10.14 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING J, Introduction : Irrigation is the science of supply of water artificially to the cultivable land for the growth of crops and plants. It is the science of planning the efficient water supply onditions for the bumper growth of crops. The irrigation engineering deals with the technique of hamessing the natural water sources by constructing dams, weirs, reservoirs, canals, headwork etc. and distribute the water for cultivation efficiently as well as economically. It also deals with the design of projects such as river flood control, drainage of water logged areas and generation of hydroelectric power. 2. Necessity of Irrigation : An effective irrigation system depends upon the sources of water and its reliability with reference to quantity and quality. For water, we have to depend on rains, In India the rainfall is due to monsoon only and that too from June to September. The rainfall varies from place to place, region to region. There is water crisis in one region and heavy floods in other region. In order to avoid such imbanaing state we have to be very careful touse the last drop of water. It therefore, becomes atmost necessary to adopt systematic irrigation system by storing water during the period of heavy rainfall and to supply it to the crops judiciously as and when required to get the maximum benefit. A multipurpose, multistate river Project should be planned to overcome this problem permanently. In this context, the Ganga, Kaveri project which is in the design stage at present will certainly prove to be a great boon to our country. system designed to suit the natural c. Baste Civil Engineering 10: 3, Advantages of Irrigation : (a) It increases the yield of the crops thereby helps tq achieve self-sufficiency in food. (b) It increases the revenue of the government and stabilises the economy of the country. (c) It etiminates the water shortage problem. (@) It helps to expand basic industries like steel, fuel power etc. (e) It provides navigational facilities by way of large canals. (f) It increases the underground water storage by percolation. (g) It provides employment to a large class of people, and thereby improves their living conditions. {h) In short it helps overall development of the country. 4, Disadvantages : Some disadvantages arc, (a) It makes the climate damp and cold. (b) Over irrigation creates water logged areas and thus, render the land unfit for agriculture, (©) Excess application of water leads to water stagnation and gives rise to mosquito- problem. (@) It requires heavy initial investment, 10.15 TYPES OF IRRIGATION Different types of irrigation can be best understood from the following schematic diagram. ‘Types of Irrigation Natural Irrigation Artificial Irrigation Rain Inundation Flow Irrigation Lit igatic Fall Canal System een Run-of the River Storage Reservoir Open Well Tube Well Irrigation or Inigation or Irrigation Irrigation Direct Irrigation Tank Irrigation Fig. 10.29 ; Schematic diagram showing types of Irrigation. There are mainly two types of ietigation (1) Natural irrigation and (2) Anificial tigation, 1. Natural Irrigation + When the object of irrigation is fulfilled without constructing any engineering work of significant magnitude, it is said to be a natural type of irrigation. Ina very broad sense natural rainfall can be included in Natural type of irrigation. In India, most of the irrigation depends upon the rainfall which is due to monsoon, from June to September.- tt management 10-23 When flood occurs in the river, the sutoundi so waercan be used fr iigation purposes ju sf water by means of acut made in the river bank. See ig area by siving Submerged under water, This Fao hohe diection tote food jqrigation- - (0.30. Itis called inundation or flood Ri ver Subsidiary head Tnundation Canal Fig. 10.30 : Inundation Canal or Flood Irrigation. When water spreads over the land during floods, it remains stored in the soil pores and is used up by the crops as when needed. It is nothing but inundation canal system of irrigation. ‘Assuch if can be included in natural type of irrigation. 