Electric Vehicles and Distribution Networks:
Analysis on Vehicle to Grid and Renewable Energy
Sources Integration
Vasiliki Vita
Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering Educators, A.S.PE.T.E. — School
of Pedagogical and Technological Education
Athens, Greece
vasvita@aspete.gr
Abstract— Electric vehicles (EVs) provide the leap towards
a clean and sustainable energy system. They have lower cost of
ownership than their fossil fuel powered counterparts, emit less
pollution, and enable emerging mobility technologies. When
integrated with renewable energy sources, they have the
potential of significantly decreasing carbon emissions from both
the transportation and power generation sectors. The ever-
increasing adoption of EVs on a global scale is challenging for
the power generation industry, the transmission and
distribution system operators, and the consumers as well. If not
properly attended, the increasing adoption of EVs can have a
negative impact on heavily loaded grids, by increasing demand
and jeopardizing voltage stability. By integrating EVs on a
smart grid augmented with supportive technologies, such as the
vehicle to grid (V2G) architecture, and with renewable energy
sources, the results could be exceptional. These techniques have
the ability to offer distributed generation (DG), energy storage,
and level out the much fluctuating load demand. This paper
analyses the impact of EVs and renewable energy sources on the
grid. Through a MATLAB/Simulink model the integration of
EVs and renewable energy sources with a standard IEEE 13-bus
test feeder is analysed in detail, under a number of scenarios
which are critical for the grid stability.
Keywords— Electric vehicle, vehicle to grid, energy storage,
distribution network, distributed generation, smart grid.
I. INTRODUCTION
From an environmental perspective, the process of
replacing conventional vehicles with electric vehicles (EVs) is
reasonable under the assumption that those vehicles will be
entirely powered by renewable energy sources (RES). The
main characteristic of RES, such as solar photovoltaic power
(PV), or wind power, is their significantly fluctuating supply,
which is based on their resource, with no correlation to
changes in demand. Various studies show that excess
production from RES can be allocated towards EV charging,
mainly for “valley filling” purposes [1, 2]. Since “valley
filling” alone cannot resolve the issues arising from a large
fleet of EVs being distributed across residential areas, studies
have utilized an optimal power flow (OPF) framework to
model the network constraints that arise from charging EVs at
different locations [3]. The OPF framework requires a two-
way communication within the grid, which can only be
implemented in a smart grid.
Irrespective of the EV charging strategy implemented, the
rapid deployment of EVs and fast chargers will inevitably lead
to increasing electricity demand and congestion on the power
grid. Academia and industry have researched on the
978-1-7281-2697-5/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE
Phivos Koumides
Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences,
Sustainable Energy Systems
Open University of Cyprus
Nicosia, Cyprus
phivos.koumides@st.ouc.ac.cy
possibility to reach charging speeds comparable to traditional
gas refueling, the so called ultra-fast charging (UFC). Despite
the attractiveness, the technological readiness and the
prediction to become the charging method of the future, it was
generally accepted that UFC is the most challenging
parameter in the EV evolution [4]. Planning UFC stations in
urban areas presents a complex problem, requiring the
integration of energy supply, traffic flow, and user utility
considerations. The power grid, in particular, will experience
unprecedented challenges. Loading stress from AC and DC
charging, has been shown to lead to significant increments of
power losses and voltage deviations [5]. UFC power density,
which is 200 times greater than AC charging, could cause
detrimental impacts to the power grid, such as, frequent
blackouts, causing great concerns for grid operators and
utilities, thus prohibiting UFC deployment.
The use of distributed generation (DG), where the
production of electricity is located near the load and frequently
installed in the same building, is able to resolve many issues
arising from the rapid expansion of EVs and corresponding
charging stations. DG performs well when a variety of
technologies is used, either based on fossil fuels or RES [6].
For environmental reasons, it is always preferable to gradually
