrococcus, Mycobacterium, Bacillus, Beggiatoa, Sphaerotilus, and members of Streptomycetace2e and Spirochaetes are also encountered in polluted waters, The primary risk of consuming untreated water is the transmission of communicable diseases bY Sits dace me Pathogenic organisms present in aquatic environments can be of natural y Man and other warmblooded animals. In order to be certain that water is havin Ro pathogens, treatment process must be carried out to remove them. For thousands of years, peopleprinking Water Treatment and Wator Softening a = 213 pave treated their drinking waters by various means risks, and improve aesthetic qualities suet as nine deals with the general steps employed in conan Wena common contaminants. Since many p a purpos We particle: i He Particles of solid matter, reduce health es eur, colour and tastes etc. This chapter inking, water treatment process to remove y ground water the peoteas of walér soivenh Ste extremely ha ature i process of water softening has also heen i yar in nature to be used for domestic ed here. 25.2 QUALITY OF RAW WATER The quality of water often met i i aoe impuitl ofdieheindiinn ae 8 hot suitable for drinking as such due to presence of ST dente on a . Pi led nature. ‘The water can become contaminated with impurities aoe ie beawer weiewe rau is surface run-off (including agricultural run-off) leaking wasleworers into nawneal Bodies a nae th landfills and direct discharge of sewage and other Miers undeniable. Ooh ate The autotrophic growth of algae and other microorganisms a broader basis the contaminants in raw water can be listed as below: soil particles, leaves and branches of vegetation, algal growth. 1. Floating or suspended solic » Colloidal solids: Clays. silt, algae, and microorganisms. Dissolved solids: Inorganic salts and organics of diverse nature. Dissolved gases: Ammonia, hydrogen sulphide. Immiscible liquids: Oils, fats etc. Tastes, odours, colours, turbidity, |. Disease producing microorganisms. The inorganic contaminants in raw water calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, manganese, silicates and nitrates. The occurrence of appreci nitrate, radon and selenium in ground waters is of paramount significance in wi ication of fertilizers. Many ground waters have found predominantly in agricultural areas due to app! high levels of dissolved salts (TDS) that requires their removal before a potable water is produced. Significant quantities of heavy metals are present in raw waters, which have been contaminated with industrial wastes or sewage. Ammonia nd hydrogen sulphide can remain present in the waters containing high quantities of decomposing organic matter associated with depleted levels of dissolved oxygen. ‘Waters become conta NOWARw consist mainly of naturally occurring elements such as chloride, sulphate, carbonates, bicarbonates, fluorides able quantities of arsenic, barium, fluoride, sulphate. ater supply. Nitrate is nds from sources such as leaking gasoline and industrial effluents. The presence of in water supply as they can easily become ning dishes, They are also absorbed by’ also remain present in bination of chlorine anically minated by organic compou storage tanks, improperly disposed wastes, pesticide use volatile organic chemicals (VOCS) is of ere tificane gases and can be inhaled during showers and baths ar while el ‘ the skin, Besides, many man-made oF synthetic toxie organic chemicals ma raw waters, The formation of tsalonetanes and other such by-products after con organic inaterials and other chemical contaminants are ‘of great concern in org eaters, Some important volatile EAE ‘chemicals and syuthetic organic chemical “uw waters are iven in Table 25.1. with natury contaminated Wi ; frequently encountered in F314 Wate, A hey ds Occur In ray fs t volatile and synthetic organic compouni In re Table 25.1: Some importer ticle ogee . iyuthetic organic Compound 7 >> "ey Volatile organic compounds Trichloroethylene Acrylamide Carbon tetrachloride Alachlor Vinyl chloride Aldicarh 1, 2-dichloroethane Aldicarb sulfoxide Benzene Aldicarb sulfone Para-dichtorobenzene Atrazine Carbofuran 1, I-dichtoroethytene 1, 1, Itrichtoroethane Cis-1,2-dichloroethylene Dibromochloropropane ZI 1,2-dichloropropane o-dichlorobenzene 24D \ Eiliylenedibromide:(EDB) Epichlorphydrin':., Sarat Ethylbenzene Heptachlor a Heptachlor expoxide ; Lindane Methoxychlor Monochloro benzene Polychtocinated biphenyls: (PCBS) Pentachtorophenol ifs Styrene ; opel Tetrachloroethylene " oo. Toluene ib Butea gst 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) -» Toxaphene: /-°> Trans-1,2-dichloroethytene oye “ Xylenes Another problem of waters is the presence of turbidity, odours, tastes and colours. Turbidity is a measure of cloudiness of water caused by the presence of Suspended matter. Turbidity can shelter compounds. Microbial contamination of raw water is of great concer in water treatment. It commonly Coca in Surface waters from run-off, but ground waters can also suffer due to percolation of Nag? through land disposal or improperly sealed septic tanks, ete. The contamination can also occur in theprinking Wotor Treatment and Water Sottoning 315 distribution system itself due to backflow in a water supply line, regrowth of microorganisms in distribution systems and through cross connection between the supply line and the source of contamination such as a sewer line passing side by side There are several pathogenic microorganisms of various nature ke bacteria, viruses, protozoa. pelminihs and fungi that can be present in sewage contaminated waters. The most frequently occurring ailments are usually of waterborne nature, Table 25.2 gives a list of some commonly present pathogenic microorganisms along with their source and the disease caused. The removal of microbial contaminants + treatment is of prime significance in Table 25.2: Pathogenic microorganisms present in water and the diseases caused by them (Based on AWWA, 1984), Waterborne disease | Causative organisms Source of Symptoms of . contamination disease Typhoid Salmonella typhi Human faeces Inflamed intestine, (Bacterium) enlarged spleen, high temperature. may be fatal Dysentery Shigella