2. Artificial Irrigation : In artificial irrigation, fields are’ irrigated after constructing d hydraulic structures for example headworks, out-lets etc. In properly designed and locate: source of tum, artificial irrigation can be divided into two sub-heads depending upon the water supply viz. (i) Flow irrigation and (ii) Lift irrigation. (i) Flow Irrigation : When water available at higher level, is supplied by simple action tion, It is further divided into two types. (a) Run of the River of gravity it is called flow irriga' Irrigation or Direct Irrigation and (b) Storage Reservoir Irrigation or Tank Irrigation. (a) Run River Irrigation or Dit jon : In this method, water flows in the canals directly from the river. Here, a Jow diversion weir, bandhara or a barrage is built across the river like Khodshi weir near Karad and water is supplied to the canals by gravity. Usually direct irrigation is adopted for ‘small irrigation schemes where the river flows throughout the year or perennial. See Fig. 10.31. t Trvis Marginal WS River —> Bandi eet ' poo Distribttories J f River Irrigation or Direct Irrigation. Fig. 10.31 Run-off theBasic Civil & Ging ing 10-24 w bandharas such as Kolhapur vers, a series of 10% d de available throughout the course o or the In case of non-perennial ri water can be mat Vasant bandharas can be built up. and year. (b) Stor servoir Irrigation or Tan vrigation : In this type a solid barrier like huge dam is constructed across the river (0 a sufficient height. Water is stored on the upstrey side of the dam in the form of reservoir. It is called storage reservoir, impounded reserva artificial lake like Shivasagar on Koyna river at Koyna-nagar or Krishnarajasagar (KR §) or Kaveri river at Mysore. Two main canals are constructed to take one from the right bank ang ake water from the reservoir, Through a network eg one from the left back are constructed (0 t canals and distributories, water is led further by gravity to the fields. To regulate the water head regulators, cross-regulators are also required to be constructed. See Fig. 10.28 and 10.32 In addition it also requires the construction of eross-drainage works wherever the canal distributary comes across the roads, railways and nallahs etc. These include bridges acrox roads, railway’ super-passages (allah over canal) aqueducts(nallah below canal) and sigh ttc. Tis typeof storage ination is generally useful when the flow is found to be insufficient during the year to meet the necessary demand. In India most of the schemes are of storage irrigation. Fig. 10.32 : Storage Reservoir Irrigation. (ii) Lift Irrigation : Wh is Jit irrigation. This method is adopted when wale ome meshes devien, iis called 1 T ts below the surroundin; 1g ground level, such 2s nies (olf the water from the wells, Refer Art. 10.4 (3 1e water can be lift . 10.4.3). Bucket, (d) Denki, (e) Rate eens OF (@) Doon, (6) Archimedian Screws, (c) Swinging lift pump, (Wind mill. G) Mo ne ed Pulley. Wi " i pump, (i) Wind mill, () Mote or churus ete indlass, (g) Persian wheels, (h) AitPua 10-25 { 6 HODS OF IRRIGATION | so sos bring irrigation wat 7 | ayn oo ler to the fields for irrigatic r to be appli irrigation pow te oe method a the field economically and Gey bet nent problem B uo pifferent is of irrigation can be best understood tn he maximum crop 1m the following flow at ee Methods of Irrigation Surface Irrigati rrigation Sub-surface Inigation Flooding Furow Sprinkler Drip Natural ; abe Netto’ Method Method Method Subvirigation shri Fig, 10.33 : Flow diagram of Methods of Irrigation. ‘These are mainly two methods of irrigation. irrigation and (2) Sub-surface Irrigation. (1) Surface I 4, Surface Irrigation + In this method, water flows and spreads over the surface of the .d. The yarious methods of surface irtigations are - fant (i Flooding Method : If water is plenty, it can be let into the areas by wild flooding. ed flooding is practised to minimise wastage of water, the control being Borders can be made at suitable intervals by making hand breadth of the border willbe adjusted depending available. See Fig. 10.34. Generally. control exercised by boarders, checks or basins. gerthen bunds of suitable sizes. The lengtl \d quantity of water upon the soil crop a Borders Method of Irrigation. Border ‘Strip and unlike porders, their sizes need not be Fig. 10.34 + Checks (Fig, 10.35) are level plots of land large. i Basins like checks are small 4 can be made for 0 0.36. In this case a basin