Levelling oa. pefinrrions (Ref. Fig. 9.1) Levelling. Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is : (1) to find the elevations of given Points with respect to a given Or assumed datum, and (2) to establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with Tespect to a given or assumed datum. The first operation is Tequired to enable the works to be designed while the second Operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane. FIG. 9.1 Level Surface. A level surface is defined as a curved surface which at each point is perpendicular to the direction of gravity-at the “The Surface” of a Still water is uly level surlacs.” Aay surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the tarthis, therefore, a level surface. (257)SURVEYING 258 is a line lying in a_level_surface. plumb line at all points. Jane through a point is a plane int. It is, therefore, perpendicular Level Line. A level line It is, therefore, normal to the Horizontal Plane. Horizontal P tangential to the level surface at that poi to the plumb line through the point. Horizontal Line. It is straight line at a point. It is also perpendicular to Vertical Line. It is a line normal to 2 It is commonly considered to be the line defined by a plumb line. Datum, Datum is any surface to which elevations are hentia The mean sea level affords convenient datum world over, ~~ él evatlons are commonly given as so much above or below sea level. is often more convenient, however, to assume some other datum, s pecially if only the relative elevations of points are required. Elevation. The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum. The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in which the two points lie. Vertical Angle. Vertical angle is an angie between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane. Generally, one of thése lines is horizontal. mong ob eee. tangential to the level line the plumb line. the level line at a point. Ke, Mean Sea Level. Mean sea level is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19 years. Bench Mark. Bench Mark is a relatively permanent poirt of reference whose elevation with respect to some assumed datum is known. It is used either as a starting point for levelling or as a point upon which to close as a check, 9.2, METHODS OF LEVELLING inet Three Principal rethods are used for determining difference in elevation, namely, barometric levelling, trigonometri i and spirit levelling. a iia Barometric levelling. Barometric le phenomenon that difference in SErTION twee is 3 om Honal to the difference in’ atmospheric pressures at “Ties oli A barometer, therefore, may be used and the readings ob: a t different points would yield a measure of the relative elevations of those points.LEVELLING 259 At a given point, the atmospheric pressure does not remain constant in the course of the day, even in the course of an hour. The method is, therefore, relatively inaccurate and is little used in surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory surveys. Trigonometric Levelling (indirect levelling) : Trigonometric or Indirect levelling is the process of levelling in_which the elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field, just as the Jength of any side in any triangle can be computed from proper trigonometric relations. In a modified form called stadia levelling, commonly used in Mapping, both the difference in elevation and the horizontal distance between the points are directly computed from the measured vertical angles and staff readings. Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling) : It is that branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line (perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to determine the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A horizontal plane of sight tangent to level surface at any point is readily established by means of a spirit level or a level vial.. In spirit levelling, a spirit level and a sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances are measured by observing on graduated rods placed on the points. The method is also known as direct levelling. It is the most precise method of determining elevations and the one most commonly used. by engineers. 9.3. LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS The instruments commonly used in direct levelling are : (1) A level (2) A levelling staff. 1, LEVEL The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight. Essentially, a level consists of the following four parts : (a) A telescope to provide line of sight (6) A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal (c) A levelling head (tribrach and trivet stage) to bring the bubble in its centre of run @ A tripod to support the instrument. There are the following chief types of levels : () Dumpy level + (i) Wye (or Y) levelSURVEYING 260 (iii) Reversible level (iv) Tilting level. @® DUMPY LEVEL i » CONSist: The dumpy level originally designed by Gravatt ists of " ed by adjustin, a telescope tube firmly secured in two collars feed Dy Adjusting - * . The modern form screws to the stage carried by the vertical spin ical spindle cast of dumpy level has the telescope tube an i q the top of th in one piece and a long bubble tube is a to Pp e telescope. This form is known as solid PY: 10, 10 __; 5d 2 : (2 ; 1 3. 9 oO 7 8 2 FIG. 92, . DUMPY LEVEL (TROUGHTON AND SIMMES’) 1. TELESCOPE 7. FOOT SCREWS 2 EYEPIECE & UPPER PARALLEL PLATE (TRIBRACH) 3. RAY SHADE 9. DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS 10 BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING SCREWS 1. TRANSVERSE BUBBLE TUBE 4, OBJECTIVE END 5. LONGITUDINAL BUBBLE Tespectively, Fig. by Mis WF Stanley & Co. The name ‘dumpy level’ Originated from the fact that formerly this leve| was Cquipped with an inverting eye-piece and hence was shorter than Wye level of the Same magnifying power. However, modern forms Benerally haye erecting eye-piece so that inverted image of the staff jg visible in the field of view. 9.6 shows a dumpy levelLEVELLING 261 In some of the instruments, a clamp screw is provided to control the movement of the spindle about the vertical axis. Fok small or precise movement, a slow motion screw (or tangent screw) is also provided. FIG. 93 SECTIONAL VIEW OF, A DUMPY LEVEL. 