displace fossil fuel-based DG, using a mix of various RES
technologies. The increasing integration of DGs into power
grids has resulted into the degradation of the quality of
supplied power, in the form of reliability, harmonics, and
deviations in current, voltage, and frequency, leading to
equipment failures. Studies have shown that different types of
DG influence differently the distribution network and that
their precise location and size are vital in reducing power
losses and improving the voltage stability [7].
Energy storage systems (ESS) have being considered as a
potential solution for this problem, since they can regulate the
power being introduced to the grid, from the DGs, providing
stability. Studies have analysed the impact of DGs to a power
grid when ESS of different capacities, in an effort to study the
improvements in the power quality. Multiple advantages have
been obtained from the integration of ESS to power grids [8,
9].
The vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept, where EVs
communicate with the power grid to sell demand response
services, by either returning electricity to the grid or by
limiting their charging rate, provides another form of energy
storage system (ESS). V2G offers to help balance loads by
"valley filling" (charging at night when demand is low) and
"peak shaving" (sending power back to the grid when demand
is high). V2G can be considered as a RES, only if during the
charging process renewable sources were used. Some studies
even claim that the V2G technology has detrimental effects on
the EV battery cycle life [10]. Other studies claim that certain
types of batteries can be subject to frequent charging-
discharging cycles under the V2G architecture, with minimal
cycle life loss [11].
Clearly, the large scale EV integration into the grid is a
challenging task. Many technologies that have either been
implemented or studied as a concept, aim to mitigate the
negative effects of EV integration into existing and
occasionally aging grids. Aim of this paper is to investigate
the possible positive effects that EVs could have on the grid,
besides the recognizable environmental impact. More
specifically, the integration of EVs and RES with a grid is
analysed, under a number of scenarios which are critical for
the grid. The effects of an earth fault within such a grid is
presented, through modeling, analysis, and simulation of a
standard distribution test grid, with the inclusion of DG and
V2G. In order to establish a reference model with standard
complexity, structure, and known parameters, the IEEE 13-
node test feeder was chosen as the foundation of the model.
Purpose of this model is to investigate the transient voltage
stability of a standard test grid, when supplemented with a PV
array and an EV cluster operating in V2G mode.
II. MODELING OF DISTRIBUTION TEST GRID
A. IEEE 13-Bus Test Feeder
The IEEE 13-bus feeder (Fig. 1) is a small and highly
loaded test feeder including most of the common features that
are used in actual networks, like voltage regulators, shunt
capacitor banks, overhead and underground lines, and heavily
unbalanced loads [12]. This feeder provides a starting point to
test power-flow convergence problems for highly unbalanced
systems.
Fig. 1. IEEE 13-node test feeder [12]
This system was designed to evaluate and benchmark
algorithms in solving unbalanced three-phase radial systems.
The distribution analysis programs to be tested could then be
compared to the expected published results. The IEEE 13-bus
feeder has the following main features:
1. Short and relatively highly loaded 4.16 kV feeder
2. One substation voltage regulator consisting of three
single-phase units connected in wye
3. One transformer ΔY 115/4.16 kV
4. Ten overhead and underground lines with variety of
phasing
5. Two Shunt capacitor banks
6. One in-line transformer YY 4.16/0.480 kV
7. Unbalanced spot and distributed loads
B. Vehicle to Grid (V2G) Model
A model was built to represent a cluster of EVs being
connected on the grid. This cluster of EVs was modeled to
have the ability to operate in bi-directional mode, where the
grid is able to provide the necessary power to the EV batteries
for recharging, or to operate in the V2G mode when needed.
The EV cluster model was built as a separate circuit, in order
to test its output and performance in two distinctive operating
regimes:
• Island operation, where the EV cluster is not connected
on a grid, but supplying a load.
• Grid connected operation, where the EV cluster is
connected and synchronized on a grid.
In this manner, it was possible to troubleshoot, verify, and