is ma rchards only. See Fig.Basic Civil Engineering 10-26 —> Field Channel ST Check c Fig. 10.35 : Check Method of Irrigation. Field Channel ° Fruit Trees Oo oO pH eueh Laterals Fig. 10.36 : Basin Method of Irrigation. (i) Furrow or Corrugation Method : When the crops are grown and planted in tows, this method is best suited. Here un-like flooding, wetting is done for only a part of the field. Thus, the losses due to evaporation, deep percolation etc, are minimised. In this method, water Just flows through the furrows or small ditches. A furrow length of upto 400 m and a depth of 6-8 cm of water in furrows is however normal, The longitudinal slope may be 2 to 10 m per 1000 m. Spacing of furrous may be from 1 to 2 m apart in case of orchard itrigation. When furrous are 8 to 12 cm deep they are called shallow or corrugation furrows. The depth of deep furrows may vary from 20 to 30 cm. Itis generally used for sugarcane, orchards and some field crops also. See Fig. 10.37. Field Channe). —» Fig. 10.37 : Furrow Irrigation. (i) Sprinkler Method : Here water is pumped and applied to the land in the form of Spray through nozzles fitted in the sprinker pipes jutting out of the main supply pipe at specified intervals. See Fig. 10,38,10-27 Main Supply Pipe Fig. 10.38 : Spri This system is just lil i rea ase enact 1 is syste is just ike the rainfall created artificially. Thi as sprinkler irrigation or over-head irrigation. Sprinkl in = ined of irigaion s Enon oefurow methods but has advantage tha it canbe applied n anne whch nen ea of land preparation is thus eliminated. But evay cei on areas which are not evel: Cost windily regions. poration losses are more and it is not suitable in The sprinkler irrigation is useful in the following circumstances : 1. Cost of water is high and has to be used economically. 2, Land is likely to be water logged easily through excessive use of water. 3. Topography does not permit surface spreading of irrigation water. 4, Water use is to be fully controlled. (iv) Drip or Trickle Method : Here the water is conveyed on the surface in 10 to 15 mm. diameter tubings fed from large feeder pipes. The water is allowed to drip or trickle slowly through the nozzles at practically zero pressure. grown. It can also be used over the saline lands, lot of precious water. But it is very costly. ious soil is underlain by impervious soil; 2. Sub-surface Irrigation : If the surface pervi s pe it is feasible to feed the sub-soil water through channels, Ia this method, the soil is not made wet by the water. The underground water reaches to root zone of the plants by the capillary fringe. It is divided into two categories (i) Natural sub-irrigation and (Gi) Artificial sub-irrigation. i ttongi, 1 i irrigation : -pround irrigation is done by means of natural i) Natural sub-irrigation : When under-ground 1" ‘ / a without extra th it is called natural sub-irrigation In this case it 80 happens water from channels percolates through the sub-soil and inrigates the crops by capil os ac i 7 Some tim the rater table rises up which also contributes to the irrigation of otops ne and conciy of channels can be planned suitably so that ee percolate rome = 7 7 in this method, See Fig. 1¥--7- required quantity only. Evaporation losses din In this way the soil is kept wet, and crops are developing, deserts and arid areas as it saves. are minimiseBasle Cull Enginonri, ‘a 10-28 Channel Channel Y \ ¢ ‘ Capillary frienge Pervious Soil i SUE Te ‘ Impervious Soil Fig. 10.39 : Natural Sub-irrigation. i i about 30 cm below the irrigation : Here pipes with open joints are laid al (ii) Artificial sub-irrigation : Here pipes a jolaisare laid ‘ soil The water 1s allowed to pass through these pipes. The water comes out of the open joints, which 1s absorbed by the soil and supplied to the crops by capillary action. See Fig 1040. Crops Water —> Pipes 1a with open joints Fig. 10.40 : Artificial Sub-i In this method evaporation and deep percolation losses are avoided. This method is Preferred over other methods particularly where water is valuable. This method is gaining Popularity on big farms where mechanised agriculture is practised because laying of under- ground irrigation pipes does not interfere with farming operations, This method is costly. Itis useful for the production of cash crops of very high yield on small area, irrigation.10.5 INTRODUCTION TO DAMS A dam can be defined as an impervious barrier or an obstruction built across a natural stream or river to store the water on upstream of it upto a certain level. The dam is constructed to serve many useful purposes. Benefits of Dam 1. The stored water can be used for irrigation. 