1, TELESCOPE 2 BYE-PIECE 3. RAY SHADE 4. OBJECTIVE END, 5. LONGITUDINAL BUBBLE 6, FOCUSING SCREW 7. FOOT SCREWS 8 UPPER PARALLEL PLATE (TRIBRACH) 9. DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING 10. BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING SCREWS SCREWS. 12 FOOT PLATE (IRIVET STAGE) 13. CLAMP SCREW 13. SLOW MOTION SCREW 15. INNER CONE 16. OUTER CONE 17, TRIPOD HEAD 18, TRIPOD. ‘The levelling head generally consists of two parallel plates with either three-foot screws or four-foot screws. The upper plate is known as tribrach and the lower plate is known as srivet which can be screwed on to a tripod. ‘The advantages of the dumpy level over the Wye level are: (i) Simpler construction with fewer movable parts. (i) Fewer adjustments to be made. . Longer life of the adjustments.SURVEYING 262 (i) WYE LEVEL ‘The essential difference between the dumpy ee and ne Wye level is that in the former case the telescope is fixe to fh spindle while in the Wye level, the telescope is carried in two verte ye? Supports. The Wye support consists of curved clips. the clips ate raised the telescope can be rotated in the Wyes, or 1 love and turned end for end. When the clips are fastened, the tel l]escope is held from turning about its axis by a lug on one of the cl ips. The bubble tube may be attached cither to the telescope or to t stage carrying the wyes. In the former case, the bubble tube must be of reversible type. la a SECTION A-A FIG. 9.7. WYE LEVEL. 1, TELESCOPE 2 EYE-PIECE 3, RAY SHADE 4. OBJECTIVE END 5. BUBBLE TUBE 6 FOCUSING SCREW 7, FOOT SCREW 8 CH 9. DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING 10. BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING ‘SCREWS SCREWS 11. WYE CLIP 12 CLIP HALF .GPEN .- © 13. CLAMP SCREWS 14, TANGENT SCREW 3 15. TRIVET STAGE. Fig. 9.7 shows the essential features of Y-level. The levelling . head may be similar to that of a dumpy level. In some cases, the instrument is fitted with a clamp and fine motion tangent screw for controlled movement in the horizontal plane. Fig. 9.8 shows the photograph of a Wye level by Fennel Kessel. 2 The Wye-level has an advantage over the dumpy level in the fact that the adjustments can be tested with greater rapidity and ease. However, the adjustments do not have longer fife and are disturbed more frequently due to large number of movable parts.LEVELLING REVERSIBLE LEVEL A reversible level combines the features of both the dumpy level and the Wye level. The telescope is supported by two rigid sockets into which the telescope can be introduced from either end and then fixed in position by a screw. The sockets are rigidly connected to the spindle through a stage, Once the telescope is pushed into the sockets and the screw is tightened, the level acts as a dumpy level. For testing and making the adjustments, the screw is slackened and the telescope can be taken out and reversed end for end. The telescope can also be turned within the socket about the longitudinal axis. (iv) TILTING LEVEL 7 In the case of a dumpy level and a Wye level, the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertical axis. Once the instrument is levelled, the line of sight becomes horizontal and the vertical axis becomes truly vertical, provided the instrument is in adjustment. FIG. 9.9 TILTING LEVEL. 1. TELESCOPE 7. FOOT SCREWS 2 EYE-PIECE TRIBRACH 3. RAY SHADE 9, DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS 4. OBJECTIVE END 10. BUBBLE TUBE FIXING SCREWS 5, LEVEL TUBE_, 11, TILTING SCREWS 6, FOCUSING SCREWS 12 SPRING LOADED PLUNGER 13. TRIVET STAGE.SURVEYING ~ 264 In the case of tilting level, however, the line ore ene of iat oe slightly without tilting the vertical axis. Thus. ular to cach other. the vertical axis need not be exactly perpendicular to each Other. This feature, therefore, helps in quick levelling, Te a Am levelled roughly by the three-foot serens vat naking the vertical “i c, bubble tube or to a small circular bu ht to a staff, the line is i ile taking the sig! axis approximately vertical. While taking the of sight is made exactly horizontal by centring the bubble by means of a fine pitched tilting screw which tilts the telescope with respect to the vertical axis. It is, however, essential that the observer shou! have the view of the bubble tube while sighting the staff. Fig. 9.9 shows the essential features of a tilting level. A tilting level is mainly designed for precise levelling work. It has the advantage that due to the tilting screw, levelling can be done much quicker. However, this advantage is not so apparent when it is required to take so many readings from one instrument setting. Fig. 9.10 shows the photograph of a tilting level by M/s Vickers Instruments Ltd. 9.4, LEVELLING STAFF A levelling staff isa straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of the staff representing zero reading, The purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal line of sight. The purpose of the levelling staff is to determne the amount by which the station (e, foot of the staff) is above or below the line of sight. Levelling staves may be divided into two classes : (i) Self-reading staff, and (ii) Target staff. A Self Reading Staff is the one which can be read directly by the instrument man through the telescope. A Target Staff, on the other hand, contains a moving target against which the reading is taken by staff man. (i) SELF-READING STAFF There are usually three forms of self-rcading staff : (a) Solid staff (6) Folding staff (c) Telescopic staff (Sopwith pattern). Figs. 9.11 (a) and (6) show the patterns of a solid staff in English units while (c) and (4 ) show that in metric unit, In the mast common forms, the smallest division is of 0.01 ft, or 5 mm. jowever, some staves may have fine graduations upto 2 mm. The Staff is generally made of well seasond wi i 10 feet or 3 mews. Sod having a length of ——LEVELLING a “oy ENGLISH METRIC Hondredths, Fiftiechs. Centimetres. — Half-centimetret. FIG. 9.11 (BY COURTESY OF M/S VICKERS INSTRUMENTS LTD.) Fig, 9.12 shows a sopwith pattern staff arranged in three tele- scopic lengths. When fully extended, it is usually of 14 ft (or 5 m) length. The 14 fi staff has solid top length of 4" 6" sliding into the central box of 46” length. The central box, in turn, slides into lower box of 5’ Jength. In the 5 m staff, the three corresponding lengths are usually 1.5 m, 1.5 m and 2 m. Fig. 9.13 shows a folding staff usually 10 ft long having a hinge at the middle of its length, When not in use, the rod can be folded about the hinge so that it becomes convenient to carry it from one place to the other. Since a self-reading staff is all readings appear to be inverted. from above downwards. The levelling staves always seen through the telescope, The readings are, therefore, taken graduated in English units generally have whole number of feet marked in red to the left side of the staff (shown by hatched lines in Fig. 9.12). The odd lengths of the feet are marked in black to the right-hand side. The top of these black graduations indicates the odd tenth while the bottom shows the even tenth. The hundredths of fect are indicated by alternate white and black spaces, the top of a black space indicating odd hundredths and top of a white space indicating even hundredths, Sometimes when the staff is near the instrument, the red mark of whole foot may not appear in the field of view. In that case, the staff is raised266 SURVEYING slowly until the red figure appears in the field of view, the req figure thus indicating the whole feet. u 3 Z ¥ 3 FIG. 9.12 FIG. 9.13 FIG. 9.14 TELESCOPIC STAFF FOLDING STAFF TARGET STAFF (@Y COURTESY OF M/S VICKERS INSTRUMENTS LTD.) Folding Levelling Staff in Metric Units Fig. 9.15 (a) shows a 4 m folding type levelling staff (IS : 1779-1961). The staff comprises two 2 m thoroughly seasoned wooden pieces with the joint assembly. Each piece of the staff is made of one longitudinal strip without any joint. The width and thickness of staff is kept 75 mm and 18 mm respectively. The folding joint of the staff is made of the detachable type with a locking device at the back. The staff is jointed together in such a way that >LEVELLING (a) _ the staff may be folded to 2 m length. the two pic () ‘© pieces may be detached from one another, when required, to facilitat ff one piece, and 'e casy handling and manipulation with ©) % or when the two portions are lo ether, the two pieces icked together, the fated ete bate suitably cased, of 25-minute sensitivity is i pune ¢ staff has fittings for a plummet to test and ae - be bubble, A brass is screwed on to the bottom brass cap. esta has two folding handles with spring acting locking device or an ordinary locking device. . Each metre is subdivided into 200 divisions, the thickness graduations being 5 mm. Fig, 9.15 (b) shows the details of nian Every decimetre length is figured with the corresponding numerals (the metre numeral is made in red and the decimetre numeral in tact The decimetre numeral is made continuous throughout the (i) TARGET STAFF Fig, 9.14 shows a target staff having a sliding target equipped with vernier. The rod consists of two sliding lengths, the lower one of approx. 7 ft and the upper one of 6 ft. The rod is graduated in feet, tenths and hundredths, and the vernier of the target enables the readings to be taken upto a thousandth part of a foot. For readings below 7 ft the target is stided to the lower part while for readings above that, the target is fixed to the 7 ft mark of the upper length. For taking the reading, the level man directs the staff man to raise or lower the target till it is bisected by the line of sight. The staff holder then clamps the target and takes the reading. ‘The upper part of the staff is graduated from top downwards. When higher readings have to be taken, the target is set at top (Ge. 7 ft mark) of the sliding length and the sliding length carrying the target is raised until the target is bisected by the line of sight. The -feading is then on the back of the staff where a second vernier enables readings to be taken to a thousandth of a foot. Relative Merits of Self-Reading and Target Staffs @) With the self-reading staff, readings can be taken quicker than with the target staff (ii) In the case of target staff, the duties of a target staff- the leveller and demand the services man are as important as those of l of a trained man. In the case of a self-reading staff, on the otherTEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF A LEVEL Each surveying instrument needs two types of adjustments ; (1) temporary adjustments, and (2) permanent adjustments. Temporary adjustments or Station adjustments are those which are made at every instrument setting and preparatory to taking observations with the instrument. Permanent adjustments need be made only when the fundamental relations between some parts or lines are disturbed (See Chapter 16). ‘The temporary adjustments for a level consist of the following : (1) Setting up the level (2) Levelling up (3) Elimination of parallax. 1. Setting Up the Level. The operation of setting up includes (a) fixing the instrument on the stand, and (0) levelling the instrument approximately by leg adjustment. To fix the level to the tripod, the clamp is released, instrument is held in the right-hand and is fixed on the tripod by turning round the lower part with the left hand. The tripod legs are so adjusted that the instrument is at the convenient height and the tribrach is approximately horizontal. Some instruments are also provided with a small circular bubble on the tribrach. 