benchmark its output at all possible operating regimes of a
real system. Having finalized a stable model, the testing
capabilities as a stand-alone or interconnected system, are
virtually infinite. The EV cluster model used in this work
consists of the following main components:
• lithium battery bank
• rectifier with charge control, representing the EV charger
• inverter, to supply load during V2G mode
• three-phase transformer, for connecting the EV cluster to
the distribution grid (the transformer operates as a step-
down transformer during charging mode, or as a step-up
transformer during V2G mode)
• three-phase circuit breaker for disconnecting the EV
cluster from the grid
• three-phase circuit breakers for automated change over
from charging to V2G mode
• ancillary equipment such as resistors, capacitive and
reactive loads
• a three-phase distribution line
The battery, rectifier and inverter, have been combined in
a single model, able to operate in bi-directional mode. In this
manner, the battery can either be charged via the rectifier,
simulating the charging mode, or discharge via the inverter,
simulating the V2G mode.
C. Vehicle to Grid (V2G) Model
A model was built to represent a Solar Photovoltaic Array
being connected on the grid. This PV Array represents a
distributed generation (DG) system [13] and was built as a
separate circuit, in order to test its output and performance in
two distinctive operating regimes:
• Island operation, where the PV array is not connected on
a grid, but supplying a load.
• Grid connected operation, where the PV array is
connected and synchronized on a grid.
In this manner, it was possible to troubleshoot, verify, and
benchmark its output at all possible operating regimes of a
real system. Having finalized a stable model, the testing Prince differential equation solver. This simulation method
capabilities as a stand-alone or interconnected system, are was necessary in order to provide precise and detailed results
virtually infinite. The PV array model presented in this on the voltage waveforms during an earth fault, under various
section consists of the following main components: operating modes.
• PV array, with variable irradiance and temperature inputs The purpose of the modeling and simulation was to
investigate the interaction of the test feeder with the inclusion
• inverter with maximum power point tracking topology
of EVs able to operate in a V2G architecture, and a solar PV
• three-phase transformer, for connecting the PV array system, under a number of scenarios. One of the numerous
inverter to the distribution grid scenarios that has been extensively investigated and
• three-phase circuit breaker for disconnecting the PV array presented in this paper, is the effect of an earth fault on the
from the grid test feeder, with and without the integration of the EV cluster
• ancillary equipment such as resistors, capacitive and and/or PV array. A number of scenarios are summarized in
reactive loads Table I.
• a three-phase distribution line TABLE I. DIFFERENT SCENARIOS WITH EV CLUSTER AND PV ARRAY
INTEGRATION DURING EARTH FAULT
III. INTEGRATED DISTRIBUTION GRID ANALYSES AND Scenario Earth Fault EV Cluster PV Array
RESULTS Case A phase “B” to earth disconnected disconnected
0.14-0.18 sec
Representing distributed generation (DG) sources, both Case B phase “B” to earth connected disconnected
the EV cluster and the PV array were integrated on the IEEE 0.14-0.18 sec charging mode
13-bus test feeder, connected on the most distant part of the Case C phase “B” to earth connected connected
IEEE 13-bus test feeder. This part of the feeder represents a 0.14-0.18 sec charging mode 500 kW
produced
distant portion of the distribution grid. With the presence of Case D phase “B” to earth connected V2G disconnected
the three-phase circuit breaker this part of the grid could even 0.14-0.18 sec mode
be disconnected and operate in islanding mode. Both the EV Case E phase “B” to earth Connected V2G connected
cluster and the PV array are equipped with three-phase circuit 0.14-0.18 sec mode 500 kW
produced
breakers, not only to create realistic modelling conditions
where a circuit breaker is present in all such feeders, but also
The results from all case scenarios A to E are summarized in
to allow numerous testing possibilities, where these circuit
Table II.
breakers are selectively switched on and off.
To be able to investigate the effect of EV cluster operating TABLE II. SUMMARY OF SIMULATION RESULTS ON VOLTAGE
in V2G mode and PV array within the IEEE 13-bus test WAVEFORMS