2. It forms a very good source for water supply. 3. Itcan be used for power generation. 4, Itis very useful for flood control. In case of heavy floods, if water is left unobstructed, it will produce havoc involving loss of human lives, animals, loss of property. The dam can act as a flood control measure.ror anna toa . The dam with its surroundings provides ing and also a place of tourism importance Hiosee ir provides a good 6. The reservoir provi 800d place for fisheries j ren the economy of the country, heres, breeding of fish which helps to 7, Wwhelps navigation. 7 Picnic, boating, Swimming, su us SELECTION OF DAM SITE ‘The selection of dam site depends on many factors such as 1, Good foundation should be available at easy depths, ‘ 4, The length of the dam should be as small as Possible and for the given height; it should - acl i . sqore maximum CaP; icity of reservoir. Therefore, it follows that river valley should be narrow the dam site but should be wider at the upstream si i : ihe reservoir. See Fig. 10.15, stream side to provide a large cup shaped basin for Spill way River —> Storage | Reservoir Dam Right Bank Canal ‘Head Regulator Fig. 10.15 : General Layout ‘of a Dam. 3. The materials for construction should be easily available so that the cost of transportation will be reduced. 4, For discharging surplus water, there should be a spillway or saddle point on the periphery of the basin. 5. The utility services should be available such as electricity, water supply and neamess toroads, for labours and staff engaged in dam construction. 6. The mininwum land and property should be affected due to submergence by the proposed dam site, 7. The capacity of the reservoir should meet the growing demand of the population in near future. 8. The dam site should be easily accessible in all seasons.Basic Civil Engi, Seer a 10-12 10.7 TYPES OF DAMS ‘The various types of dan » as follows ms, dete (3) Gravity Dams, (1) Earth Dams. (2) Rock-fill Da oe asch ams, (4) Hollow Masonry Gravity Dams, © lee (6) Steel Dams, (7) Timber Dams. See Fig. 10- ‘Types of Dams Rigid Dam; Non-rigid Dams (a) Gravit wvity Dam Rolled Earth Dams (Gm Gravity Dam Et = Hydraulic © 2 es “ean vi = @ Steel Dam (©) Timber Dam i Rock Fill Combined Rock and Zona ight Ea FLD Dam Fig. 10.16 : Types of Dams. (A) Non-rigid Dams 4. Rolled Earth Dam : In this type of dams, successive layers of moistened or damp soils are laid one over the other. Each layer not more than 20 cm in thickness is properly consolidated at optimum moisture contents, only then next layer is laid over it. For proper compaction of soil, sheep foot-rollers driven by tractors are used. Here dumpers, bulldozers, etc. earth moving machineries are used. When the height of dam is not more than 15 m, the upstream face is given a slope of 2: I or 2.5: 1. If the height is more than 15 m, the upstream face is given a slope of 3: 1. The tope of the dam may vary from 2 m to 7.5 m, These type of rolled earth dams are suitable for poor and earth foundation particularly when the height of dam is moderate. The rolled earth dams are further classified as below. (i) Homogeneous Earth Dam : These dams are constructed with uniform and homogeneous materials, when locally available. It is suitable for low height dams i.e. upto 9m only. These dams are usually constructed with soil and grit mixed in proper ratio. ‘These are suitable only on impervious foundation, The upstream face is protected with stone pitching: To check excessive percolation horizontal drainage blanket is provided. These measures control _ Seepage and also keep the final saturation line within the body of the dam. Sufficient free- oard (F.B.) is provided above the high flood level CHEL.). See Fig. 10.17. tinker en Earth Dam : (a) Zoned Earth Dam : These are known as not en is divi i i lams. It is divided into two zones, The central portion of the dam which= it a gerne wen 9 10-43, earting., i et . cot “ sens is ae