sp. Human faeces Diarthoea (Bacterium) Cholera Vibrio choleriae Human faeces Vomiting. severe (Bacterium) diarrhoea. rapid dehydration, mineral loss, bigh mortality Gastroenteritis Rotavirus Human faeces Acute diarrhoea, (Virus) Vomiting Salmonella spp. Animal or Acute diarrhoea, (Bacteria) human faeces Vomiting Enteropathogenic Human faeces Acute diarrhoea. E. coli (Bacteria) ‘Vomiting Amoebic dysentery | Enamoeba histolytica | Human faeces Mild diarthoea, (Protozoa) Chronic dysentery Infectious hepatitis | Hepatitis A virus Human faeces, Yellow skin, (Virus) Shellfish grown enlarged liver, is in polluted abdominal pain, water lasts up to 4 months with low mortality Giardiasis Giardia lamblia ‘Animal or Diarrhoea, cramps, ira (Protozoa) human faeces Nausea and general weakness, lasts | = week to 30 weeks, geo, Sai not fatal . Cryptosporidiasis | Cryptosporidium Animal or Diarthoea, stomach zat (Protozoa) human faeces pain, lasts for an le average of 5 daysNog 316 INKING WATER TREATMENT srcontamination, a series Of operations are rag 953 THE PROCESS OF Dal a ued and the ne, 25-1). The major steps involved in the pugiga a Depending on the type oF the so i vater fit for : ation and disinfecti | for making the 14 water OT tation, loceutation, Alston and disinfection. Additions of raw water are peste! aftening. ion exchange, reverse osmosis and activated carbon (9 fg as 80 . 1 ; as total solids, odours and organics, etc, Table 25,3 dives ve . a 2 involved sucht t of water along with some agy: Addit, iting certain specific contaminants like hardne: various operations ( ‘ypicall: «d in specific eireumstances. 1 in purification of water, can also bi ly carried out in treatment overview of the processes require Table 25.3: Different. processes carried out [~ Process/Step Purpose Sereening Removes Toating debris such as leaves, twigs, fs, . ste, that ean foul or damage the equipment in trea. ment plant Aeration Improves tastes and odours, removes VOCs, radon, HS and other dissolved gases, oxidizes iron and manganese Chemical Treatment Conditions the water for removal of algae and other (eg. Pechlorination) aquatic nuisances Removitl of large and heavier suspended solids such as gravel, sill, sand and other gritty material. Also removes certain microorganisms Convert nonsettleable solids to settleable solids Prestorage/sedimentation Coagulation/flocculation Removal of settleable solids Sedimentation Filtration Removal of turbidity and biological contamination Disinfection Killing of disease causing microorganisms Softening Removal of hardness Activated carbon adsorption Removal of organics such as pesticides, solvents, trihalomethanes, and tastes and odour causing sub- stances. Also removes radon Prevents scaling and corrosion Removal of dissolved inorganic salts fon-exchange Reverse osmosis Removal of all inorganic salts Corrosion control In case of surface waters, often an elaborate treatment is required owing to the presence of algae and colloidal turbidity. The ground waters are mostly free of turbidity, and ‘only disinfection may be nought before supply However, ground waters generally have significant quantities of hardness and » Which make their treatment necessary by softening or ion-exchange/reverse osmosis in specific instances.Figure 25.1: Series of operations required for retment of raw wator or wale Supp}. % a >| Froccutator | S ¥ Aa a apo Sano amon >) Aun Dsxeecnon woes Sromae ¥ Sune Suvones sre9n pus wounean, rem CUESa8 ince 25.4 GENERAL STEPS IN DRINKING WATER TREATMENT Pe, tornoe Prestorno Irieen frown Winer ie atofed fee seme Pete Peters ih 5 the v hy natural sedimentation OF Sit ang te trea, : Hi tm me net Acconting to Poynte, and Stone tee Cmates the water quite safe with repand cn Satmaney Ty at eC of water can provive mare than 50% Teliction in ment i ang Sepaninme tn hewn ts few dave Pithone Preehlorination The Few water én many canes is eubjectal to Peechloination which refers 10 the Practice o Treoullection The step is generally omitted 1 CaS OF 4 poeyt " ful nthe cases where the silt load is low, bur wate oe alpac and other meroorganisms, This improves the water quality wy, 7 Yate Sa reduces colour and slime formation, and even oxidize iron ang Manganeas Precipiate them ® chiatine inte the wa we Freater quantity ¢ aigal cells a Aeration Aeration 11 4 step followed for saturating water with oxygen, It Promotes the exchange of between the water and the atmosphere. Itis of practical significance in water “eatment due to folowing reasons oxygen 3. The tastes and odours caused by algal secretions in the form of volatile Compounds can be removed by aeration. A few inetals, especially in ground waters, like Fe and Mat can be Oxidized by aeration, “hich get previpitited in their oxidized forms, The process of verition can be es cither splashing (by use of Jets, waterfall, mukiple tay, C4 ) oF passing air bubbles in water or by Crators. The rate of aeration Of a gas is Bovemed by the area of interface between the gas and the liquid, the time of the contact, the partial Pressure of the pas in the overlying atmosphere and the degree of Undersaturation or oversaturation of the gas an the liquid Both splashing of w. area and time of contact b Coagulation i icles can be removed by simple setting i can Ho TeMove very small particles in the erate atticles can be removed by promoting their agglomeration by flocculation bulk,” it Presence ofa cougulant. A coagulant isa cenit ei Suitably reacts with water to form 4 bulky precipitate called ‘foe’, The agglomerated pazticles, cal floccules, are later Separated from the Water by their sedimentation and filtration,inking Water Treatment and Water Sortening 319 88 of coagulati i ow es Koo tom a Saitek Can remove more than 90% of all the microorganisms incl Ig " . nt of the remova ertai ies i ion Iewine wih Moceulton spines aks MY al of certain microorganisms to coagulation Table 25.4: Removal of microorganisms by con igulation and flocculation. Type of coagulant | Dose(ppm) Type of organisms % reduction Al{SO)s 15 Cowsackie vin 957 Coliphage Py 945 Coliform bacte OB Bacterial count 75.1 FeCly 20-25 Coxsackie virus 921-93.8, Coliform bacteria, 61.6-93.8 Bacterial