Soca TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION ‘Transportation means the movements of the sportation engineering is a branch of civil sd construction of roads, railways, People and materials from one place to another, engineering which deals with the study, design bridges, tunnels, Waterways, seaways and air-ways, ‘A good system of transportation is very essential for the rapid economic, caltural growth, of a country. As blood transportation through arteries of the body is essential jorthe human welfare, so also a similar good system of transportation is essential for national welfare. For rapid growth of a country, good net work of communication is essential. It is the tuck-bone of overall progress of a country, industrial and 8.2 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION (1) Road ways, (2) Rail ways, (3) Water ways, (4) Air ways, (5) Sea ways, (6) Special ways, 1, Road ways : As parks, gardens, open spaces are the ‘lungs’ so also roads are ‘arteries’ of he city Communication among other parts of the country is only possible through roads, They provide a channel for movement of people and goods between various centres ofthe city. Roads can be used by all types of vehicles such as bullock carts, carriages, rickshaws, cycles, Scooters, jeeps, cars, buses, lorries etc. There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one place to another. But this flexibility in particular in railways is not possible. Roads can lead to any remote places and farm products can be brought to market, They help in the growth of trade and other economic activities of the country. In emergencies such aS accidents, the injured person can be rushed to the hospital by way of roads only. During floods and draughts, roads are found to be a great boon in transferring the basic commodities ‘ficiently. They are equally useful during movements of the defence force. They help to Taintain law and order within the country. In short, roadways are essential for well - being of the nation, 2. Railways : The railways are useful for Jong distance joumeys, They carry heavy and bulky materials, They are called permanent ways since the stee! rails are laid permanently ‘long the route on which the train runs. Now-a-days underground railways so called tubeways ae coming into practice.ie Basic Civil Engineering isand steamers. These arc the cheapes, ic, They also carry large volume of 5 more time. 3. Water-ways : The transport on water is by boa! form of transport anv! include navigation om rivet, ines pe 3 The tra on is very slow and ere! a nc, ional icalatah es helicopters. air crafts, Jet planes etc. Is the : ek ransport of perishable Foods and valuabe i nsportation of armies and weapons and to draughts. They require constructions etc, Hence, the cost of construction wr air-travels, but suitable for shor, 4, Air-ways : These include fastest method of travel. They are useful for i goods. They are very useful during war times 101710 z, floods and supply of essential commodities during famines floo al buildings, hangars of run. ways, control tower, fermi , Joons are also used fo and maintenance is high. The ball ane ss through seas and oceans from one harbour to 5, Sea-ways : They transport the good 0 See ean by hips, boats and steamers. They consume more tine They also carry large volume of bulky goods. They require constructions of ports, docks, harbours, break- waters, light-houses etc. 6. Special ways : (a) Ropeways and Cableways : These are cable cars and carriages, They run through overhead cables and ropes hung between two short distance stations. They a men and materials in hilly or mountainous area. They are generally used for transportation of are also useful to carry coals, mine ores, sand etc. ‘These are generally adopted when the usual methods of transportations are not possible. (b) Beltconveyer : These are used for transportation of mine-ores, coals, grains etc. They are also suitable for the movement of the people in crowded parts of the city. (c) Pipe lines : The pipe lines are useful for transport of liquid and gases, petroleum products, water and sewage etc. 8.3 ROAD DEVELOPMENT A study of road development is of great interest to the highwa i a 'y engineers. Some of the events can be stepping stones for the development of roads all ovei it T the wor The World Scene — same a snd Roads : The earliest record is that of ‘road-way’ 1000 m long and 20 m wide fie fia zs Sain by the Egyptian King Cheops (C 2723 - 2563 B.C.) for carrying the lise Stonesand a ne his Great Pyramid at Giza. The cause-way was built with broken Rela vs = of tiles or bricks over a sandy soil. The Persian King Darius (522 - 486 lone 'y arterial roads the most notable being the Persian Royal Road 2400m 2. Roman Roads : (3 a 2312 BC- 294 . i the construction of Toads. For them roads Bo) Romans were pioneers as well as connoisseurs 0 Th Primarily a military importance for the movement of their army and chari . OLS. ey con: . Britain, Egypt and Africa and val structed extensive network of roads from Rome to Italy to Rome”. Wi ing 7: . ‘ome”. Without such huge 'g 78000 km. This gave rise to the legend “all roads lead network : the Roman Empire could not have been held toge®2 Engineering mgeeceraton EP Gravel and brickbats in lime Concrete 25 to 40cm thick fi SO5FS1-]— Broken stones in lime + mortar 25 to 40 em thick Total thickness 0.75 to 1.2m Hard stratum Lage flat stones in lime wna ° f e jortar 1 10 to 20 em thick / ~—___ t 4$m Fig. 8.1 : Typical Cross-section of Roman Road (312 B.C.) Fest2 mene we flat formation was made to a depth till a hard stratum was obtained. Over this. one or two layers of large flat stones were laid in lime mortar at the bottom. The i this bottom layer was about 10 to 20 cm. This layer was presumably for water ss. Vertical kerb stones were placed at the edges of the pavement to provide for lateral ‘ond layer of rubble in lime mortar was placed over the bottom course upto a | gkckness of 25 to 40 cm. Another layer of lime concrete with locally available large size ick bats mixed in lime mortar was laid to a thickness of 25 to 40 cm forming a hard manent mass. Lastly the top course was laid with large dressed stones set and embedded in [xe mortar to a thickness of about 10 to 15 cm. See Fig. 8.1. viously the construction of five layers of Roman roads proved to be much stronger ssidereble, By such novel means the Roman roads have lasted for nearly 2000 years. A road Jrown as Appian Way built in 312 B.C. was about 570 km long. 3, French Roads : Pierre Tresaguet (1716 - 1796) developed an improved method of rad construction in France in 1764. A layer of large foundation stones 15 to 18 cm thick was Biden edges by hand over the prepared convex formation with a cross-slope of | in 45. Atthe large kerb stones were laid so as to provide lateral stability. The interstices were filled ‘ith smaller stone chippings. Over this, another layer of 15 to 18 cm thick stones was laid. This arrangement provides the essentials-an impervious surface and a dry bed. Finally, the top Lyeris laid with 7.5 em thick stones over the impervious surface and levelled to get the cross- slope of 1 in 45 as before. The overall thickness was very much less than the Roman roads. During the regime of Napolean Bonapart (1800 - 1814) major development took place in eaee chiefly for military purposes. A typical cross-section of Tresaguet road is shown in ig. 8.2. 