from imperviou: al Se 10.18. In some sear ; mn rial a S, acenteal core-all is mack ladle for mak, ‘ing the da 1 ious nen the earth used in th arth used in the da i dam is pervious. The thick ickness of th he core wal gf tight wae event Jeakage of wate! " ter through the body of the ¢ lam. The core ew ind the o er po ition fro mm His ke alls teapot sf be constructed with mason 8 ed swith stone pitching. See F 10 7 pai oes ms 10.19, . The upstream fi am face 45 Saturation line bef fore provision of filter Gravel and Sand Cushion Filter Fig. 10.17 ; Homogeneous Earth Dam. ‘Top of Dam ddle clay core wall. Fig. 10.19 = Non-homogencous Dam with Pu (b) Diaphragn T) ‘arth Dam : This tye of dam is constructed with pervious material the central part to prevent leakage of water. ‘The diaphragm tream face of the earth diaphragm in ayey soil, masonry oF conerete. The Ups etment. See Fig. 10.20. the construction, it is known aS hy witha thin impervious can be made of impervious cl dam is protected by stone pitching oF te¥ (iti) Hydraulic Fl Dam: Inthis tyPe of dam, we placing of the earth is done by water, therefore, transportation excavation, e Fig. yydraulic fill dam. SeBasic civy MH Engh eri, a 10-14 Fill Porton 7 ae Stuice Pipe fs, Initially Rolled Cut off FillPortion Trench. = Fine Material Fig. 10.21 ; Hydraulic Fill Dam. Outer edges of the embankment are kept slightly above than the middle portion of each layer. During the construction of the dam, the earth-water slurry is pumped and discharged at its edges. Automatic gradation takes place and the coarser materials settle at the edges, while the finer materials move to the middle and settle there. In this method no compaction by rollers or sheep foot rollers is required. The slurry is taken to the dam site through pipes, Bigger size materials drop out first near the slopes of the proposed dam, next coarser sand soi get deposited and after it, fine sand, silt and clay particles are carried in suspension to the centre of the dam. Fine particles after depositing in the centre portion form a water tight core. Now the water from the central pool is pumped out and can be used again for preparing slurry. (iv) Rock-fill Dams : Rock fill dams are made of loose rocks and boulders piled in the bed of the river. An imperious layer such as concrete slab is often laid on the upstream side !0 make it water-tight. These are more stable than earth fill dams. They consist of dressed rock pieces in the upstream side and loose rock fill on the downstream side See Fig 10.22. Sometimes stone-filling on the back and earth filling as an impervious barrier in the front are provided and the dam is known as ‘combined rock and earth filldam’. (B) Rigid Dams 1. Gravity Dams : A gravity dam is so called because it is designed in such a way thal s own weight resists the external forces acting on the dam. So it needs good foundation. [may aDreseed Rock Fill 1045 Cutoff Trench Fig. 10.22 : Rock-Fill Dam. puilt 10. any height . It is made of stone mason . . upset face of the dam to the down tena ee ies openings extend sarer below he dam side to decease the peak of the flood in fh Jean the silt or to supply the aa. [tis more durable, stable than earth and rockfill dams. 1 vaies foathelsteiot doer pes See Fig, 10.23 Ii best suited ia nao alee (V poges) wth ocky ; y cos ped Body of the dam Upper Supply Sluice Infiltration Gallery US. Lower Supply Sluice Toe Hardrock Heel ™ Fig. 10.23 : Gravity Dam. 2, Hollow Masonry Gravity Dams: These are recently constructed because the cost of construction is ess. The work Strong can be done speedily. These are similar to solid masonry and ‘butment concrete dams in design but they require less concrete. The weight of water is borne by R.CC. deck or by arches. These dams require skilled labour. vis Dis 3, Arch Dams : An arch dam is curved in shape with its Are Dam convex face holding the water. It is less massive than gravity dams, The force of water js transformes to the abutment by arch action. The dam 1S suitable in narrow valley, but the main ate jseconomical only if its length ‘abutment requirement is good abutment Itis : . isless than height. Hence, itis preferable for very high heights pig. 10.24 : Arch Dam- See Fig, 10.24.Baste ci ME gin brn ry 10-16 Hy any foundation and low height of cy wil