count 78.0-94.8, Coliphage Fy 9.1 Ca(OH), 40 Poliovirus 96.5-99.9, Natural, coliphages, 73 Coliform bacteria 989 - vol, saGlestridia spores 973 Coagulants and coagulant aids Coagulants can effectively remove turbidity and organic substances from raw water by precipitation. Coagulation is capable of removing bacteria, algae, colout; oxides of iron and tmagnésium, calcium carbonate and clay. An important aspect of coagulation is to remove humic acids that otherwise combine vith chlorine to form trihalomethanes during the step of chlorination, Coagulants promote the agglomeration by neutralizing the charges of suspended particles, Coagulants are effective by themselves ts well as in conjunction with coagulant aids and pH modifier chemicals. There are two types of common coagulants: 1. Metallic salts 2. Polymers , Some important chemicals under the above categories are given in Table 25.5. The selection of a articular coagulant depends on the required level of effectiveness. Alum is the most widely used coagulant because of its availability, low cost, and ease of use and storage. Other metallic salts and olymers are less widely used. Alum performance, however, is greatly affected by the pH of water. ‘he amount of alum to be used depends on the turbidity in water. The exact dose of alum is usually alculated by performing a standard jar test described later inthis chapret.. Alum [aluminium sulphate, Al,(SO,),] reacts with water to form a precipitate of aluminium ydroxide according to the following chemical reactions, The sulphuric acid formed during the reaction later neutralized by the alkalinity of water. | Al(SO)), + 6H,0 79, 2AKOH), + 31,80, ( 1/03H:80, #3Ca(HCO), “93280, ¥61,CO} 1"!320 6H,CO, + 6H,0 + 6CO, Al{SO), + ICAICO,), — 3CaSO, + 6CO, + 2ALOH, , ccessfal only between pH 5 and 7.5, and at suf coagulation with alum is successful , cient apy. The coagula range from 30 to 100 mg.L " depending upon the quality of y in water has been discussed later in this section, Water The required doses of alum m The control of pH and c fr in this se Polymers are effective coagulants, coagulant aids and filter aids. They consi Stems tri : ‘ ing Monomers and categorized on the basis of the electric charge they Possess. Ifa polymer has aha! *. Polyelectrolytes may be cationic or anionic based On the the polymers are simply catleg ag oe o f ht “TOMic, Cationic polyelectrolytes are highly effective in coagulating negatively charged clay fils: Anionic polymers are generally more effective for removing certain positively chargeq Colloids, when used as coagulant junction with alum or other metallic coagulants, Non-ionic poly. it is called a ‘polyelectrolyt negative charge present on them. If no charge is present, ds in conj strengthen floc and are effective filter aids, ically used with the primary coagulants to improve panticle capture dj And filtration of floc, They improve the sedimentation Process Coagulant aii flocculation, clarification efficiency thus, reducing the turbidity loadings Table 25.5: Some important coagulants and coagulent-aids used in water treatment, Metallic salis Polymers and others Alum Polyelectrolytes. (cationic and anionic) Ferric chloride Non-ionic polymers Sodium aluminate! Activated silica Ferrous sulphate Bentonite or Fuller's earth* Ferric sulphate Lime (hydrated)? Sodium carbonate? 1 = Compound of sodium oxide and aluminium oxide, 2 = Used in water of low alkalinity, 3 = Used in water of low alkalinity, 4 = Used with alum in relatively clean water, A strong floc can be foimed only at the Sptimum pH and alkalinity levels. A strong floc enhances turbidity removal through better sedimentation and filtration. The Water must also contain sufficient alkalinity for metallic oc formation. In eage ua the waters of low pH, addition of soda ash lime,printing Water Tieatment and Water Sortening 21 coaium hydroxide of sodium bicarbonate wil raise the sveficient alkalinity, the coagulation process will not the residuals of aluminium ions, In some cases the pH levels PH as well as increase the alkalinity. Without Proc | not proceed to completion, Very low pH levels lead to which is undesirable in the finished water. : © pH levels may be quite high duc to algal activity in the raw water. The pH can pe controlled in such situations by adding required quantities of sulphuric os hydrochloric acid. Jartest for finding coagulant dose Jar test is performed to evaluate the exact dose of coaguanticoagulant aids at a specified pH. Careful attention is necessary to ensure that the jar test water temperature is the same as that of the plant influent. Jar test should be performed only when the turbidity of water is more than § NTU. The jar test is usually carried out in 6 jars of large size. The jars are preferably kept on a white glass and filled with equal quantity of water. Different coagulant dosages are applied to the samples, with each dosage in a different jar. The water is stirred fast in the beginning so as to facilitate the formation of floc. The jars are then kept as such for about half an hour to settle the floc. The minimum quantity of the coagulant giving the best results is considered the optimum quantity to be used on full scale, The exact amount of the coagulant is calculated on the basis of flow rate of water in the plant. Coagulant application In practice, proper coagulation is achieved by thoroughly mixing a concentrated solution of alum with water by use of a mechanical propeller. This step is essential for quick and complete dispersion and mixing of the coagulants that helps in the formation of microfloc and results in complete utilization of chemical coagulant preventing localization of concentration. The absence of complete mixing can result in excessive turbidity in water, The reaction time for coagulation may range from microseconds to 30 seconds. The type of devices used for rapid mixing include mechanical mixers, static mixers, jet injection mixers and coagulant diffusers. ‘The most common mixing devices are mechanical mixing tanks, They use turbines or impellers to mix coagulant with water, A unit used for rapid mixing of a coagulant feed is given in Fig. 25.2. In this unit the alum is mixed