4. British Roads : Thomas Telford (1757 - 1834) started his work in early 19th century. He also believered in using heavy foundation stones over the hard stratum so as to keep the toad foundation firm. He insisted on providing a definite cross-slope for the top sutface of the Pavement by varying the thickness of foundation stones. See Fig. 8.3.Basle Civil Engineerin 0 4 15 to 18 cm large stones 7.5 em small stone 15 to 18 cm foundation one Linas Convéx ae stone Cross slope Come Ik 6m Fig. 8.2 : Typlcal cross-section of Tresaguet Rond (1775 - A.D). em clean gravel 5 com angular broken stone 10cm angular Thick small ‘broken stone Foundation of hard packed stones on egdes (varying thickness) Fig. 8.3 : Typical cross-section of Telford Road (1803 A.D.). The construction consists of laying the foundation of hand packed stones of thickness 15.5 to 22 cm on edges over the prepared flat formation, The stones of lesser thickness (15.5 cm) were placed towards the edges and stones of larger thickness (22 cm) were placed towards the centre. These foundation stones of varying thickness provide the cross-slope designed by Telford. The voids are filled with stone chippings. The central portion of about 3 m width is covered with angular broken stones in two layers 10cm and 5 cm thick respectively. The remaining side portions of about 1.5 m width are filled and compacted with small broken Stones 15 cm thick and levelled to give a cross-slope of 1 in 45. Finally over these, a binding layer 4 cm thick is laid using clean gravel, John Macadam (1756 - 1836) : He put forward an entirely new method of road Construction. He was the first person to suggest that heavy foundation stones are not at all necessary to be placed at the bottom layer. He stated that if the lowermost portion of the Pavement is preserved in a dry state, it will carry any weight without any sinking, and that construction became very popular far and wide. His method of construction has beem adopted 'y various countries with slight modification. A typ) i facadam ros shown in Fig, 8.4. . A typical cross-section of M:ransportation Engineering 35 5 em thick layer of 2.5 cm stone 25 em thick 10 cm thick layer Pavement (becomes impervious under traffic) Cross-slope 1 in 36 Ee > 10 cm thick layer NY ‘of stones (max size 7.5 cm) Cross slope | in36 Convex 3s Formation k———_. 6m — Fig. 8. + Typical cross-section of Macadam Road (1827 A.D.). Madar epee ope Stone foundation by two 10 em thick layers of 75 mm broken stones on the prep: ‘eX Tormation with a cross-slope of | in 36. A finishing 5 cm thick [ayer consisting of 2.5 cm angular stones was laid, compacted and levelled to obtain the same cross-slope of | in 36, The surface was allowed to get consolidated latter by traffic to produce a smooth hard impervious layer. 5, Further Development : Macadam road construction gained recognition asa scientific mtthed of construction. It was followed by various countries with slight improvement. Some of the improved methods based on his construction are still in use and are known after his ame, For example, Water Bound Macadam (WEM) roads, bitumen bound macadam and penetration macadam etc. The next development was the cement concrete roads. Though they are very stable, durable and suitable for heavy traffic, their initial cost is very high and as such they are not being layely adopted in our country at present, The only solution is to adopt the construction of low cost roads. Hence, the best way is to use the locally available and cheapest materials for construction. In this respect, soil stabilized roads seem to be the remedy for the construction of low cost roads. The details of the construction methods for these roads have been given in Art. 8.5, The Indian Scene 1. Ancient Roads : Existence of highways called Mahapathas is mentioned in Rig Veda. The excavation at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro reveal that even in 3500 BC streets were neatly planned. The principal streets of about 9m wide run regularly in North and South directions (grid « iron pattern). The standard width of road followed in the Mauryan empire have been recorded in Kautilya’s Artha Shastra. The present day Grand Trunk Road follows more of less the old track of Raja Marga of the Mauryans. The Raja Marga (High ways) were not less than six ‘dandas’ ie, 9 m or nearly three lanes traffic. Raja Margas were. aligned East- West lo get the roads purified by the sun's rays, while the short roads were aligned North- South, The shopping toads were 7 m wide and foot-paths were 2 m wide. The roads running around the village called ‘Mangal Vithi? were reserved for priests. The roads were a novelty in the world at that time and they are a dream even to modem highway engineers. Further there Were contrivances to dispose of rubbish which are lacking in many Indian roads today. Excavations carried out at Patliputra and Taxila show advance type of road construction. The famous Chinese traveller Hiven Tsang (700 A.D.) speaks highly about the network of theBasic Civil Engine, ering 26 \d provided with rest houses for travel i vere planted with trees an se Indian roads. The roads were pl a igrims. , and eee Roads in Medieval Period (upto 168 century) + There was sau development of . Roads eae werce, Some important trunk FOULeS were constructed stich as ftom Pune tg trade and commerce. to Rameshwaram, Surat to Goa ete. Roag derabad, ezwada, Calicut derabad, Hyderabad (o Bezwada, n : ; : niet also received adequate attention and was pursued with great vigour during cons on also re a Toth century Vijayanagar Empire. ; ; 43, Roads in Mughal Period (1526 - 1707 A.D.) + During the Mughal period severa highways were constructed. They were for quick transportation of men, materials and defence. purposes, Some of the roads were from Patna (0 Kabul, Delhi to Surat, Delhi to Golconda and Golconda to Bijapur etc. 4, Roads in Pre-Independ ence Period (till 1947) : Atthe beginaing of British Rule, the conditions of roads were very bad. It was in 1828 that Lord William Bentick attempted to connect Calcutta (now Kolkata) with other provinces and a road from Bombay (now Mumbai) Agra was also commenced. With the initiative of Lord Dalhousie (1848 - 56), the 2400 km long Calcutta - Peshawar Grand Trunk Road was completed. 