cor any width of valley 7 nt of 15 t0 18 m4 tee - These ato 4, Steel Dams: F ston heigl be stored, atec! dam is most suited Tis suitable up (0 9 : r : Me al ja rare temporary in nature 10 Form a water tight compan? S. Men, Silas sige! coffer pamiis® va the main dam, See. Fig. 10.25. and are dismantled after the comp! letion Face plate Rolled Steel Joist (R.S.J.) Fig. 10.25 : Cantilerver Steel Dam. 5. Timber Dams : When timber is cheaply available near the site, such dams ate constructed. The height is usually upto 9 m. They are rarely water-tight. These are ate constructed as timber coffer dams, These are also dismantled after the construction of mais dam. See Fig. 10.26. Fig. 10.26 : (‘A’ frame type) Timber Dam. 10.8 SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM The selection of type of dam is governed by the following factors. ___ 1. Nature of Foundation : The foundation has to carry the weight of the dam. Foundation is therefore, very important factor which decides the choice of dam. If a sound rock formation is present in the foundation, any type of dam can be constructed over it. On clay and poor rock foundations, except earth dams no other type of dams are suitable. 2. Topography of the Site : If a gorge with rocky bed is available, solid gravity dam's best suited. Ifat the site, the width of the valley is narrow (V-gorge) and side banks are firm an arch dam is most suited. For wide valleys with gentle side slopes, an earth dam or rock fll am is preferred. When the valley is wide with steep slopes, the masonry dam may be used insesdwater Management 4047 ofearth dam, For any width of vatley wi th Forany width of valley with any foundati 800d foundation steel dam is suitable for low dams aabii lation ti . 3, Availability of Constructo nm imber dam is suited for dams of moderate height. mn Materials # Selection of type of dam depends upon the availability of local materials, 1f good constructed. Similarly, when timber ig chant. Of Soil is available, the earth dams can be constructed. ‘APIY available near the dam site timber dams are 4, Space for Spillways ; Spi + Spillwa pecomes full and there is rain in he oun are the outlets of the dams. When the reservoit of water endangers the stability of the 4 ment atca ofthe reservoir, the excess accumulation through the spillway gates. When spare ta Structure, So the surplus water is allowed to pass is not available on the periph ‘or construction of separate spillway or a saddle point ssonry Or concrete i ipl ery of the basin, earthen dams should not be used. In case of ame SueotD ins the spillway may be constructed in the dam itself. aasinry dams may eeu ‘mheight, timber dams.can be constructed. Upto 20 m height, upto 30 m. When height structed, Earthen dams with good foundation, can be constructed pl - : theca ‘Sit exceeds more than 30 m, concrete gravity dams can be constructed. 5. Ea Ke f rn tel a pe + When a dam isto be constructed in the earthquake prone arca, it must be designed and constructed taking into account the earthquake forces. The gravity dams are found to resist these forces more effectively. 7. Life of Dam : When the life of the dam is required to be more, gravity dam should be used. Earth and rock fill dams prove to be uneconomical as their maintenance cost is more. 8, Multipurpose Uses : If the dam is to be used for generation of electricity, irrigation, water supply schemes gravity dam should be used. 9, Availability of Labour : Skilled labour is required for gravity dams than earthen dams. 10. Availability of Funds : For concrete or gravity dams much more funds are required than earthen or rock fill dams. s 10.9 STORAGE RESERVOIRS The pool of water created by the construction of a dam across a river is called reservoir. When the reservoir retains the water supply during rainy season and releases it during dry period as per requirement, itis called storage or impounded reservoir, See Fig. 10.15 and 10.32. ‘The storage reservoirs are generally constructed on the non-perennial rivers which cannot supply water during summer season. With the storage reservoirs, the flow of water in the river is regulated, ‘The various purpose for which the storage works are required are (i Irigation, (ji) Hydro-electric power generation, (ii) Domestic and industrial water supply, (iv) Control