with water in the presence of motor driven propeller, which rapidly mixes the alum with the incoming water, Flocculation After the rapid mixing of coagulants the process of flocculation is carried out, where the coagulant- mixed water is gently agitated to increase the number of collisons between the suspended particles to form heavier particles called floc. Gentle agitation and appropriate detention times facilitate this process. The speed of agitation should be maintained in such a way so as to prevent disintegration of existing flocculated particles. Effective flocculation is important for the successful operation of the sedimentation process, which follows flocculation. The process of flocculation is usually carried out in a basin equipped with a mixer that provides agitation, The units are called flocculators. The essentials of a mechanical flocculator used for mixing coagulants thoroughly with water are shown in Fig. 25.3. The units in which the flocculation and sedimentation are carried out together are called clariflocculators (Fig. 25.4).Water py 322 Liquid alum feed JL Water after Coagulation Propeller Raw water Figure 25.2: Aunitof mechanical mixing of coagulant. Central shafts = = 3) Outlet 20> Paddles Water + Slope Coagulant 1 in 50 Figut jf 7 igure 25.3: A mechanical flocculator for flocculation of water with coagulant.punting Wator Treatment and Water Sotening 323 ¥ wator Clatitiod > wator i a Sludge <—- Figure 25.4; Schematic ofa clarfloceulator. Sedimentation ‘ Sedimentation is the step, which follows flocculation, The units where the process is carried out are called sedimentation/settling tanks, sedimentation/setting basins or clarifiers. The floc-laden water is kept in stationary conditions or its velocity is so decreased as to facilitate sedimentation of floc particles by gravity. The settling velocities depend upon the mass and density of particles, Smaller and denser floc settles faster and occupics less volume in sedimentation tank, Once settled, the particles combine to form a sludge that can be later removed from the basin manually or by automated arrangement. The factors that influence the process of sedimentation include the following: 1. Size, shape, weight and density of floc particles. 2. Viscosity and temperature of water, 3. Surface area and effective depth of the settling basin, 4, Overflow rate,Way 324 §, Velovity of flow. am cried (time for whte a 7. Detention pe eee ro : cither be ree conn sermon pass nay ier be aetna are OF eae oe The seu eta. and having: a peossision for ed om proper inlet arnt outlets. = Oa soy emo setting Basins may Be either horizon) ys ssinetaton Bash he water neal e ew e design of the comm ce type In horizontal ' ; : ‘ Tat one end of the basin and suspen; od articles te tran tite upflow solids conta jontal path Wi aoneettne water moves tah the ont / bottom av t faced in the centre of the sedimentation basin of circular lesion wp a ene ca, Such type of sedimentation tanks are called radial floyy Ope entation basins range from 2.0 102.5 hye criphery. Suct moves towands the periphery. § typical detention times in these: Ainds of sedi ; pic jayer oF blanket of Mlocculated material is mains In upflow solids contact claritiens ertical direction, The purpose of the layer, ¢ ali nee Midge iddle, through which water flows ina és : F J : winks te Entrp slowly seting small particles to achieve a high level of clarification, 7s ket is main : evel c tion is controlled by ie blanket is maintained at a certain level and the concentration ry calculated Femoral g sludge. Filtration | | ; Filtration is the step, carried out after sedimentation, for removing particles of solid Matter stay passing the water through a bed of sand or other porous media. Afier the filtration, the water vi le turbidity. The aim of the filtration is to remove the sma ge is clear and sparkling with negl 2 : particles and microorganisms still remained in water after sedimentation. Turbidity can shelter hanafy, microorganisms and reduce effectiveness of disinfection. Some of the microorgenisms, which nin resist disinfection, can be removed here. Besides turbidity and microorganisms, the Process of filtration can also be effective in removal of odour, colour, iron and manganese. Tae process of filtration usually works by a combination of physical and chemical process, The particles are removed by mechanical straining by tapping them between the grains of the fl, medium such as sand. Another mechanism of removal of particles is by adsorption in which the suspended particles stick to the surface of filter grains or the previously deposited material. The adsortim of viruses is of great significance during filtration. The adsorption of viruses can be increased by raising pH and adding CaCl, and MgCl, to the sand filters. Fig. 25.5 gives the mechanisms of mechanical entrapment and adsorption of suspended particles on the filter. dacteria, and other organic matter is broken down by the layer of microorganisms that develops ove he surface of slow sand filter. Following are some important filtration technol 1. Rapid sand filters 2. Slow sand filters 3. Diatomaceous earth filters logies used for large and small systems:rnting Water Treatment and Water Softening 4, Membrane filters 5, Cartridge filters 6. Package plants Rapid sand filters are most widely uscd filtration » sand filter and other filtration systems are considered best suited for small systems, The description of only (wo conventional Ftatipn Systems, jc. rapid sand filers and stow sand filters is given here, The other filtration systems are rel atively new technologies and their use in routine drinking water treatment is not very Widespread, ystems suitable for large treatment plants, Slow Raw Water 7 Flaw Water Filtered Water Filtered Water Mechanical Entrapment Figure 25.5: Process of mechanical entrapment and adsorption of suspended particles by the filter medium. Rapid sand filtration Rapid sand filtration is the most common type of filtration system, which is used with coagulation, The rapid sand filters demand comparatively a smaller surface area, and water is filtered much more rapidly through the filter bed. The filter bed (Fig. 