PRODUCTS OF VECTORS

Math123: Vectors and Geometry

Kenneth Dadedzi (Ph.D.)

University of Ghana

February 24, 2021

Overview

The Scalar (Dot) Product

The Vector (Cross) Product

Introduction Overview 2 / 38
The Scalar (Dot) Product

Definition
Let the angle between two non-zero vectors a and b with a common initial
˜ ˜
point be θ, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

The scalar (dot) product of a and b, denoted by a · b and read as ”a dot

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
b”, is the product of the magnitude of the two vectors multiplied by the
˜
cosine of angle between them. That is

a · b = |a||b| cos θ
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

The Scalar (Dot) Product Definition 3 / 38

The Scalar (Dot) Product

The scalar product of two vectors is a scalar quantity. This is clear from
the definition of scalar product.
Example
Compute the scalar product of the vectors a and b given that
˜ ˜
|a| = 2, |b| = 5 and the angle between them is π3 .
˜ ˜
Solution: We have that
π
a · b = |a||b| cos
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜  3
1
= (2)(5)
2
= 5.

The Scalar (Dot) Product Definition 4 / 38

Deduction
If a = 0 or b = 0, then the angle θ between them is indeterminate.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
However, we know that |a| = 0 or |b| = 0 so a · b = 0.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
If the two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel then θ = 0 and hence
˜ ˜
a · b = |a||b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
If the two non-zero vectors a and b are anti-parallel then θ = π and
˜ ˜
hence a · b = −|a||b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
If the two non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular or orthogonal or
˜ ˜
normal then θ = π2 and hence a · b = 0.
˜ ˜
Orthogonal unit vectors are referred to as orthonormal vectors. The
standard unit vectors i, j and k are orthonormal and they satisfy the
˜˜ ˜
following

i · i = j · j = k · k = 1,
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
i · j = j · k = k · i = 0.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
The Scalar (Dot) Product Definition 5 / 38
The Scalar Projections

Let a and b be two non-zero vectors with θ as the angle between them.
˜ ˜ −−→ −−→
Let a and b be represented by the line segments AB and CD respectively.
˜ ˜
Also let C 0 and D0 be the feet of the perpendicular from C and D onto
−−→
the line segment AB.

Figure 1: Projection of b in the direction of a

˜ ˜

The Scalar (Dot) Product The Scalar and Vector Projections 6 / 38

The Scalar Projections

From Figure 1, we can deduce that

−−−→ −−→ −−→
|C 0 D0 | = |CE| = |CD| cos θ = |b| cos θ.
˜
The number |b| cos θ is called the scalar projection of b in the direction of
˜ ˜
a. This is denoted by Proj(b; a). We can easily deduce from the definition
˜ ˜ ˜
of scalar product that

b·a
Proj(b; a) = |b| cos θ = ˜ ˜ = b · a,
ˆ
˜ ˜ ˜ |a| ˜ ˜
˜
where a
ˆ is a unit vector in the direction of a.
˜ ˜
Also,
ˆ = |b|Proj(a; ˆb).
a · b = |a||b| cos θ = |a|Proj(b; a)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

The Scalar (Dot) Product The Scalar and Vector Projections 7 / 38

The Vector Projections

Definition
The vector whose magnitude is Proj(b; a) and which is in the same
˜ ˜
direction as the vector a
ˆ is called the vector projection of b onto a. We
˜ ˜ ˜
shall denote this vector by P(b; a).
˜ ˜
−−−→
From Figure 1, we deduce that the vector C 0 D0 is the vector projection of
b onto a. We have that
˜ ˜
−−0−→0 −−→
C D = CE = (b · a)ˆ ˆ a
˜ ˜ ˜
or
P(b; a) = aProj(
ˆ b; a).
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

The Scalar (Dot) Product The Scalar and Vector Projections 8 / 38

The Basic Laws of Scalar Products

Positive Definite Law

If a is a non-zero vector, then
˜
a · a = |a|2 > 0.
˜ ˜ ˜
If a = 0 then
˜ ˜
a · a = 0.
˜ ˜
Hence we have that for any vector a,
˜
√
|a| = a · a ≥ 0.
˜ ˜ ˜