5. Roads in Post-Independence Period (After 1947) : Many arterial roads such as National Highways, State Highways, Major and Minor District Roads connecting major cities, industrial towns, posts etc. have been constructed after post-independence period. The road networks have also been supplemented with Express Highways to keep pace with the requitement of uninterrupted movement of fast moving vehicles along the arterial roads. Through the various plans, the country is trying to achieve all round development of roads, with special emphasis on village roads, which are the arteries of our country. Road transport has been growing consistently over the years. It is clear that the road developments have a major role to play in the economic growth of the country. 8.4 ELEMENTS OF ROAD STRUCTURE 1. Right of Way or Land Width : Right of way is the width of highway between the boundary lines of the property abutting it. It is privilege of use of a way acquired by traffic bye laws or usage. It is also called as total land width acquired to accommodate cross-sectional elements required now and then and in near future and also land for borrowing earth for embankment. In addition it can also include adjacent land if any, for parking, road side amenities: and storage of road materials and equipment. When the road surface is raised abov® the surrounding ground level, itis called Road in Embankment, see Fig. 8.5 and when it rena below the surrounding ground level, itis called Road in Cutting, See Fig. 8.6. and T#ble ‘ judes the 4 i Roadway or Formation Width : It is the total width of the road which ine width of carriage way or pavement and width of two shoulders one on either side. 3, Shoulders : These are the porti oe _ portions of the road ways between the outer dB is pavement and inside edges of the side-slopes in embankment or inside edges of the site oo in cutting. Depending upon the type of road they are constructed with earth, compacted 2jon Engineering sranaporst a7 cecback dance ot border controls C1 fe Rotdmargin pee Set back distance ot border controls ~ Road margin st + a Shoulder Carrisge-way —»t 4 Ve “town Right of way Side-drain Overall width between building lines. —__ a <———__ Overall width between contol ines | Fig. 8.5 : Cross-section of Road in Embankment. Setback distance or border controls, ‘Set back distance or border controls Road Boundary Formstion Level or top level of subgrade Right of way Over-all width between control fines. Fig. 8.6 : Cross-section of Road in Cutting. or asphalt. They prevent the entry of moisture from the edges and also prevent side slopes from: damages by erosion. They provide stability to the carriage way. They serve as emergency lane. They also serve as service lanes for vehicles that have broken down. They provide space forerecting toad signals. They should be stable and have different colour than that of pavement The surface of the shoulders should be rougher than the traffic lanes so that vehicles are iscouraged to use the shoulders as regular traffic lanes. Turfing on shoulders can be done on Mural roads. Maintenance of the shoulders is a must. The width of the shoulders should be Adequate, The shoulder width recommended by Indian Road Congress (ILR.C.) is 2.5 m wie ‘minimum of 1.75 m on either side of the carriage way. The shoulders are also given eee : Slope to drain off the rain water quickly towards the edges. As per LR.C. the Sava ‘one " be given to the paved surfaces is | in 24 to 1 in 48 and that for earth surfaces it is 1 it Ving,Basic Civil Engineering 4. Carriage way or Pavement Width : It is paved width of road viz asphalt pavement, concrete pavement ete. It comes directly in contact with the traffic. It should be durable, stable, water-proof, non-slippery. The carriage way width depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes, The carriage way meant for one lane of traffic movement is called a traffic lane. The necessary width of the lane is found on the basis of traffic capacity width of the vehicle, driver's comfort and the minimum side clearance needed for the safety. Considering all these, a width of 3.75 m is needed for a road having single lane for vehicles of maximum width which is 2.44 m as per LR.C. specifications. A width of 3.5 m per lane is found to be sufficient for carriage ways having two or more lanes. Based on the above information and traffic data, the number of lanes required can be assessed. The total width of carriage way required is then calculated as per the I.R.C. recommendations given in Table 8.1. Table 8.1 : Width of Carriage-way as per ILR.C. Number of Lanes Width of Carriage way 1. Single lane 3.75 m 2. Two-lane, without raised kerbs 7.0m 3. Two-lanes, with raised kerbs 15m 4, Multi-lane pavements 3.5 m per lane On important routes, an intermediate carriage-way of 5.5 m width may be provided, instead of regular two-lane width. The width of single lane on village roads may be limited to 3 m. The width of carriage way is increased on horizontal curves. 