25.6) consists of sand with thickness from 60 to 75 cm. The used variety of sand is coarse type with effective size from 0.5 to 0.7 mm. The bed of the sand is supported on a gravel layer whose depth ranges from 45 to 60 em. The size of the gravel varies from 5 to 25 mm, with the smallest size gravel kept at the top of the filter, The gravel helps preventing the sand from sinking into drains, thus checking their choking. The gravel layer also aid in uniform distribution of the wash water up through the filter medium at the time of backwash. : ‘The usual rate of water filtration ranges from 80 to 100 litres per minute per m’, which can be increased to above 200 litres per minute per m’ by using mixed media or replacing the top layer of sandMat Fe 326 icon ened enping of HE A nur ry aoe earths filter holling tank is usually taken abyer 3 meters, : — with anthracite co corn in one or two rooms, The depth of s usc of filters makes 1! water loading is high, the continuous use of makes th eof water loading i Since the rate of T Clogged yi is is technically called as ‘hese. win Jes reducing their filtering speed. This is technically called as *head-tog thatne ded particles rede "] ing of a : Mat suspe f filters every 24 to 48 brs. The cleaning of filters Also prevents forma ion’ frequent cleaning i filter bed. The filters are cleaned by backwash, al one the Fevers tows 7 ean : i s biologi eal wre, Water moving upward takes away the impurities from the filter bed, wig ter with pressure, Wa ie later released through the dra Water level during filtering Water level during backwashing Sand Influent water I _—> Digi Gravel rain <— Wash water <_— < Filtered water Underdrain system { Drain Figure 25.6: Working of a rapid sand filter Slow sand filtration Slow sand fiers are asually of large size and Kept in open (Fig, 25.7). The rate of filtration is met Slower than that in pid sand filtation as the Water trickles down slowly through the medium. a Operation ofthe filters involves tow costs and Operational simplicity. Slow sand filters are alm With the following characteristics: |. They are 50 t0 100 times stower han normal filtration rates, 2. Along with physical and chemical processes, they also use biological processes. 3. Require a ripening period bofore operation, 4. Use smaller size sand particles,’ punting Weer Treatment and Water Softening | f . . 327 | 5, Do not require backwashing, 6, Allow longer run times between cl ings. slow sand fits ae suitable only for high qu se wih wana aw water containing high c ‘ith usua a it 1 NTU. Ra 12 high colour g re ela aE Ear eg a ace below inant ean Ot HE remove by this press. Als slow sand! filtration, since these ould wail he te colorophy ta. These filters require a tipening pic ot ease tes than 5 min? equivalent -qhe sipening period is the time required by the filter after vane ity raw mn he made operational. a cleaning cycle to hecome a functioning “aqosical filter. No preteeatment, especially c ; bilo ‘ fi iguhed to Bal ek Hly coagulation, is required forthe slow sand filtration, therefore, the pre ¥ Certain types of raw waters, Slow sand filters. do not provide good of organic chemicals, dissolve : enor ie ora als, dissolved inorganic substances such as heavy metals, and precursors of ; The roe oan includes biological action in addition to physical and chemical processes. A stick) of susp iological matter called ‘schmutzdecke’, forms on the sand surface where suspended particles of the raw water are tapped and the organic rate i biologically degraded Construction of slow sand Siters: ‘The slow sand filters are usually constructed in open in a water tight tank of 2000 to 4000 m*, with a depth of about 3 metres. Sand having a layer of 75 to 90 cm thickness and supported on a gravel bed of 25 to 30 em thickness is used as a filtering medium. The size of the sand particles is taken smaller, which varies from 0.2 to 0.3 mm. The gravel size may range from 0.3 to 7.5 cm with smaller ones at the top. An under drainage system is provided for collection of the filtered water. Operation and cleaning of filters: The flow rate vary from 2.8 to 5.6 m/dim?. These filters require a continuous operation under submerged conditions with the water level above the filter bed ranging from 0.9 to 1.5 m. The rate of filtration is kept constant by keeping the head of water on the sand bed to the desired height and constant flow of effluent. ‘After constant filtration, the fine sand becomes clogged as measured by the head loss. The resistance to flow of water increases, which necessitates cleaning of the filter. The length of time between cleanings can range from 20 to 90 days depending upon the raw water quality, sand size and filtration rate. Cleaning of the filter is performed by scrapping off the top layer of the bed. After many cleanings, the sand depth may drop to below 60 cm, which requires the addition of mew sand. Raw water Supematant water drain Filter bed berm >I Filtered water Sand filter bed ‘Support gravel Perforated drain pipe Figure 25.7: Working ofa slow sand fiter.Water ‘ot ion 328 Microorganisms removal by filtration and and rapid sand fi liees are Je of removing certain microorganisms trom vin removal of microorganisms than the rapid sanq fk Watey ratios n Both slow - one effi Slow sand filtration is usually more effi fer ; The microorganisms are removed both by physical an biological processes. ‘The biological rem croonganiss i. scence of protazoa, mekizea and bacteriophage Oval of microorganisms is mainly due t presence of f . ages (inna . je of particular concer in drinking water supplies by 02, 963. Gi nuit Husmann, 1963). Giandia lami n ip cyete that connot be effectively hilled by chlorination, Effeetive removal of Giardia can a ent reduction of various microorganisms during filtration is proyigegs in only by filtration, The per ce Table 25.6 Table 25.6: Reduction of viruses and Glardla during filtration, Type of filtration Type of organisins % reduction 1. Infiltration (Dunes, sand) | Polioviruses 99.99 Bacteriophages 99.99 2 Slow sand filtration Polioviruses 22-96 coxsackie virus B Giardia 98-100 3. Rapid sand filtration Polioviruses 050 Bacteriophage Tu 0-87 Giardia 969-999 