The Scalar (Dot) Product The Basic Laws of Scalar Projections 9 / 38

The Basic Laws of Scalar Projections
Commutative Law
Let a and b be any two vectors, then
˜ ˜
a · b = b · a.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Homogeneous Property
For any scalar λ and vectors a and b,
˜ ˜
(λa) · b = λ(a · b) = a · (λb)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Distributive Law
For any three vectors a, b and c, we have that
˜ ˜ ˜
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
and
(b + c) · a = b · a + c · a
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
The Scalar (Dot) Product The Basic Laws of Scalar Projections 10 / 38
Exercise
Simplify the expression (3a + 4b) · (a − 2b) if
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
1 a and b are orthonormal vectors.
˜ ˜
2 a and b are parallel to each other.
˜ ˜
3 a and b are anti-parallel to each other.
˜ ˜
4 a and b are unit vectors and the angle between them is π
3.
˜ ˜
5 the scalar projection of b in the direction of a is zero.
˜ ˜
Solution:
1 Lets apply the distributive and homogeneous properties to expand and
simplify the expression as follows

(3a + 4b) · (a − 2b) = 3a · a − 6a · b + 4b · a − 8b · b

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= 3|a|2 − 2a · b − 8|b|2 .
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
The Scalar (Dot) Product Exercise 11 / 38
Exercise

Since a and b are orthonormal vectors, we have that |a| = |b| = 1 and
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
a · b = 0. Therefore
˜ ˜
(3a + 4b) · (a − 2b) = 3|a|2 − 2a · b − 8|b|2
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
=3−8
= −5.

Remark
Use the basic laws and the properties of scalar product to solve the
remaining questions.

The Scalar (Dot) Product Exercise 12 / 38

Pythogoras’ Theorem
−−→ −−→ −→
From triangle ABC in Figure 2, we let AB = a, BC = b and AC = a + b.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Figure 2: Triangle ABC

Then −→
|AC|2 = |a + b|2
˜ ˜
= (a + b) · (a + b)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
=a·a+a·b+b·a+b·b
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= a · a + 2a · b + b · b
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= |a|2 + 2a · b + |b|2 .
The Scalar (Dot) Product
˜ Applications
˜ ˜of the ˜Scalar Product 13 / 38
Pythogoras’ Theorem

Now, if we let a · b = 0 then it implies that a and b are perpendicular.

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Hence triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle. This gives us the
Pythogaras’ Theorem as
−→ −−→ −−→
|AC|2 = |AB|2 + |BC|2 .

Conversely, if |a + b|2 = |a|2 + |b|2 , then a · b = 0 and hence triangle ABC

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
is a right-angled triangle.

The Scalar (Dot) Product Applications of the Scalar Product 14 / 38

Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality
Theorem
Suppose a and b are any two vectors, then
˜ ˜
|a · b| ≤ |a||b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Proof.
By the definition of the scalar product we have

a · b = |a||b| cos θ
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
|a · b| = |a||b|| cos θ|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
But we know that | cos θ| ≤ 1 so

|a · b| ≤ |a||b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

The Scalar (Dot) Product Applications of the Scalar Product 15 / 38

The Triangle Inequality

Suppose θ is the angle between two vectors a and b. Then,

˜ ˜
|a + b|2 = (a + b) · (a + b) = |a|2 + 2a · b + |b|2
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
But we know that
a · b ≤ |a · b| ≤ |a||b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Therefore

|a|2 + 2a · b + |b|2 ≤ |a|2 + 2|a||b| + |b|2 = (|a| + |b|)2 .

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Hence
|a + b|2 ≤ (|a| + |b|)2
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
which implies that
|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

The Scalar (Dot) Product Applications of the Scalar Product 16 / 38

The Triangle Inequality (Deduction)
The following results follows directly from the triangular inequality;
1 Let a = a + b + (−b), then
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
|a| = |a + b + (−b)|
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
|a| ≤ |a + b| + |b|
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
|a| − |b| ≤ |a + b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
2 Similarly, b = b + a + (−a) yields
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
|b| − |a| ≤ |a + b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
3 Combining both results and that of the triangular inequality give us
lower and upper bounds for |a + b|. Thus
˜ ˜
|(|a| − |b|)| ≤ |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| .
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
The Scalar (Dot) Product Applications of the Scalar Product 17 / 38
The Cosine Formula
Suppose a, b, c are vector sides of triangle ABC as shown in Figure 3.
˜ ˜˜
Then by the triangle law of vector addition, we have that c = a + b.
˜ ˜ ˜

Figure 3: Triangle ABC (Cosine formula)

So
|c|2 = (a + b) · (a + b) = |a|2 + 2a · b + |b|2 .
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
But
a · b = |a||b| cos(π − θ) = −|a||b| cos θ
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
The Scalar (Dot) Product Applications of the Scalar Product 18 / 38
The Cosine Formula

Therefore we get the cosine formula

|c|2 = |a|2 − 2|a||b| cos θ + |b|2 .