2. Levelling Up. After having levelled the instrument ap- proximately, accurate levelling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the plate levels. The purpose of levelling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical, The manner of levelling the instrument by the plate levels depends upon whether there are three levelling screws or four levelling screws. (a) Three Screw Head 1, Loose the clamp. Turn the instrument until the longitudinal axis of the plate level is roughly parallel to a line joining any two (such as A and B) of the levelling screws [tig. 9.29 (a)). 2. Hold these two levelling screws between the thumb and first finger of each hand and turn them uniformly so that the thumbs move either towards each other or away from each other until the bubble is central. It should be noted that the bubble will move in wie direction of movement of the left thumb |see Fig. 9.29 (a)]-LEVELLING 29 3. Turn the upper plate through 90°, ie, until the axis on the level passes over the position of the third levelling screw © [Fig. 9.29 (6)}. 2 a . ic / \ vi \ Fr0 So FIG. 929. LEVELLING-UP WITH THREE FOOT SCREWS. 4. Turn this levelling screw until the bubble is central. | 5. Return the upper part through 90° to its original position {Fig. 9.29 (a)] and repeat step (2) till the bubble is central. 6, Turn back again through 90° and repeat step (4). 7, Repeat steps (2) and (4) till the bubble is central in both the positions. 8. Now rotate the instrument through 180°. The bubble should remain in the centre of its run, provided it is in correct adjustment. ‘The vertica) axis will then be truly vertical. If not, it needs permanent adjustment. (b) Note. it is essential to keep the same quantr circle for the changes in direction and not to swing through the remaining three quarters of a circle to the original position. (&) Four Screw Head 1, Turn the upper plate until the longitudinal axis of the plate level is roughly parallel to the line joining two diagonally Opposite screws such as D and B [Fig 9.30 (a)]. 2. Bring the bubble central exactly in the same manner as described in step (2) above. 3. Turn the upper part through 90° until the spirit level axis is parallel to the other two diagonally opposite screws such as A and C [Fig. 9.30 (6)}. 4, Centre the bubble as before.SURVEYING 5. Repeat the above steps till the bubble is central in both the positions. © to check the permanent 6. Turn through 180 as for three screw instrument. adjustment ITH FOUR-FOOT SCREWS. FIG. 930. LEVELLING-UP WI three-foot screw levelling head is used in preference to a four foot screw levelling head. The three-screw arrangement is the better one, as three points of support are sufficient for stability and the introduction of an extra point of support leads to uneven wear on the screws. On the other hand, a four-screw levelting head is simpler and lighter as a three-screw head requires special casting called a tribrach. A three-screw instrument has also the important advantage of being more rapidly levelled. 3. Elimination of Parallax. Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the objective is not in the plane of the cross-hairs. Unless parallax is eliminated, accurate sightin is imposs le. Parallax can be eliminated in two steps : (i) by focusing the cye-piece for distinct vi 3 “by a, the objective to bring the image itteonecni alr and (ty oe )ject in the plane of cross-hairs. In modern instruments, (®) Focusing the eye-picce To focus the eye-piece for dist 7 . tinct vision of ¢ hail pent the tesco towards the sky (or hold a sheet Mane mane trase-haris the objective) and move eye-piece in or out till the ° aris are seen sharp and distinct. In some telescopes, graduations wie provided at the eye-picce so that one can away Peteinber the particular graduation position to suit hi of time. Suit his cyes. This may save muchLEVELLING on1 (ii) Focusing the objective The telescope is now directed towards the staff and the focusing screw in tured till the image appears clear and sharp. The image so formed is in the plane of cross-hairs. 9.7. THEORY OF DIRECT LEVELLING (SPIRIT LEVELING) A level provides horizontal linc of sight, ée, a line tangential to a level surface at the point where the instrument stands The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between two level lines, Strictly speaking, therefore, we must have a level line of sight and not a horizontal line of sight ; but the distinction between a level surface and a horizontal plane is not an important one in plane surveying, Neglecting the curvature of earth and refraction, therefore, , the theory of direct levelling is very simple. With a level set up at any place, the difference in elevation betwcen any two points within proper lengths of sight is given by the difference between the rod readings taken on these points. By a succession of instrument stations and related readings, the difference in elevation between widely separated points is thus obtained. SPECIAL METHODS OF SPIRIT LEVELLING {ferential Levelling. It is the method of direct levelling the object of which is solely to determine t ference in elevation of two points regardl the ‘ontal positions of the points with respect of each other. When ihe points are apart, it may be necessary to set up the instruments serveral times. This type of levelling is also known as fly levelling. (0) Profile Levelling. It is the method of direct-levelling the object of which is to determine the elevations of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the surface along that line, (c) Cross-S ectioning. Cross-sectioning or cross-leviling is the process of taking levels on each side