5. Kerbs : Kerbs or curbs are provided longitudinally on either side of the carriage way usually to guide traffic. These indicate the boundaries between the pavement and shoulders, or sometimes traffic island or foot path. See Fig. 8.14 and 8.30. It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban roads. Kerbs are of various designs. They are divided into three groups based on their functions. (i) Low or Mountable Kerbs : They encourage traffic to remain in the through traffic anes yet allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty in case of any emergency: The height of such kerbs is 7.5 cm to 10 cm above the pavement edge. (ii) Semi-Barrier type Kerbs : The height of these kerbs is about 15 cm above the pavement edge. These are provided where pedestrian traffic is high. These prevent encroachment of parking vehicles and it is possible to drive over them with some difficulty. (iii) Barrier type Kerbs : These are provided in built-up areas adjacent to foot path with considerable pedestrian traffic. The height of these kerbstones is about 20 cm above the pavement edge. A fourth category of kerbs is also used in our country, These are provided between the Pavement edge and shoulders on rural roads. Their primary function is to provide later confinement and stability to the granular base course and flexible pavements. They are at the same level as carriage way edge and hence, are known as Submerged Kerbs.hie jineering rransportaion Engine ss 6, Traffic Separators or Dividing Islands: These are . A separator is 0 prevent headon collision b Central medians, The main function etwecn vehi ing i ite di of traffic . : chicles moving in opposite di in adjacent lanes. They also help to segregate traffic and to protect the roleeviane, “en eparators may be medians, park ‘i Area separators may + Park way strips or dividing ‘vidi of traffic Mow. These should be 8 m to 14 m wide, calnt nds fridoga two Ng trees on the roadsides, These shrubs reduce the head light directions shrubs iS done glare during 0 7. Road Margins t These are land widths on both the side of road ways. These are ee analy Present and future requirements for the development of road. ‘he various elements that include in the road margins are foot-paths, eycle-tracks, parking Janes, side slopes. berms, guard rails ee, (i) Foot-paths or Pedestrian ways : These are also known as side-walks. These are wided when the pedestrian as well as vehicular traffic are very high. Its function is to provide protection to the pedestrians and to minimise the accidents, Side walks are provided qneither side of the road. The minimum width should be 1.5 m and may be increased considering the volume of traffic. It should be as smooth as possible so as to induce the pedestrians to walk onthe foot-path. The cross-fall should be 2% to 3%. (ii) Cycle tracks or Slow lanes : These are provided when the volume of cycle traffic on road is heavy. The minimum width of cycle track should be 2 m and it can be increased by fm for each additional cycle track. (ii) Parking lanes : These are provided in urban roads to allow kerb parking. These hould be at least 3m wide. )) Side slopes : These are the slopes provided to the sides of the earth work of the road pembankment or in cutting. These are meant to keep earthwork stable. The necessary earth | sequired for the embankment is obtained from the borrow pits. The slopes are 1.5: 1] or2: 1 in ent and 0.5: 1 or 1: | in cutting. But the slopes should be as flat as possible for the purpose of safe traffic movement and also for aesthetic reasons. Turfing on side slopes can be done on rural roads. (v) Berms : The portions of the land width left in between the toe of the road embankment and the inner edges of the side drains or the portions of the land width in between the top edges ofthe road in cuttin; g and the nearest edges of the spoil banks on either side are called berms. These could be used for planting trees on the road side. This planting of trees on road side is called Road Arboriculture. These provide the following purposes. (a) to provide beautiful landscape. (b) to provide shade and pleasure to the road user. (©) to act as wind breaker for adjacent fields. _ Inurban areas the planting of trees is done in the reserve space or in grass ways. This is mainly to provide attractive landscape. Hence, trees of ornamental or flowering species should Selected. Trees are planted normally at about 12 m apart longitudinally. Also it is desirable that the trees should be at least 12 m away from the centre of the road or carriage way.eb Basic Civil Engineering (si) Guard rails and Guard stones : These are provided at the edges of the shoulder when the road is constructed in embankment so that the vehicles are prevented from Tunning off the embankment especially when the height of embankments is more than 3 m. The guard stones are placed at c/c and painted with black and white strips. When the embankments are more than 6 m guard rails are provided. 8. Crown : It is the centre of the road and is the topmost point on the road. 9. Camber : Road camber may be defined as the gradient of the line joining the crown (highest point) of the pavement to the edge. It is also called cross slope or crossfall of the road. Its provided to draw off the rain water or surface water as quickly as possible. By keeping the surface dry, it increases the life of the road, skid resistance. stability and safety for vehicles running at high speed. The camber is given a parabolic, elliptic or straight line shape. The values of camber recommended by the LR.C. for different types of roads are as follows : For cement concrete road 1 in $0 to 1 in 60 For thin bituminous road 1 in 40 to 1 in 50 For water bound macadam, gravelroad_ 1 in 33 to] in 40 For earth road 1 in 25to 1 in 33 10. Super elevation : On curves, the outer edge of the road is raised or elevated above the inner edge to counteract the centrifugal force and to prevent the skidding or over-toppling of vehicles while passing on the curve. The amount by which the outer edge is raised above the inner edge is known as super elevation or cant. Table 8.2 gives sizes of Road way width and Right of way or Land width according to the standard laid by Indian Road Congress (LR.C.). 8.4 STRUCTURE OF ROAD PAVEMENT The main function of a pavement of a road is to distribute the concentrated loads so that the supporting capacity of the sub-grade soil is not exceeded. With this purpose in view, the road-structure has been composed of a number of layers properly treated and compacted and placed one above the other. See Fig. 8.7. In general, the structure of road pavement consists of the following. (1) Sub-grade, (2) Sub-base, (3) Base-coarse, (4) Base-coat, (5) Wearing course. 