Disinfection of Water The final filtrate from the sand filters, though of great clarity, is not always free from harmful microorganisms. Disinfection of water by chlorination, ozonation or otherwise is the most important step in obtaining hygienically safe water. The process of disinfection refers to reduction of microbial population to a safe level is harmless to human beings. Some of the common methods of disinfection are described below: Chlorination Chlorine is a powerful disinfectant which usually takes the form of HOC, OCI, chloramines, or remains as Cl, in water depending upon the pH and the presence of ammonium salts, Chlorine or any of its derivatives such as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and bleaching powder [Ca(OCI)>] reacts with water to form hypochlorous acid (HOC!) which is an unstable compound and quickly decomposes by releasing nascent oxygen. Cl,+H,0 > HCl +HOcI NaOCI + H,O — HOC! + NaOH Ca(OC!), + 2H,0 — 2HOCI + Ca(OH), HOC! > HC1+0 HOC! > H* + ClOponking Water Treatment and Water Softening 329 Chlorine when added to water reacts with many substances present in water to exert a chlorine jemand, Chlorine demand is a measure of the amount of chlorine that will combine with impurities 2nd, sherefore. Will nol be available to act as a disinfectant. Chlorine can combine with ammonia or other ritragen compounds to form chlorine compounds (chloramines, nitrogen trioxide, chlorinated nitrogenous ganic compounds) that have still some properties of disinfection, NH,’ +HOCI = NH,Cl+H' + H,0 NH,C1 + HOCI— NHCI, + H,0 NHCI, + HOC! NCI, +H,0 ‘The chemical species HOC] and OCI are called free available chlorine residuals, whereas, the chloramines are called combined available residuals. The word “available” indicates that hey are available to act as disinfectant. These remain in water for a longer period and continue to kill microorganisms even in distribution systems, The free residuals are much more effective disinfectant than the combined residuals. The free residuals appear in the water only when the chlorine demand of the water is satisfied. The chlorine dosage for disinfection, needed to produce free residuals, therefore, varies with the quality of raw water. The bactericidal action of chlorine is mainly because of the toxic nature of the residuals and the oxidation of biomolecules by the nascent oxygen, The nascent oxygen is a strong oxidizing agent that oxidizes proteins, and irreversibly denatures the essential cellular enzymes. The efficiency of chlorination depends upon the concentration of free chlorine, contact time, temperature, pH and turbidity levels. Concentration of free chlorine has to be maintained in such a way so as it remains detectable even at the farthest points in the distribution system, Contact time is an important factor that dictates the effectiveness of microbial inactivation. Contact time is length of time for which the organisms are in physical contact with the chlorine, To achieve an effective disinfection at lower free chlorine the contact time can be increased. Lower values of pH and high temperature usually increase the rate of disinfection. However, the pH value can be maintained near to neutral to avoid corrosion that can occur at low pH. High turbidity prevents the good contact of chlorine with organisms, hence, the chlorination has to be performed only after removing the turbidity. ‘The requirement of chlorine dose depends upon the presence of organic load, quantity of microbial life, pH, carbon dioxide and temperature of water, and the contact time. Therefore, in practise the chlorine demand is determined experimentally by adding varying doses of chlorine to equal portions of the sample of water and determining the chlorine residual after 20 minutes of contact time. Chlorination of waters can be achieved by use of chlorine as liquid in the form of sodium hypochlorite; as a solid in the form of calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder): or as gas in the form of pure chlorine gas (Cl,), However, chlorine gas is most widely used to perform disinfection. especially in large treatment plants. The chlorine gas is applied to the waters with help of the specially designed chlorinators which can be adjusted to the desired rate of chlorine application. Breakpoint Chlorination: As indicated earlier, water may contain reduced substances (e-g., HS, Fe"), ammonia and organic compounds which react with chlorine to create a chlorine demand. If we add chlorine to water, it may not appear immediately as free chlorine, or the concentration of free chlorine will be lesser than the quantity of chlorine added. The initial amount of chlorine added is immediately taken up by the reactions in oxidizing H,S, Fe™ or other reducing substances leaving no or330 of free chlorine. At this point the ammonia and organic compounds resist . higher concentration of chlorine. Therefore. after the chlorine demand Aion fied, the free chlorine begins to rise, but falls abruptly ata point where it Of the Feduceg lorine demand of ammonia and organic substances as wet] SOncenttatg Fel When all the oxidation and chlorination reactions a 8 some of ge any further chlorine beyond the breakpoint a TE Complete, he able to carry out disinfection reactions PPEAS all as fee es that the free chlorine resi ‘siduals wiy fess quantity they require little substances is satis is enough to satisfy the cl Js which it has just crea! addition ¢ material point is called breakpount, The chlorine in water, which shall be 25.8 shows a ‘chlorine breakpoint curve’ which indi annl tmp ofehrine his been aed. After this point additional chlorin Je wi 6 mp/. further uddition of chlorine actually bring de es inan own the resiq, uals ‘akpoint is reached at 8 mg/L. After the breakpoint, any additional chlorine add. 00S (0 the fre available increase in residuals. However. at until the bre: available chlonine, ine Residual (many chi '— Breakpoint [cvs Aeofot amy Tot pp 6 8 10 12 Chiorine Dose (mgt) Immediate ! i chlorine demand si, Chlorine d nd ng jemand by amm: ! by HyS, Fe" ele. com ptltog8nous organic jonia, ‘ompounds and other organies. |) Chlorine residuals with pure water showing no chloriné