of a main line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the surface of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both. (a) Reciprocal Levelling. It is the method of levellin, in which the - difference in-clevation between two Pon ee by two sets of reciprocal obscrvations when. it is_not_possible to set up the level between the two points. ~e@ Precise Levelling. It is the levelling in which the degree of precision required is too great to be attained by ordinary methods,289 SURVEYING . . : ial precautions and in which, therefore, special, equipment oF Sele a panel or both are necessary to eliminate, as far as possinle, of error. TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Station. In levelling, @ 5 7 rod ‘© held and not where level is set up. It is alevation is to be ascertained or the point that is to at a piven clevation. (i) Meight of Instrument (ILL) For any set up of the level, the height of instrument is the clovation of plane of sight (line of sight) with respect to the assumed datum. It docs not mean the height of the telescope above the ground where the level stands. (ii) Back Sight (B.S,). Back sight is the sight taken on a fod held at a point of known elevation, to ascertain the amount by which the line of sight is above that point and thus to obtain the height of the instrument. Buck sighting is equivalent to measuring up from the point of known clevation to the fine of sight. It is also known as a plus sight as the back sight reading is always added to the level of the datum to get the height of the instrument. The object of back sighting is, therefore, to ascertain the height of the plane of sight. (iv) Fore Sight (F.S.), Fore sight is a sight taken on a rod held at a point of unknown elevation, to ascertain the amount by which the point is below the line of sight and thus to obtain the elevation of the station. Fore sighting is equivalent to measuring down from the line of sight. It is also known as a minus sight as the fore sight reading is always subtracted (except in speical cases of tunnel survey) from the height of the instrument to get the elevation of the point. The object of fore sighting is, therfore, to ascertain the elevation of the point. , (v) Turning Point (I.P,). Turning point or change point is a point on which ight_and plus sight_are taken on a line~of direct levels. The minus sight (fore sight) is take the point in one set of instrument to ascertain the elevation or the point while the plus sight (back sight) is taken on th sami point in other set of the instrument (o establish the nes * ncishe of the instrument, new height s the point whose be established ation is that point where the leve (vi) Intermediate Station (LS), Intermedia : . ) Ss). ate si . intermediate between two turning points, on witich ona wa point, (minus, sight) is_taken to, determine” the elevation of the sistion,LEVELLING STEPS IN LEVELLING (Fig, 9.31) There are two steps in levelling : (a) to find by how much amount the line of sight is above the bench mark, and (b) to ascertain by how much amount the next point is below or above the linc of sight. LINE OF SIGHT ELV. 213:176 2-324 —— ELV. 21F340 BM. ELV. 210-852 FIG. 9.31. A level is set up approximately midway between the bench mark (or a point of known elevation) and the point, the elevation of which is to be ascertained by direct levelling. A back sight is taken on the rod held at the bench mark. Then HI. = Eb. of BM.+ BS. wn 1) Turning the telescope to bring into view the rod held on point B, a foresight (minus sight) is taken. Then El. =HI.- FS. sa2) For example, if elevation of BM, =210.852 m, B.S.=2.324 m and F.S. = 1,836 m. Then HI. = 210.852 + 2.324 = 213.176 m Elv. of B = 213.176 — 1.836 = 211.340 m. a back sight is faken on a bench It is to be noted that if a tunnel or on the ceiling of a room mark located on the Pa tunnel strume ‘a lower elevation, the with the instrumen ion, | subtracted from the elevation to get the height o! i Similarly, if a foresight is taken ona point higher than the instrument, tiie” foresight must be added to the height of the instrument, to, get the, elevation of the point... 9.8. “DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING The operation of levelling to determine the elevation of points ‘at some distance apart is called differential levelling and is usually and284 SURVEYING accomplished by direct levelling. When two points are at such a distance from cach other they cannot both be within range of the level at the same time, the difference in elevatton is not found by single setting but the distance berween the points is divided in two Stages by turning points on which the staff is held and the difference of clevation of cach of suceceding pair of such turning points is found by separate setting up of the level. 3 3 g 242-590 ou 2az2i2 2024 8 (241-202) TRA TP.2 A (240.604 a (200/80), 304} (240-490) FIG. 9.32 Referring to Fig. 9.32, 4 and B are the two points. The distance 4B has been divided into three parts by choosing two additional points on which staff readings (both plus sight and minus sight) have been taken. Points 1 and 2 thus serve.as tuming points. The RL. of point A is 240.00 m. The height of the first Setting of the instrument is therefore = 240.00 + 2.024 = 242.024. If the following FS. is 1.420, the RL. of TP. 1=242.024 — 1.420 = 240.604 m. By a similar process of calculations, RL. of TP. 2 = 240.490 m and of B = 241.202 m. 9.9. HAND SIGNALS DURING OBSERVATIONS When levelling is done at construction site located in busy, noisy areas, it becomes difficult for the instrument man to give in- structions to the man holding the staff at the other end, through vocal sounds. In that case, the following hand signals are found to be useful (Table 9.1 and Fig. 9.33) TABLE 9.1. HAND SIGNALS Movement of left arm over 90°] Move to my Ieft Movement of right armover | Move to