1. Sub-grade : The sub-grade is the foundation soil (whether embankment or cutting) on which the pavements rest and to which the entire load of the structure and the load of the waffic is ultimately transferred. It is therefore, total load carrying portion of the structure. Generally, the top 30 cm to 50 cm portion of the embankment or cutting is denoted as sub- grade. Itis composed of coarse grained soil which should be compacted with necessary moisture or if necessary cement is added to increase the bearing capacity. It is then prepared to the required gradient and camber. The top level of the subgrade or formation level should be 5010 80 cm. above the high flood level or sub-soil water table at the site to prevent damage to the pavement from capillary water and surface water,12 Top layer Bottom layer ment. Fig. 8.7 : Structure of Road Pave 2. Sub-base course : It is also known as soling course. It is placed immediately above the sub-grade soil and is compacted with layers of graded gravel, mixed with fine grained soil. Its thickness varies from 20 cm to 25 cm. If the wheel-loads are heavy and the supporting the total thickness of the crust will be comparatively large capacity of the sub- grade is low, vely la and in that case, the sub-base must be provided. The sub-base courses are economical since they minimise the cost of costly subgrades and also protects the over-lying base coarse from clay and silt entering into them from subgrade 3, Base-coarse : It forms the proper foundation. It is composed of broken stones or granular materials mixed with binders. It is intended to serve as load distributing medium. The concentrated load is spread uniformly on the subgrade. The thickness of this coarse depends on the nature of traffic. For flexible pavements (Asphalt road) it is 12 to 15 cm thick, for rigid pavement (Concrete road) it is still lesser. 4. Base coat : It consists of hard stones which lies between the base-course and the wearing course. It transmits the wheel load over large area. The thickness may vary from 8m to 10cm. 5. Wearing coarse : It is also known as surface course. It is the upper most layer of the toad. It takes traffic directly. It may be mixture of earth, stone chips, gravel, bituminous layer. concrete layer etc. Some times it may be wood, rubber or metal. The wearing coarse should be sod show a a a to wear and tear of the traffic, It should have good riding surface, a prevent water accumulation and dust nuisance. 8.5 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS The roads ification i belo can be classification in several ways. The various classifications are a8 8i¥" a5. Scat 5.1 Classification Based on Materials of Construction (ON « aiuminwes one Rotds, 2) Gravel Roads, (3) Water Bound Macadam Roads (WB 24s, (5) Cement Concrete Roads, (6) Soil Stabilized Roads-Engineering (— : ! fm : Right of way 30m to60m ——___Sidesdrain_»i onal or State Highway in Embankment in Rural Are2- Sidesdrain Fig. 8.15 ; Cross-section of Natl 2. State Hi; ‘ igh-Ways : The the important « i re the main roads running within the states. They connect owns, and cities 8 Of the state with national high ways and highways ©atin Engineering po rats ve mn nati . pa ommunication system of the state. The Construction and maintenance are usually carried ic ofthe ernment by taking grants fro state 201 m central governs . w pe rota. a8 sown nig 814 815 ang aml The cross-sections of S,H. Original Ground Slope Readway88m ——_ yi Ny, GL Shoulder | he Camiage way 7m GLAS fig. 8.16 : Cross-section of National or State Highway in Partial Cutting in Hilly Area. 3. Major District Roads : These roads connect all the districts, all production areas and sarkets with state high way or national high way or railways, They also further connect the Taluka places within the district. They have a single metalled lane of traffic. They have modem type of surfaces. ‘The cross-section of single lane M.D.R. in embankment is shown in Fig. 8.17 and in cutting in hilly area in Fig. 8.18 respectively. me Rosd way9m > Shoulder Shoulder! > a Carriage way 3.75 m —ot i} camber Crom Road Boundary Fig. 8.17 : Cross-section of Major District Road in Embankment in Rural Area. 4, Other District Roads : These are also called as minor district roads. They possess Much importance because they provide direct link to the villages and serve a large rural Population, as such they should be motorable throughout the year. They should have good Metalled surface and proper drainage. They establish connections with major district roads and state high ways. The construction and maintenance are carried by the district authorities ° Zilla Parishad. (Z.P), The cross-section of single lane O.R.D. is shown in Fig. 8.19. be=e Basle Civil Engineering fe Road way 4.75 m_ 7} Original Ground Level Spoil bank Cutting in Hilly Area. 15 m-»; Should Side slope +} Shoulder'<"Carriage way 3.7 } Camber C7" Sie Fig. 8.18 : Cross-section of Major District Road in ba —— Road Margin. ——>}«————_ Roadway 7.5m | suoatier Shouldes aot fp caminge way3.75m >} Desirable 8 o 10m ——>! Sidedrain 4_Siterdin___ ight of way 15m to 25m Fig, 8.19 : Cross-section of Other District Road in Embankment in Rural Area. 5. Village Roads : These are for the village use. These connect the villages with each other and also towns nearby. These are generally stabilised earth roads but the metal surface is preferable to serve more useful purpose. The construction and maintenance are carried by the local district boards. The cross-sections of single lane V.R. are shown in Fig. 8.20.9 Engineering ote ato jfication According to the Area they Traverse (1) Rural Roads, (2) Urban Roads. 1, Rural Rosds : These are village roads. Th 3. Urban Rosds or Streets : The urban roads are further classifies (DESPRS Highways. (ii) Free ways, ii) Arterial Roads, (ix) Secondary or Sub-areerial Reads, (v) Collector Roads, (vi) Local Roads, (vii) Other Roads - (a) By pass Roads, (b) Ring Roads, (i Express Highways : A new categeri - Express Highways is suggested in the Thitd ood Development Plan (1981 ~ 2001) (20 Year Road Plan). These are meant to function as guided arterial highways for the movement of moving motor traffic under free flow condition iatig cetepolitan cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, They have the highest design geod They connect major centres of taffic generation and intended to serve trips of medium soi long length benween large residential areas, industrial or commercial concentrations and ge central business districts (C.B.D.). Two or three such express highways are necessarily to fe provided around big cities of modem days to face the tremendous growth of traffic, As per the restrictions, the speed of the vehicles should never be less than specified ninimum limit while travelling on the express highway, They are therefore, restricted only for very fast moving vehicles. Parking, loading. un-loading of goods and pedestrian traffic are not permitted on these express highways. They have at least four lanes and are generally provided with devided carriage way, controlled access, grade separators at intersections and fencing. 