Sure 25.8: Chlorine Ive showi eA dos te md ie s| i Ing break Point chlorination, Cur mand and curve B with raw water showing demand to hlori r ck ine.prinking Water Treatmont and Water Softening Chiorinat ™ er Chlorination: Supe hlorination: Under super chlorination a higher dove of chlo free available chlorine residual of 2 mye/ beyond the break tte Sa Oe Feed only ding the pienso wate se akin. Th nt edi applied but is Prater, dechlorination is nected after super chlorination, es. As it imparts strong, ntours and tastes in Jplorination: Dechlori . noua chlorine venient is performed to remove odour and taste caused duc to excess arneveats like sulphur di water, It ean he carried anit by reacting the excess chlorine by reducin chemica ioxide gas (SO), sodium sulphite (Na,SO,) oF sodium thiasulphate (NaS On. SO) + Cly + 2H,0 > H,S0, + 2HCI Na;SOq + Cl; + HO > Na,SO, + 2H1C} 2NayS,O, + Cly — Nay8,0, + 2NaCl Dechlorination can also be achie i sention of WalET. be achieved by passing the water through a bed of activated carbon or by Ozone treatment Ozone behaves in a similar manner to chlorine by releasing nascent oxygen. 0; 0,+0 i and viruses. In general, the enteric viruses Ozone is very powerful disinfectant for bacteria, fun teria of coliform group. Ozonation is quite are much more resistant to ozone treatment than the bact efficient in reduction of polioviruses from water. Ozone, however, do not leave any residuals in water which may encourage biological growths and development of tastes and odours in the distribution systems. Such biological growths usually prevented by adding a small dose of chlorine after ozonation. The ozonation of water can be achieved by bubbling ozone rich air through the water as shown in Fig, 25.9. The process of ozonation is costly and, therefore, could not be emerged as & popular process of disinfection in most countries. Other disinfection, processes ‘The disinfection can also be carried dioxide, potassium permanganate, disinfection. In one technique, silver 0 passage of electric current will produce silver ions having great form of ions reacts with most bacteria to form a slime whic! ‘ method of electrolysis, addition of NaC! will produce Cl, molecules which can the usual way- However, all these methods are not suitable for large scale disinfection but hi employed only for smaller quantities of water. .V. radiation. The substances like chlorine bromine and iodine have also been employed for the purposes of ‘anode and carbon or stainless steel cathode are used where the bactericidal properties. The silver in the h can be easily filtered out. In another i] microorganisms in ave been: out by using germicidal U 25.5 WATER SOFTENING PROCESS oval of hardness producing salts, esium, aluminium and iron fro1 water softening. i.e., sulphates, chlorides, carbonates and bicarbonates of The te oe teri called softening. Following processes can calcium, magn be employed forWe 332 * Pot Residual air ou “hy eo, Water aes Ozone bubbles through water Ozone rich air Figure 25.9: Process ofthe azonation of wator with two-compartment ozone contactor with porous cis, Lime Soda Process The process is based on the conversion of dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium into ingolub), salts by using lime [Ca(OH),] and soda ash (NayCO,). The insoluble salts are allowed to settle and an later filtered. One of the ingredients, the lime, precipitates temporary hardness, permanent hardness 0 ‘magnesium, iron and aluminium salts and free acids like CO, and HS, if present. 1. Ca(HCO;), + Ca(OH), > 2CaCO,) + H,0 2. Mg(HCOs), + 2Ca(OH),—> 2CaCO,l + Mg(OH),1 + 2H,0 3. MgCl, + Ca(OH), > Mg(OH),1. + CaCl, 4. MgSO, + Ca(OH), > Mg(OH),1 + CaSO, aad 5. FeSO, + Ca(OH), ~ Fe(OH), + CaSO, oC 2Fe(OH), + H,0 +40, 2Fe(OH), 4 olf 6 COs + COM), + CaCOsL +150 fT Bicarbonates of sodium and potassium as well as mineral acids are also removed by lime: 1. 2NaHCO, + Ca{OH) > CaCOgd + HAO + Na,CO, 2. 2KHCO, + CaO) > CaCOjL + H,0 +K,Co,Laat ‘axing Water Treatment and We " rinsing Wet fater Softening 339 2HC1+ Ca(OH) 3, 2HCI+ Ca(OH), > CaCl, + 11,0 0) ay 4, HyS0,+ CaO), > CaSO, + 10. dient, soda ash, reacts Ja avh, reacts with soluble permanent hardness of cafcium ineluding the ‘The other i species such as CaCl; CaSO, formed! during line revetion 1 K “aCO,L + INaCl mir) 2, Cas dy 9 CaCOL + NaySOy (13) Calculation of Lime-Soda Requirement 1, Lime neutralizes the following ty pes of hardness and acids in raw water (a) CaHCOy)y (by) MgiliCOs)y (o) MgCl, (d) MgSO, (e) Aluminium salts () Iron salts (g) Carbon dioxide (CO,) (h) HA (i) HSO, @_ HCOy, ete. 74, then 100 parts of CaCO, are equivalent to [As the mass of CaCOs is 100, and that of Ca(OH), are converted into equivalent of CaCO, 74 parts of Ca(OH). If the masses of the above substances then the lime requirement for softening can be calculated as: Temp. Ca%* + (2 x Temp. Mg”) + Lime requirement (mg) = ——~ 4 Perm. Mg” + Fe + AP + 100 CO, + HCI + H;S0, + HCO Where all the quantities: should be in terms of CaCO3 | equivalents, Lime: requirement for Mg(HCO})y is double than other salts (see Eq. 2). 3, Soda neutralizes the following types of hardness and acids: (a) CaSO, (b) CaCl (c) MgCl, (d) MgSO,ater py 334 cs (e) Aluminium salts (A Iron salts (g) HO (hy HySOx and H,S04 have also been taken here into consideration as a 2 3, 4, 10, 11), which is to be neutrali; Pro i ized by yng oda ss (see Eqs: MgCl. MgSO,. HCI on with time (Eqs. 8, equivalent permanent calcium hard Bicarbonates (HCO, ) dunng react therefore. this is 10 be subtracted. hence 100 parts of CaCO, shall be equiva, lent ty 1 ‘As the mass of soda astt (NaCO,) is 106, parts of Na;CO3 The soda requirement for hardness removal can be calculated as: 9) proxluce equivalent amouns oe i Perm. Ca”* + Perm. Mg”* 106 Soda requirement (mg/L) = x AL + Fe* + HCI + 100 H,SO,- HCO, Where all the quantities should be in terms of CaCO equivalents. Calculation of CaCO, equivalents defined mathematically as: Chemical equivalents of calcium carbonate can be Mass of hardness producing substance x Chemical equivalent of CaCO; Chemical equivalent of hardness producing substance Mass of hardness producing substance x 50 Chemical