my right 90°LEVELLING 285 Movement of left arm Move top of staff to my left over 30° Movement of right arm Move top of staff to my right over 30° ension of arm Raise height peg or staff horizontals and moving hand upwards Extension of arm Lower height peg or staff horizontally and moving hand downwards Extension of both arms | Establish the position and slightly and thrusting downwards Extension of arms and Return tome placement of hand on top of head. ae i oe. et FIG. 9.33. HAND SIGNALS.oe SURVEYING 9.10. BOOKING AND REDUCING LEVELS he elevation There are two methods of booking and reducing the cleyatt of points from the observed staff readings : (1) Collimation or Height of Instrument method ; (2) Rise and Fall method. ()) NEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD In this mehtod, the height of the instrument (HL) is Sea for each setting of the instrument by auding back sight (Plus Sieh) to the elevation of the BAL (First point). The clevation ‘ re om level of the turning point is then calculated by subtracting i ALL the fore sight (minus sight). For the next setting of the a ” the HAE. is obtained by adding the BS taken on T.P. 1 to its J ht) The process continues till the RL, of the last point (a fore sigh t) is obtained by subtracting the staff reading from height of the last setting of the instrument. If there are some intermediate points, the RL. of those points is calculated by subtracting the intermediate sight (minus sight) from the height of the instrument for that setting. The following is the specimen page of a level field book il- lustrating the method of booking staff readings and calculating reduced levels by height of instrument method. RL. Remarks 560.500 | BM. “| on Gate 559.260 558.705 | Piatform 560.650 | 558.420 560.270 | 557.815 558.410 558.410 Check 560.500 2.090 Arithmetic Check. The difference between the sum of back . Sights and the sum of fore sights should be equal to the differenceLEVELLING 287 between the last and the first RL. Thus EBS. — LES The method affords a che points but not for the interme: (2) RISE AND FALL METHOD In rise and fall method, the height of instrument is not at all calculated but the difference of tevel between consecutive points is found by comparing the staff readings on the (wo points for the same setting of the instrument. The difference belwecn their staff readings indicates a rise or fall according as the staff reading at the point is smaller or greater than that at the preceding point. The figures for ‘rise’ und worked out thus for all the points give the vertical distance of each point above or below the preceding one, and if the level of any one point is known the level of the next will be obtained by adding its rise or subtracting its fall, as the case may be. Fitst re. | for the HL. and BR ie points. ._ of turning The following is the specimen page of a level field book illus- trating the method of booking staff readings and calculating reduced levels by rise and fall method : Station A 559.260 558.705 558.420 557.815 558.410 558.410 560.500SURVEYING Arithmetic Check. The difference betwéen the sum pf back Sights and sum of fore sights should be equal to the aifferes equal to the sum of rise and the sum of fall and should also be equal the difference between the RL. of last and first point. Thus, BBS.-EFS=E Rise-E Fall= Last RL.— First RL} This provides a complete check on the intermediate sighs also. The arithmetic check would only fail in the unlikely, but t tance case of two more errors occurring in such a manner as to ba each other. . It is advisable that on cach page the rise and fall calegtors shall be completed and checked by comparing with the di mice of the back and fore sight column summations, before the redu level calculations are commenced. Comparison of the Two Methods. The height of the instrument (or collimation level) method is more rapid, less tedious and simple. However, since the check on the calculations for intermediate sights is not available, the mistakes in their levels pass unnoticed. The rise and fall method though more tedious, provides a full check in calculations for all sights. However, the height of instrument method is more suitable in case, where it is required to take a number of readings from the same instrument setting, such as for constructional work, profile levelling etc. Example 9.1. The following staff readings were observed successively with a level, the instrument having been moved Gfter third, sixth and eighth readings : 2.228 ; 1.606 ; 0,988 ; 2.090 ; 2.864 ; 41.262, ; 0.602 ; 1.982 ; 1.044 ; 2.684 metres. s. = Enter the above readings in a Page of a level book and calculate the RL. of points if the first reading was taken with a Staff held on a bench mark of 432.384 m. Solution, Since the instrument was shifted after third, sixth and ej ie i a ' readings, these readings will be entered inthe Fs. column and thereene the fourth, seventh and ninth readings will be entered on the BS. column. Also, the first Teading will be entered in the Bs. column and the last reading in the FS. colum ii i be entered in the £S. column, eo otter readings willLEVELLING 239 The reduced levels of the points may be calculated by rise and fall method as tabulated below : RL 432,884 | B.M. at} 433.006 | 433.624 432.850 434.452 433.072 431.432 432384 431.432 0.952 Example 9.2. Jé was required to ascertain the elevation of two points P and Q and a line of levels was ran from P to Q. The levelling was then continued to a bench mark of 83.500, the readings obtained being as shown below. Obtain the R.L. of P and Q. BS. LS. FS. RL. Remarks 1.622 P 1.874 0.354 2.032 1.780 2.362 Q 0.984 1122 1.906 2.824 53h 7 2.036 83.500 BM. Solution. To find the R.Ls. of P and Q, we will have to proceed fro1 bottom to the top. To find the HJ, therefore, F.S. readings vili SURVEYING i find the c wn point and to of en bave 5 be subtracted