555 ese are described above, See Fig. 8.20, as follows Express highways are designed with easy gradients and smooth curves so as (0 carry tnffic speedily and safely. These are comparable next to railways in cost and carrying capacity of waffic. These are originated from the German Autobahnen and the Italian Autostrade. (ii) Free-ways : These are special routes meant to carry fast moving traffic and therefore, éesigned with high speed standard of alignment, clear visibility, wide carriage way, easy gradient aad smooth curves etc. There is no access from adjacent properties as a result full width of free-way is made available for fast moving vehicles without any obstructions. The free ways function as arterial Toads passing around the city with controlled access. They also act as main entrances and exits 38 such they form a part of major road system. (ii) Arterial Roads : These are that roads which connect the town to a state highway or national highway. They pass through the city limits and carry a large amount of traffic from ne part to the other part of the town. These aré meant solely for fast moving traffic and therefore, should be planned as straight as possible, avoiding sharp curves. Change in direction should be accompanied by smooth curves. Significant city travel such as between central business district and outlying residential areas or between major sub-urban centres takes place Sn this system. They should not enter into the heart of the city at any cost, should have very ‘ew road junctions which should be controlled by roundabouts or fly-overs. They should have EBasic Civil Engineering 0-20 i ildings, loading or unloading areas, parking places an, wo acon sb ont of i te mae mo py cea squares, erecting public and semi-public buildings at the ee ae thi rough traffic and encourage speedy transaction by removing all types of traffic barriers. The width of these roads should not be less than 25 m to 30 m. ; ; (iv) Secondary or Sub-arterial Roads : Also known as major roads they run within the limits of the town connecting its important centres. They are designed for slow moving traffic over a short distance. The sub-arterial roads act as a link between the arterial roads and local roads. (») Collector Roads : These roads are intended to collect and distribute the traffic from and to local roads and also for providing an access to arterial or sub-arterial roads. They may be located at residential neighbourhood, business and industrial areas. Full access from abutting properties is usually allowed on these roads. Only during peak hours, there may be any parking restrictions. (vi) Local Roads : These roads known as minor roads are meant to provide approach to the buildings, offices, shops, schools, colleges etc. There should be no through traffic here and so the local roads are not linked with arterial roads, These roads need not be straight but can follow the contours of the land. These roads are used for residential units, shopping and business centres. They therefore, form the pocket or princint roads mainly to serve the non-vehicular traffic. The width of these roads should not be less than 7 m to 10 m. (vii) Other Roads : (a) By pass Roads : When the main or through roads pass through the congested areas of the town, there will be considerable reduction in the speed of the vehicles and the smooth flow of the traffic is largely affected resulting loss of time and fuel. In orderto maintain the smooth and speedy flow of traffic, bypass roads are constructed. See Fig. 8.21. ‘By Pass Roag Through Road -~--~-~ Fig. 8.21 : Bypass Rond. and led as loop roads through which main traffic can pass from one These are also call again join on the mai ain road on j « nvaidi: Sane aor development of the ian the other side thus avoiding the congested areTransportation Enginecrin @ 8-21 (b) Ring Road i IS: These roads are j see Fig. 8.22. The outer rin, s are in the form of circles or rings and hence the wel oe 8 Toad i : acts as a by-pass road for th 'S meant to direct the through traffic from the town ant 10 divert the local from the throw, traffic approaching the town, ‘The inner ring Fa sngestiOn of the large towns, ugh traffic. These ring roads help to reduce the traffic CO Fig. 8.22 : Ring Roads.444 Superelevation In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the vehticle fo overturn or skid, the outer cdge of the pavement is raised with respect to the innet edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve. This transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as ‘guperelevation’ or cant or banking.>The rate of superelevation, ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to the horizontal width. From Fig. 4.20 it may be seen that the outer edge of the pavement is raised by NL = E and the rate of perelevation, e may be expressed as: e= NU etn ML In practice the inclination @ with the horizontal is very small and the value of tan @ seldom exceeds 0.07. Therefore the value of than 6 is practically equal to sin ® su . Eas , . Hence, e = tan 9 = sin 0 = B which is measured as the ratio ‘of the relative \ elevation of the outer edge, E to width of pavement, B. This’ is more convenient to measure in the field. Ife is the superelevation rate and E is the total superelevated height of outer edge, the otal rise in outer edge of the pavement with respect to the inner edge = NL = E = eB. Fig, 4.20 Superelevated pavement sectionWAYS: W GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGH’ M2 i urve of radi falysis‘of superetevation ving on a ica 0 lug The forces acing om the vehicle while moving) OF TOE re: he forces acting in Fig. 4.21. T inctres at speed of v msec are shown in Fig. ae ally onwards through “ Wv/pR) acting horiz0 val force P= (Wel ‘OUEh the (a) the centtifugal force centre of geavity, CG through the CG. ically downwards 1H) the weight W of the vehicle acting vertically 0) the weight W vement ‘counteract; and the pavement ing ween the wheels ° (©) the fictional force developed eo ice towards the centre of the curve tuansversely along the paver | veo Fig. 4.21 Analysis of superclevation Ze ceutityal free developed is thus oppose! by friction developed between the t force of gravity corresponding value of (i) the ges and the pavement surface and (i) a component of the PcosQ = Wsin6 +E, + Fp 13 vilibrium js Teached when the fall Values of the frictional forces are St Maxitoum value of (f Rp) and the coeffi