of desteuctive floods, (¥) Low water regulation for navigation, (vi) Recreation, (vii) Preservation and breeding of useful acquatic life. The reservoirs which serve one or more than one purpose are known as sinlge or multi-purpose reservoirs respectively,Basie Civil Es "gnegy ing 10-18 SITE FOR ST! ORAGE RESERVOIRS rage reservoirs depends on many factors such as : of the catchment ared ? It is necessary to study F of the reservoir basin. Firstly the losses gy ® d run-off, Secondly the run-off water shout, pacity will be decreased in aa 10.10 SELECTION OF ‘The selection of site for stor 1. Geological Factors : Geolofy of the entire catchment are soil characteristic f nae catchment area should be niin to obtain good run-« ve siltand sand, Otherwise the reservol! not carry excess! time. ‘phe entire length of the dam should be founded on a f, should be [cast percolation below the dam ‘ard ‘The soil formation of the basin should be free fro any outlet may occur. The soil should notcontain (ii) Geology of the dam site water tight rock foundation. “The (iii) Geology of the reservoir basin: fissures through which excessive leakage (0 srinrats and salts which may affect Une qualily of (Re stored water. ‘As far as possible the reservoir site should be free from excessively folded or faulted beds. The general direction of dip of the rock should be in the upstream direction. 2. Topographical Factors : The reservoir basin should have narrow opening on the river valley, so that the length of the dam will be as small as possible, consequently the cost of the project will be reduced. But at the same time, the valley should be wider at the upstream to In short a cup shaped basin with fairly water-tight bed provide a large basin for the reservoir. and sides should be available. A deep reservoir is preferred (o a shallow reservoir. The water storage should be largest to meet the growing demand in near future. For discharging surplus water, a spillway or saddle point is necessary which may be available on the periphery of the basin. See Fig. 10.15. 3. Cultural Factors : There should not be much growth of trees, and vegetation since they produce objectionable taste, odour and colour to the stored water in the basin. 4, Land Acquisition Factor : The reservoir basin covers very large area. It is therefore, very important to see that the Jand going to be submerged is not very valuable. Otherwise the cost of project will increase in acquiring the valuable land. 5. Economic Factors : The site should be close to the area to be irrigated so that it will reduce the cost of conveyance system. 10.11 STORAGE ZONES ‘The storage zones in the reservoir are as follows. [See Fig. 10.27 ] 1. Flood lift or Surcharge Storage (above FR.L.) 2. Utilisation or Live Storage (between FR.L. and lowest sluice) 3. Dead Storage (below lowest sluice) High Flood Level : Duri is finch eee Naat i 3 During the rainy season, water supply to the river is very on ety taal tie penile attains the maximum level during this period. The ‘ i . catied tie tighest ed eign igned to resist the pressure of water at this level which isater Management 10-19 Top of Dam /— Crest of Spitiway _7 Snooth Curve Surcharge — : Stomge US Pedy of the Dam "Ss. Racca ba Live — Upper Supply Sluice Storage’ Valley Storage | ———\_ — Infiltration Gallery = Lower Supply — Sluice Natural level River bad of river water 7 ; before dam Heal \ Tee Fig, 10.27 : Storagev Zones in a Reservoir. Full Reservoir Level (F.R.L.) : It is also known as full tank level (F.T.L.). Itis the level upto which the water is normally stored. It is also known as normal pool level. Usually the crest of the spillway gate is fixed at this level. Free Board (F'B.) :To prevent the overtopping of the dam during peak flood, a sufficient margin is provided between the water level in the reservoir and top of the dam, Tt is known as free board. Free board is divided into (i) gross free board and (ii) net free board. Gross free board is the difference of level between the top of dam and full reservoir level. Net free board is the difference of level between the top of dam and high flood level. Surcharge Storage : It is the quantity of water collected in between full reservoir level and maximum flood level. When the reservoir becomes full and there is rain in the