feeder, a fault generator was introduced. This device could Scenario EV PV Voltage Waveforms
selectively introduce an earth fault at any phase or a number Cluster Array
of phases, or even a phase to phase fault, at pre-programmed Case A OFF OFF
time intervals. The overall configuration of the IEEE 13-bus
test feeder with the integration of the EV cluster (with
charging and V2G capability, with disconnecting capability),
the PV array (with disconnecting capability), and the fault
Case B ON OFF
generator (with pre-programmed capabilities on phase(s) and charging
time) is presented in Fig. 2.

Case C ON ON
charging 500 kW

Case D ON OFF
V2G

Case F ON ON
V2G 500 kW

Fig. 2. MATLAB/Simulink model of IEEE 13-bus test feeder, with

integration of EV cluster, PV array and earth fault

This model was simulated using the discrete simulation

method at a sampling interval of 2e-7, using the Dormant-
 IV. DISCUSSION
The future of transportation is undoubtedly electric, for
light duty vehicles, large fleet vehicles, transit buses,
subways, light rail, even ships [14]. The transition towards
dominance of the electric vehicles has already started, but as
the transition progresses, obstacles inevitably emerge.
Limited autonomy, distribution grid congestion, peak load
demand rise, lag of communication links on aging grids and
occasionally government policies, are only a few of the
hurdles that need to be addressed.
Ongoing research on battery technologies towards greater
energy and power density, longer cycle life and lower cost, is
the dominant element towards greater autonomy and lower
cost, for every electric vehicle. Further research and
development on ultracapacitors (UCs) will be vital for the
hybrid energy storage systems (HESS). In this hybrid system,
the high energy density of batteries and the high-power
density of UCs combines to form a powerful and lightweight
package.
Smart grid deployment is the next step augmenting the
dominance of electric vehicles. The two-way communication
between generation, distribution and consumption entities,
has the capability to: a) secure the transition from a
centralized energy generation system, to a distributed energy
resource system, b) support the adoption of microgrids, c)
manage the energy generation of intermittent sources of
electricity, thereby enabling further deployment of renewable
energy, d) improve energy efficiency by reducing
transmission losses. All these capabilities will inevitably
create a more balanced grid, diminishing distribution
overloading and local clustering, levelling the peak load and
creating “valley filling”.
Renewable energy sources integration through the battery
storage capabilities of electric vehicles, will offer exponential
expansion of RES. Innovations such as intelligent charging
through demand-side-management and “second-life” battery
storage (utilization of used EV batteries as energy storage),
can provide the inertia for further RES deployment.
Standardization of EV charging stations should not be
expected to happen in the near future. Competing
automakers, virtually endless types of chargers, but most of
all the fast-evolving technology around the battery power
densities and respective charger capabilities, impose
limitations on the standardization of charging stations.
Eventually, a single type of fast charger compatible with all
EVs, that can be readily installed in large charging farms,
commercial and residential areas should be adopted.
Last but not least, the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) architecture,
a recently evolving concept, will be the milestone for the
global EV dominance. V2G has the capability to balance
loads and provide peak load levelling when integrated in a
smart grid. As it has been demonstrated in this paper, V2G
can provide grid stability during faults or large-scale voltage
imbalance. Simulations introducing V2G and solar PV in a
heavily loaded and greatly unbalanced standard IEEE 13-bus
test feeder, support this concept. The concept allows V2G
vehicles to provide power to help balance loads by "valley
filling" (charging at night when demand is low) and "peak
shaving" (sending power back to the grid when demand is
high). Peak load leveling can offer utility providers the tools
to regulate voltage and frequency, but also provide spinning
reserves at a lower cost. In various studies, it has been
proposed that such use of electric vehicles could buffer
renewable power sources such as wind power or solar PV, by
storing excess energy produced during windy or sunny
periods and providing it back to the grid during high load
periods, thus effectively stabilizing the intermittency of
renewable sources.
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper the impact of electric vehicles (EVs) and
renewable energy sources (RES) on the grid have been
analyzed. The integration of EVs and RES with a standard
IEEE 13-bus test feeder has been presented in detail. A
number of different scenarios which are critical for the
distribution grid stability have been tested. Useful
conclusions that will contribute to the work of distribution
system operators and electric utilities in this new era of power
systems have been extracted.
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