iti ay ie of lateral friction and Ra and Ry are the Poosg = Wsind+£(R4 Rg) le © Wsin0+ £0 cog Pos -tsingy Wsino+ ey Dividing by W cos 9 8+P sing) cos 6 Pa we ftane) 5 toseDESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 113 A : P tanO+f the centrifugal ratio, = = ies Ww 1-ftan0 the value of coefficient of lateral friction, ‘fis taken as 0.15 for the design of horizontal ge 620 A 42 2), The value of tan @ or transverse slope due to superelevation wey exceeds 0.07 oF about I/1S, Hence the value of (Ftan 0) is about 0.01. the value of (1 ~ f tan Q) in the above equation is equal to 0.99 and may be apposed to 1.0. Pp ‘qherefores W 7 imetfoert Ply¥ But wooo -therefore the general equation for design of superetevation is given by: r- & ape ¢ x (Eq. 4.10) = rate of superelevation = tan 6 f= design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15 = speed of the vehicle, m/sec R radius of the horizontal curve, m g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 mise Ifthe speed of the vehicle is represented as V kamph, the Eq. 4,10 may be written as follows: ape 27y NE 9.8R 127R ie. +f = Eq. 4.11 e 127R (Eq. 4.11) Here V = speed, kmph R_ = radius of horizontal curve, m elevation design equations (Eq 4.10 and 4.11), the limited to 7 % or 0.07 and the minimum value of ‘ design of highways (except expressways) is 0.15. acting the centrifugal foree and Jb higher than the / It may be noted that in super Raxinum value of superelevation is ‘tal fiction coefficient, Faken for tus the contribution of lateral friction in countel Providing stability 10 the vehicle negotiating horizontal curves is mul Sontribution of the superelevation. ot possible to provide centrifugal force fully. a turn should some intersections it is n friction counteracts the ct ¢ speed of vehicle negotiating In some situations, particularly at Swperclevation and in such cases the {Bs without superelevation, the allowabl Testricted to the condition,GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS us ; ve { AIR Ie (qd, on vie JOT 14.12) ative auperclevation C6) i, cerned wait should be Hiniteg ©) instead of ¢ jg Tt as possible that at some intersections, aM mavondable In sich cases, the speed af the canennied ¢ the negative superctevation at the infersee j the above equations Tm on three factor, oma horizontal curve depend - aoe Wann Gi) the coefficient Of lateral fore in order to assess the requineg of the road and the is taken as 0.15, the superelevation ‘e” required of the curve R, (ii) speed of the vehiele tance The @ frchon or the Transverse skul res superelevation ¢, the speed as taken as equal to the d minimum value of transverse skid resistance, f for desiggn par Example 4.8 The radius of a horizontal circular curve is 100 m, The design specd is 50 kmpy coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15, (a) calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop (b) calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superclevation is provided. Solution Given, V=SOkmph or v= 22 asec, R= 100m, f= 15 (2) Superelevation is given by the relation (Bq 4.10 & 4.1 ep= Ve aR 127k 2 c+0.15 = aan =0917 © = 0.197-0.15=0,047 Therefore sup erelevati ; 0047 ortin212 THe when fall lateral ftiction is developed is 7 supereleyatio, a . lectease in radi valton needed increases with increase coe of lateral friction «P Tom hoa {oF 9 constant or maxinium value Of the maximum allo i © practical view point i wable Superelevation to avoid very high it al be necessary e lues of ‘e’, 1S '0 cater for mixed traffic, consisting of fastDESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT. 15 wily loaded tucks and bullock carts a nt gravity of the loaded vehicle will be relatively high and it will Tes to move ona road with a high rate of supetelevation. Because fusal fore will be negligibly small, particularly in the case of we danger of toppling of such loaded slowy moving vehicles, ‘of maximum allowable superelevation ” ° maxinsim lint of superelevation in plain and rolling terrains and i S70 percent oF 0.07 taking such mixed traffic into consideration. 1] roads not bound by snow a maximum superelevation up to 10 percent has i. On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it may be the neximum superelevation to 40 percent, keeping in view the nsmuction and that of tuning movements of vehicles, \ayferdlevation considerations it is necessary to have a minimum cross slope to urface water, If the calculated superelevation from Eq 4.9 or 4.10 works to or less than the camber of the road surface, then the minimum ‘ation to be provided on horizontal curve may be limited to the camber of the Thus afier the elimination of the crown a uniform cross slope equal to the ned from outer to inner edge of pavement at the circular curve. In very fet curves with large radius, the centrifugal force developed will be very such cases the normal camber may be retained on the curves. Though this will cause 2 negative superelevation on the outer half of the pavement duc to normal camber (on two-lane roads with two-way traffic), the centrifugal force with this negative superelevation would be considerably less than the iction coefficient on such curves. The IRC recommendation giving the horizontal curves beyond which normal cambered section may be maintained no superelevation is required at horizontal curves, are presented in Table 4.12, for various design speeds and rates of cross slope. Table 4.12 Radii beyond which superelevation is not required « Radius (in metres) of horizontal curve We Design speed oor eamber of (e uv (mph) Fay, [3% [2.5% [2% [17% | \ ~ 20 30 | 60| 70 | 90] 100 25 70 |90 | 110 | 140 | 150 30 700 | 130 | 160 | 200 | 240 35, 140 |_180 | _220 | 270 | 320 40 180 | 240 | 280 | 350 | 420 50 780 [370 | 450 | 330 | 650 60 470 | 620 | 750 |_950 | 1100 30 700 | 950 | 1100 | 1400 | 1700 100 7100 | 1500 | 1800 [2200 | 1600 wb at 4 sien of superelevati tent vehicles ply on the 103 ‘lve of superelevation thus relying more on the Ia is complex problem, as eeds, Providing 2 lower tion would be unsafe for ‘on for mixed traffic conditions d with a wide range of spé iteral frictHIWAYS iG GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HHGIT tion OF the pavemoy dling supereley fast moving vehicles, On the contrary, providing Hp 1, fal see Je cenit alf the maximus hit so as to enmnteraet th ctl be epite friction may be safer for fast moving vehicks tical considerations it iy Fiction may he safer for fi ei Hp Helin the 4, ie convenient fay yl ce and fiom