catchment area of the reservoir, the surcharge storage OF excess flow is allowed to pass through apillway gates to reduce the intensity of flood for the safety of the dam. Gross Storage : It is the total quantity of water that can be storaged in the reservoir to bring the water level up 0 full reservoir level. It is generally expressed in hundred hectare- metres (ham) or million cubic metres (M im’) ; or thousand million cubic feet (T.M.C.) (28.32 Mm? = 1 TM.C.] Live Storage : The quantity of water available in between the full reservoir level and the minimum water level which is normally atthe level of lower supply sluice is called effective, useful or live storage. It is used for irrigation, power generation and water supply schemes. f water stored below the minimum water level is called Dead Storage : The quantity o plow the minim dead storage hich is not used for any purpose. Obviously, it is the difference between gross-Basic Civil En sino ng ed to contain the silt deposition wy; ic ir nks is known as the bank storage Boes 1020 vid «dead storage is provided 10 Coy oxen sad eT a srrmeaty ofthe reservoir The capacity of dead storage p oe al storage Hryper of years without alOwiNg any SeTIOUS decrease allow silting fo y led up. some water seeps into permeable reser, so fixed that it ¢4 the effective stot servoir is fil ater comes out when the water level in the reseryo; Bank Storage : When the Fe ored sks; a portion of this stores : oe Tare quant) of water stored in the re deer : water contained within the banks of a channel is known PAcity of arno use. It decreases the effective storage ca ct is very Valley Storage : The quanuty of f 0 as channel of valley storage which Is voir, However when it is of signific: ant proportions during flood its effec he lood-control reservoirs. the rest important while considering 1 10.12 CANALS ; ‘A Canal is an excavated path or a trench through which the water from the reservoir flows to the cultivated lands by gravity. While fixing the alignment of the canal, it should be taken along the ridge line so that it will command maximum area under irrigation. Such 4 canal 1s called Water Shed canal. As far as possible the canal should run along the centre line of the land to be cultivated. It should be straight and pass through favourable soil condition, Its path should not be taken in excessive cutting and embankment. It should cross minimum drainage lines. The cost of land acquisition should be as far as minimum. 10.13 TYPES OF CANALS The various types of canals are () Main Canal, (2) Branch Canal, (3) Distributory, (4) Field Channels, Fig 10.28 shows the types of canals. Dam, Storage Reservoir ~— River U/S ~— River D/S Head Regulator Fig. 19. 10.28 : Tynes of Canals.agement 10.24 water Ma 1. Main Canal : The canal taken directly from the reservoir is called the main canal. The jy in this main canal is controlled by the head regulator. The main function is to distribute on uae to the branch canal, , 2, Branch Canal : The canal taken off directly from the main canal is called the branch anal. t branches from the main canal for covering up the whole area to be cultivated by the vane water, It is smaller than the main canal in section, Generally it is designed to carry 2 minimum quantity of 9.5 cubic metres per second (cumecs) of water, They do not distribute fie water directly to the fields. 3, Distributory : The small channel which receives water from the branch canal is called asa distributory or distributor. It distributes the water through the outlets, provided in the bank of the distributory. The distributaries are classified as major and minor distributaries, based on the water carrying capacities. Major Distributory : If the discharge capacity of distributory is between 1.5 cumecs to 5,5 cumecs it is called as major distributory. ; Minor Distributory ; If the discharge capacity of distributory is less than 07 cumecs, it is called as minor distributory. It is provided when the length of the field channel is more than 3km. ; ; | 4, Field Channels : These are taken off from the distributaries. The water is ae through the outlets provided in the banks of the distributory. The channel length is limited to km. and lined at the inner surface to reduce the loss of water. The discharging capacity is not more 0.028 cumec.