equivalent of hardness producing substance ; For example, 30 mg/L of MgSO, shall be equivalent to 25 mg/L of CaCO, (30x 50+ 6), whe 60s the chemical equivalent of MgSO, and 50 is the chemical equivalent of CaCO. For ready coavers af C005 equivalents, multiplication factors can be developed for all hardness ‘producing subst For example, 132 pats by mass of CaSO, would react with soap as 100 parts by mass of C200: beat roe Ca80, cn be converted imo equivalent terms of CaCO, by multiplying ¥% a as or 2 Alternately, | equivalent of CaSO, (chemical equivalent = 68) "=e id Ginveiied oo Cs of CaCO, (chemical equivalent = 50), Therefore, the mass of CaSO, 20 ‘CO, equivalents by multiplying a factor of 50/68 (0.735).panting Water Treatment and Water Sortoning 335 Multiplication fhetors to convert some in i ‘ mport in Table ‘ant hardness: produel in Table 25.7, hardness producing substances into CaCO, equivalents are Joble 25.7: Multiplication te factors for conversion of various salts into thelt lr equivatents of CaCO, Qe Salt Molecular mas aS a tas | Chemicat equivatent | Multiplication factors CaCO, 100 81 100/162 oF, 50/81 CaCl, i ” 100/100 or, 50/50 iSO, a 555 100/111 0, 50/555, cxom; 14 eo 100/136 or, 50/68 MgCO. . “ niece 7 42. 100/84 or, 50/42 Ms, =, 415 100195 oF, 50/47.5, wings 0 100/120.0r, 50/60 ig(NO3)2 148 "4 100/148 or, SO/74 CO; a4 2 100/44 or, 50/22 Na,CO; 106 3 100/306 or, 50/53 Example 1 : Convert 96 mg/L MgCOy into equivalent of CaCO Solution: 96 x a = 114.28 mg/L as CaCOs Procedure of. lime-soda softening dda softening can be carried out by {Wo Provessess either cold or hot process. 25.10) the calculated quantities of lime and soda ash are The hardness is precipitated in the form of finely divided out coagulant aids, ‘Alum is most preferred coagulant, aluminium hydroxide [AI(OH),]. Sodium aluminate is imultaneous removal of silica and oil, if ‘The process of lime-so’ Cold Process: In this process Fig. mixed with the water at room temperature. particles, which can be filtered with or with which forms gelatinous flocculant precipitate of also, sometimes, used as a coagulant, which can be useful in si present in waler. ing chemicals at high temperature of period as the reactions proceed at higher which saves on the use of coagulates. The cettling tank and filter (often sand he hot lime soda softener is Hot Process: In this process the water is treated with softeni g0-150°C. The softening process js achieved in a shorter temperature. The sludge settles rapidly at high temperature, i a.with the help of steam in this process and a separate 8 filter) are employed for removal of sludge. The schematic design of t provided in Fig. 25.11-336 Lime soda + Goagulant Sotenad water 4 outlet a Water Pot, — Stirrar | -¥ 006 fibre titer +—Inner chamber —}— Outer chamber Sludge ‘Sludge outlet Figure 25.10: Schematic design of continuous lime-soda softener. Raw water —> Seltled sludge Settling tank Fite! Fine s3°4 coarse > gotened 1 Figure 25.11; Schematic of a hot lime soda softener.prinking Water Treatment and Water Softening 337 Example 2: Calculate the amount CaCO); = 124m _ OF Time and sola per lite of hard water with the following analysis: Mg(CHO,), = 85.6mp/L MgCl, = 92.0mph. Mg(NO;)> = 278mg. MgSO, = S2.0mpL CO; = 4.0m H,SO, = 16.2 mg/L. Solution: 1. ete of all the ms suas of gute shel equate of CaCO), Iss -quivalents of CaCOy Ca(HCO)), 124 162 12.4 x (100/162) = 7.65 Mg(HCO;), 85.6 146 85.6 x (100/146) = 58.63 MgCl 92.0 95 92.0 x (100/95) = 96.84 Mag(NO3)> 218 148 27.8 x (100/148) = 18.78 MgSO, 526 120 52.6 x (100/120) = 43.83 co, 240 44 240 x (100/44) = 54.54 H)SO, 162 98 16.2 x (100/98) = 16.32 2. Calculation of lime requirement. 4 Lime requirement (mg/L) = 755, x (Temp. Ca+ (2x Temp. Mg)+ Perm Mg + CO,+H,S0.) 74 = 700 * [7.65 + (2 x 58.63) + (96.84 + 18,78 +.43.83) + 54.54 + 16.32] 4 == 22 100 355 = 262.86 mg/L 3. Calculation of soda requirement. 106 Soda requirement mg/L = 7g [ Perm. Ca+ Perm. Mg + H,SOs] 0 [0+ (96.84 + 18.78 + 43.84) + 16.32), 106 — 46 + 16.32] 09 * 159. 1 106 =, x 175.78 100 xt = 186.32 mg/L338 Water Pottion Zeolite or Permutit Process of Water Softening Zeolites are complex ma ccules of silicates of several me! usually have a crystalline stricture with an approximate chemical formula of NayO.AL0 These are also called permutits and are ofien represented simply by NayZe. They can be natural iq origin orean be made synthetically, Zeolites have soditin ions in loose fashion, which can be exchanged Ca? and Mg2* ions, the same can replace sodium gh a bed of zeolite it gets softened due Ilic and non-metallic oxides, They 10;.6H,,0, by other ¢ve ions in the solution, If the solution ions (Na*) in zeolites. Thus, when a hard water is passed throw to such exchange of ions. NaZe + Ca®? = 2Na* + CaZe wd 14) eu 15) NaZe + Mg?* — 2Na* + MgZe 25.12) for softening, where hardness The hard water is passed through a bed of zeolite (Fig producing Ca2* and Mg?* ions are replaced by Na" ions. Therefore, the softened water has an over concentration of sodium corresponding to the Ca** and Mg”* ions in incoming water. Following reactions occur in the process of softening. {| 10% NaC! solution for regeneration Inlet for raw _, water Zeolite bed Soft waler NaCl washing outlet + | J “> Soft water outlet Fiqure 25.12: Process of softening of water by zeolite process:pinking Water Treatment and Water Softening 339 NayZe + Ca(HCO,), > CaZe + 2NaHICO, (16) ! NajZe + Mg(HICO,), > MgZe + 2NaHCO, 07) ! NayZe + MgCl, MgZe + 2NaCI AB) NayZe + MgSO, MpZe + Na,SO, 2AI9) The process required regeneration of Zeolites periodically as they are exhausted due to their “conversion into calcium and magnesium zeolites, The regencration can be made by treating the bed with 10% concentrated NaCl solution, CaZe + 2NaCl > NayZe + CaCl, (20) MgZe + 2NaCl + NayZe + MgCl, 21) The Process has got certain limitations in the form that a raw water with turbidity and excessive Mn’* and Fe* ions has to be pretreated otherwise the turbidity will clog the bed, and the Min”* and Fe” ions will produce manganese and iron zeolites which are difficult to be regenerated. Mineral acids are to -be neutralized otherwise they can destroy the zeolite bed.