p ‘rn Moving vehicles As a compromise tt evi th mit 1 ¢ he provided sari raat that the superelevation should CE eT ical i ‘eine to TS percent of the design Spee er ll cod, ri buen ra superclevation t Iunuting the maximum super uo here the mayimum allowable value i "i foneg claped en or cin in India from practical consideration, The steps for the design of supe pet the IRC Gundelines) at "fay Aven below Ste superel for 75 percent of design spe, he superclevation is calculated for 75. percent Peed Step (0) The supereleva fig 0.95 v msec or 0.75 V kmph), neglecting the friction, 2 2 (0,75V)’ (0.75v)" gf mF ak no (Bq. 4.13) = 225R eli 7% oF 0.07 the value so obtainey ep Gi Iculated value of ‘e’ is less than i is mates heute of ‘c’ as per Eq 4.13 exceeds 0.07 then provide the maxim, feretlealon equal to 0.07 and proceed with steps (iii) or (iv). Step (iti): Cheek the coefficient of friction developed for the maximum value of © 007 at the full value of design speed, v m/sec or V kmnph, v ap 70.07 i eo or (= (4.414 Af the value of f thus calculated is less than 0,15, safe for the design speed and this is accepted as the either the radius of the horizontal curve has to be | restricted to the safe value which will be less tha Speed oy the allowable speed is calculated as given Step (fe): ‘The allowable Speed or restricted speed (vy misec or Va kmph) at the curve is calculated by considering the design coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum superelevation, ie,, the superelevation of 0.07 i design superelevation increased or the speed has mn the design speed, The rest in step (iy), If not, to be stricted 2 2 ctf = 0.07+4015=027~ Ya _ V2 sk T2IR Caleulate the safe allowable speed, “a = YO22aR = JOTSER sec (Bq, 4.158) Vv or Ya = VOTER tmp (Bq. 4.150) Irth allowable speed above is higher than the design sp eed, then i i UPerclevation of '¢* equal to 0,07. If the allowable Speed is less than the design speed, the Speed is limited to the allowable speed Va kmph calculated above,DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 17 rie allowable speed Vs is less than the | speed limit regulation sign are instal aa Pies. OD important highways, sil erat speed restriction at curves é te re-aligned with a larger radius of ed (See Table 4.13 for recomme si dlesign speed V, appropriate warning sign «10 testtit and repute the speed to Va at S far as possible it is desirable to design the Hence if site conditions permit, the eurve Ciitvature so that the design speed could be twled radius of horizontal curves) © example 49 ~ gqwo lane road with design speed an the rate of superclevation for per ot the pavement be raised with Jc 80 kmph has ho mixed traffic, h respeet to the rizontal curve of radius 480 m, By how much should the outer inet edge, if the width of the rement atthe horizontal cutve is 7,5 m p solution | Given. V= 80 kmph, R= 480 mand pavement width B = 73m | For mixed traffic conditions the superclevation should fully counteract the | cxaifigal fore for 75% of design speed, Therefore using Eq. 4.13, 2 2 = 2? 0.059 f 225R 225x480 Since this value is less than 0.07, the superelevation of 0.059 may be adopted. Toe total width of pavement B = 7.5m | Raising of outer edge with Fespect to the inner edge of pavement, f E = Be =75x0059 = 044m | Example 4.10 | Design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500 m | and speed 100 kmph, | saution | Gies,v= 100 kmph, R= 500 m Fi tor nixed traffic conditions, superelevation is designed for 75 % of design speed, | Therefore using Eq, 4.13, ; : 4 _¥ 100; St = 0.089 DSR 225x500 As the value is greater than the maximum permissible superclevation of 0.07, the “etal superelevation to be provided is restricted to 0.07. Che = Nh, jack for coefficient of lateral friction developed for full speed, V = 100 kml Using Eg. 4.14, 2 V? o7 = an; 27k 127%500 = 0.157~0.07 = 0.087 jon of 0.07. “pdt value is tess than 0.15, the design is soe witha supertevation af 09 _ Meine provide a superelevation of 0.07.WAYS = GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHY tae rhete is a horizontal curve Examp! {of a highway is 80 kph Tee a hrc Of ‘ Pee eerocaty, Safe lr of transverse ce Is certain locahity. Sa be execedcd, cale reretevation of 0,07 is not 10 be cdot cela (b) Tf the maximum sup 7 this horizontal curve as posse’ mavimnum allowable speed on M ancrease the radius Solution 1s - t= Given, V © $0 kmph, R = 200m, / jen for 18 percent of desien speed (ie, 0.75¥ me (a) Superelevation required fo ‘esas 0,75 V kmph), neglecting the friction, using Eq. 4.13, v2 __80? 225R 225x200 (a) Calculate the superelevation Mavimum allowable value of eis tobe limited to 0.07 Chesk for the value of ftction developed with the design speed, use Eq. 4.14, vy = _-007 f 127R, 2 = 80 0.07 = 0.18 127x200 As this value is greater than the maximum aliowable safe friction coefficient of 0.15 and also as the radius cannot be increased, the speed has to be restricted, (b) Determine maximum allowable speed, V, using Bq. 4.15, Ve = ¥27.94R = 74.75 kmph Hence the speed may be restricted to Jess than 74 or say 70 kmph at this curve, Example 4.12 A major District Road with thin bituminow bas horizontal curve of radius 1400 m. Ifthe the superelevation? Discuss, Solution 's pavernent surface in low rainfall ace design speed is 65 kmph, what should te Given, R = 1400 m, V = 65 kinph « 2 2 Using Eq. 4.12, e= Yo. 67 225R 225x1400 9.0134 The superlevation value requced is only 0.0134 Which is less than the nor Fibs slope required to drain off the surface water ‘The recommended camber for ti? bituminous pavement in low rainfall area (Table 4.1) is 2% or 0,02. The radid which no superelevation 1s required for a speed of 60 kmph and 2% camber is p27 ag por the IRC (See Table 4.12). As the radius of the horizontal curve in this 90 1400 m. there is No necessity of providing superclevation: therefore the normal case sof 2% may be retained at the horizontal curve over, check for safety against centrifugal force owe at design speed along with the : superclevation at the outer half of the paveme nt due to the normal camber. pega : Net transverse skid resistance = —~e4 f= 0.0219 15 ; ; : OAs 2 2 gq 4.10. centrifigal ratio = "65 ———._ = 0.024 127R 1271400 vide ag this value of 0.024 is considerably lower than the net transverse skid resistance eg) available at the curve (after allowing for the negative superelevation due to of | camber), this horizontal curve with normal cambered section is quite safe for a speed of 65 kmph.