from L. | have to be added to the R. ly shown in the table below : RL. of the previous point, the | the so obtained HLL. as clear! Remarks Checked imple 9.3, The following consecutive readings were taken withid level and 5 metre levelling staff on continuously sloping ground at a common interval of 20 metres : 1.030; 1.925 ; 2.825 ; 3.2303 4.685 ; 0,625 ; 2.005 ; 3.110 ; 4.485. The reduced level of the first point was 208.125 m. Rule out a page of a level field book and enter the above readings, Calculate the reduced levels of the points * by rise and fall method also the gradient of the line joining the first “and the last point, Solution, the seventh reading will be a back si i! M d ight. Also, the first readin, ee be a back Sight and the last reading will be a fore sight. The levels can be Teadily calculated as shown in the tabular form below:LEVELLING RL, 208.125 2 1.030 0.645 | 207.480 — 3 1.925 0.895. | 206.585 ——_|- 4 4 2.825 0.900. | 205.685 s 3.730 0.905 | 204.780 6 0.625 4.685 0.955 | 203.325 202.445 — g160_ i 4; . Gradient of the line= >> § = 79.61 =1 in 19.61 (falling). Example 9.4, The following figures were extracted from w level field book, some of the entries being illegible owing to exposure to rain. Insert the missing figures and check your results. Rebook all the (figures by the ‘rise’ and fall’ method.SURVEYING RL, |Remarks I 2.285 232.460| BM. 1 (@® The FS. of station 2 is missing, but it can be calculated from the known rise. Since station 2 is higher than station 1, its FS. will be lesser than the B.S, of station 1 (higher the point, lesser the reading). Hence, FS. of station 2 = 2.285 — 0.020 =2.265 m and RL. of station 2 = 232.460 + 0.02 = 232.480 m (ii) Fall of station 3 = 2,105 — 1.650 = 0.455 m *. RL. ofstation 3 = 232.480 - 0.455 = 232.025 m (iii) B.S. of staion 4 can be calculated from the fact that - the FS. of station 5, having a fall of 0.300 m, is 1.925 m Thus, B.S. of station 4 = 1.925 — 0.300 = 1.625 m Also, Rise of station 4 = 2.105 — 1.960 = 0.145 m and RL. of station 4 = 232.025, + 0.145 = 232.170 m (iv) RL. of station 5= 232.170—0.300= 231.870 m (v) From the known RL. of stations 6 and 5, the rise of station 6 can be calculated : ‘Thus, Rise of station 6 = 232.255 — 231.870 = 0.385 Ac LS. of station 6 = 2.050 — 0.385 = 1.665 of station 7 = 1.665 — 0,340 = 1.325 of station 7 = 232.255 + 0.340 = 232.595LEVELLING 293 (vii) Fall of station 8 = 2.100 — 1.690 = 0.410 RL. of station 8 = 232.595 - 0.410 = 232.185 (viif) Since the elevation of station 9 is 233.425 m, it has a rise of (233.425 — 232.185) = 1.240 m. «BS. of station 8= 2.865 — 1.240 = 1.625 m. The above results and calculations are shown in the tabular form below : LS. FS. Rise Fall RL. | Remarks 2.285 232.460 | B.M. 2 1.650 2.265 | 0.020 232.480 3 2.105 0.455 | 232.025 4 1.625 1.960 | 0.145 232.170 5 2.050 1.925 0.300 | 231.870 6 1.665 0.385 « 232.255 | B.M. 7 1.690 1.325 | 0.340 232.595 8 2.865 2.100 0.410, 232.185 9 1.625 | 1.240 233.425 | B.M. 3 Check | 12.165 11.200 | 2.130 | 1.165 | 233.425 11.200 1.165 232.460 0.965 Rise 0.965 0.965 Example 9.5. During a construction work, the bottom of a RC. Chhajja A was taken as a temporary BM. (RL. 63.120). The following notes were recorded. Reading on inverted staff on BM, No. A. 2.232 Reading on peg P on ground : 1.034 Change of instrument Reading on peg P on ground : 1.328 Reading on inverted staff on bottom of comice B : 4.124 Enter the readings in a level book page and calculate the R.L. of comice B.9.13. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING When _it t_is_necessary_to_carty | levelling across a river, ravine or any ob obstacle requiring a long sight between two points so situated that no place for the~level~can “be found which_theJengths_ of foresight and backsight will b be even approximately equal, special method 2, reciprocal levelling must be used to obtain accuracy and to eliminate the following : (1) error in instrument_adjustment ; (2) combined effect of atmosphere, ~and GB) variations in the average refraction. ‘Let 4 and B be the points and observations | be made with a level, the line of sight of which is inclined upwards when the bubble is in the centre of its run. The level is set at a point near A and staff readings are taken on A and B with the bubble in306 SURVEYING the centre of its run. Since B.M. A is very near to instrument, no error due to curvature, refraction and collimation will be introduced in the staff readings at 4, but there will be an error € in the staff reading on B. The level is then shifted to the other bank, re 3 point very near B.M. B, and the readings are taken on siaff hel at B and 4. Since B is very near, there will be no error due to the three factors in reading the staff, but the staff reading on A will have an crror e. Let ha and fy be the corresponding staff readings on A and B for the first set of the level and fa’ and fp’ be the readings for the second set. HORIZONTAL LINE LEVEL LINE fF LINE OF SIGHT RIVER HORIZONTAL LINE LINE TINE OF SIGHT RIVER . FIG, 9.41. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING. From Fig, 9.41, it is evident that for the first set of the level, thé correct staff readings will be On A ihe On B:hy—e . True difference in elevation= H = na — (hs — é Similarly for second set, the correct staff reading will be : On A : ha’ -e On B:h,!LEVELLING 307 - True difference in elevation =H = (tq' —e) — hy! Taking the average of the two true differences in elevations, we gel 2H = [hha — (he —€) + (te! —€) — hy'] = (Ha — he) + (Ha! — he’) H = Hie) + (be! — hu'y)). The true difference in elevation, therefore, is equal to the mean of the two appearent differences in elevations, obtained by reciprocal observations. ——LEVELLING 309 Exaple 9.16. In levelling between two points A and Bon opposite banks of @ river, the level was set up near A, and the staff redings on A and B were 1.285 and 2.860 m respectively. The level was then moved and set up near B and the respective readings on A and B were 0.860 and 2,220. Find the true difference of level between ‘A and B. Solution. When the instrument is at A, appearent difference in elevation between A and B = 2.860 — 1.285 = 1.575 m (A higher) When the instrument is at B, apparent differnce in elevation between A and B = 2.220 — 0.860 = 1.360 m (4 higher) True difference in elevation - BET = 1.468 m (4 higher)9.14, PROFILE LEVELLING (LONGITUDIIN Ys ae eens Profile levelling is the process of determining the clevations of points at short measured intervals along 2 Ree ed Iie the centre line of a railway, highway, canal or sewer, The fixe line May be a single straight line or it may he composed abe ‘by carves of straight lines or of a scrics of straight lines connected by Curves, It is also known as longitudinal sectioning. By means of such sections the engincer is enabled to study the relationship between the existing ground surface and the levels of the. proposed construction in the ditcction of its length, The profile is usually plotted on specially Prepared profile paper, on which the vertical scale is much Targer ‘than the horizontal, and on this profile, various studies relating to the fixing of grades and the estimating of costs are made. Field Procedure Profile levelling, like differential levelling, tequires the estab- lishment of turning points on which both back and foresights are taken. In addition, any number of intermediate sights may be obtained on points along the line from each set up of the instrument (Fig. 9.42). In fact, points on the profile line are merely intermediate stations, It is generally best to set up the level to one side of the profile line to avoid too short sights on the points near the instrument. For each set up, intermediate sights should be taken after the foresight on the next tuming station has been taken. The level is then set up in an advanced position and a backsight is taken on that turning point. The position of the intermediate poiuts on the profile are simultaneously located by chaining along the profile and noting their distances from the point of commencement. When the vertical profile of the ground is regular or gradually curving, levels are taken on poinis at equal distances apart and generally at intervals of a chain length. On irregular ground where abrupt changes of slope occur, the points should be chosen nearer, For purose of checking and future reference, temporary bench marks should be established along the section.LEVELLING 3 Field notes for profile levelling are commonly kept in the standard form shown in the table on page 312, The method Is almost the same as given for ‘collimation height’ method as computations are casier by that method. The distances of the points on the profile are also recorded, The values shown in the table are same as those illustrated in Fig. 9.42. FIG. 9.42, PROFILE LEVELLING.yy <312 LEVEL FI ELD NOTES FOR PROFILE SURVEYING LEVELLING Th | RL. | Remarks! Station | Distance] B.S. 1S. PS. BM. 2045 212.500 | 210.455 1 0 2,680 209.820 2 10 2.860 209.640 = 20 2.120 210.380 4 35 2.975 209.525 TP. 1.005 2.860 | 210.645 | 209.640 5 45 2.810 207.835 6 63 2.905 207.740, 7 80 2.530 208.115 LK 98 1.875 208.770 zl 9 us 1.925 208.720 TP.2 2.160 2.995 | 209.810 | 207.650 _ 208.985 208.790 208.185 207.730 206.825 5.210 8.840 5.210 ma 210.455 206.825 3.630LEVELLING 313 Motting the Profte (Fig. 9.43) The horizontal distances are plotted along the horlzontat wxls to some convenient scale and the distances are also: marked, The elevations are plotted along the vertical axis, Each ground: point is thus plotted by the two co-ordi (fe, horlzontal distance and verucal elevation). The various points so obtained are joined by 145 162 125) us 98 80 tom BIG. 9.43, SECTION lem 63 HOR VER. lem= im LONGITUDINAL sca vef 20 10 ‘STANCES915, CROSS-SECTIONING Cross-sections are run at right angles to the longitudinal profile and on either side of it for the purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface. They provide the data for estimating quantities of earth work and for other purposes. The cross-sections are numbered Spscontively from the commencement of the centre line and are ad at right angles to the main tine of section with the chain thncetaty cross-staff or the optical square and the distances may be fare and right from the centre peg (Fig. 9.44). Cross-section Don the eae each chain. The length of cross-section depends re of work.SURVEYING 316 ns may be worked together 1 Cl -sectior The longitudinal and cross-secti Y columns are required or separately. In the former case, two additiona| Distance (m) rs, | mh | Rue | Remarks LIcl]R |__| BM. 1.325 101.325] 100.00 0 0 1.865 99.460 fa 1.905 99.420) Cross | section 99.205| atom Lr | 6 2.120 chainage ry 72825 98.500 Ri 5 1.705 99.620 Rz 1S 1.520 99.805 | Ry 10 1.955 99.370 I 20 1.265 100.064 Cross- Oot eon u [3 1.365 99.960] 39 mn 5 chainage lL | 6 0.725 100.604 L; | 9 2.125 99:200 Ri 3 1.925 99.400 Rp 7 2.250 99.075 100.43. —t 99.205 | 100.00d 99.205 Fall | 0.795 wLEVELLING 317 FIG. 9.44 in the level field book to give the distances, left and right of the centre line, as illustrated in table on page 316. To avoid confusion, the bookings of each cross-section should be entered separately and clearly and full information as to the number of the the cross-section, whether on the left or right of the centre line, with any other matter which may be useful, should be recorded. Plotting the Cross-section (Fig. 9.45) CROSS-SECTION AT CHAINAGE 20m HOR. fem +1 scate{veR tems tm FIG. 9.45 Cross-sections_are plotted almost in the same manner as the the scales are longitudinal sections except that in this case botl kept equal: The point along the Tongitudinal section is plotted at The points to the left of centre the centre of the horizontal axis.