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Similarly, if we let ∠CAB = α and ∠CBA = β then we get the following

|b|2 = |a|2 − 2|a||c| cos β + |c|2 ,

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
|a|2 = |b|2 − 2|b||c| cos α + |c|2 .
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Remark
It is important to note that the sine rule can also be prove using concepts
from scalar projections.

The Scalar (Dot) Product Applications of the Scalar Product 19 / 38

Exercise (Application in Geometry)
Show that if the diagonals of a parallelogram are perpendicular then the
parallelogram is a rhombus.
Solution:
Consider Figure 4, we can see that
AB = DC = a, AD = BC = b, AC = a + b and BD = b − a.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Figure 4: Parallelogram ABCD

The Scalar (Dot) Product Exercise 20 / 38
Exercise (Application in Geometry)

We know that diagonals of the parallelogram are perpendicular so

AC · BD = 0
(a + b) · (b − a) = 0
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
a · b + a · (−a) + b · b + b · (−a) = 0
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜2 ˜
−|a| + |b|2 = 0
˜ ˜
|b|2 = |a|2 .
˜ ˜
Hence the parallelogram is a rhombus.

The Scalar (Dot) Product Exercise 21 / 38

The Scalar Product in Terms of Components

The scalar product of any two vectors is the sum of the products of their
corresponding components. To show this, we consider two arbitrary
vectors a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k. By the basic laws of
˜ ˜ ˜ that ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
scalar product, we have

a · b = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) · (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= a1 b1 i · i + a2 b2 j · j + a3 b3 k · k
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 ,

since

i · i = j · j = k · k = 1,
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
i · j = j · k = k · i = 0.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

The Scalar (Dot) Product The Scalar Product in Terms of Components 22 / 38

Deductions

1 If a = b then
˜ ˜
a · a = |a|2 = a21 + a22 + a23 .
˜ ˜ ˜
2 The unit vector in the same direction as the vector a is
˜
a a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k
b = ˜ = q˜
a ˜ ˜.
˜ 1 |a| a2 + a 2 + a 3
˜ 1 2 3

3 The unit vector in the opposite direction as the vector a is

˜
a a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
b2 = − ˜ = − q˜
a ˜ ˜.
˜ |a| a2 + a2 + a3
˜ 1 2 3

The Scalar (Dot) Product The Scalar Product in Terms of Components 23 / 38

The Angle Between Two Vectors
Let θ be the angle between the non-zero vectors a and b, then the
˜ ˜
definition of scalar product

a · b = |a||b| cos θ.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
So
a·b
cos θ = ˜ ˜ = a ˆ · ˆb.
|a||b| ˜ ˜
˜ ˜
In terms of the components of a and b we have that
˜ ˜
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
cos θ = q  q .
a21 + a22 + a23 b21 + b22 + b33

Remark
It is clear that if a and b are perpendicular, then a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = 0.
˜ ˜
The Scalar (Dot) Product The Angle Between Two Vectors 24 / 38
Direction Cosines of a Vector (Direction Vectors)

Consider vector a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and let α, β and γ be the angles a

˜ ˜ ˜ and˜ Oz axes respectively. Then the ˜
makes with the positive Ox, Oy
projection of a in the direction of unit standard vector i in the Ox axis is
˜ ˜
given by
Proj(a; i) = a · i = a1 = |a| cos α.
˜˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Similarly,

Proj(a; j) = a · j = a2 = |a| cos β,

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Proj(a; k) = a · k = a3 = |a| cos γ.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

Remark
The angles α, β and γ are called the direction angles of a. The scalars
˜
cos α, cos β and cos γ are called the direction cosines of a relative to the
˜
given axes.

The Scalar (Dot) Product Direction Cosines of a Vector 25 / 38

Direction Cosines of a Vector and Direction Vectors

We can rewrite a in terms of its direction cosines and make the following
˜
deduction. We have that

a = |a|(i cos α + j cos β + k cos γ)

a˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
˜ = (i cos α + j cos β + k cos γ)
|a| ˜ ˜ ˜
˜
a
ˆ = (i cos α + j cos β + k cos γ)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
|ˆ
a| = |(i cos α + j cos β + k cos γ)|
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
1 = cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ.

Definition
A vector that specifies the direction of another vector is called a direction
vector.

The Scalar (Dot) Product Direction Cosines of a Vector 26 / 38

Summary

Scalar Product: a · b = |a||b| cos θ, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
b·a
Scalar Projection: Proj(b; a) = |b| cos θ = ˜|a|˜ = b · a.
ˆ
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Vector Projection: P(b; a) = aProj(
ˆ b; a).
˜ ˜ √˜ ˜ ˜
Positive Definite Law: |a| = a · a ≥ 0.
˜ ˜ ˜
Commutative Property: a · b = b · a.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Homogeneous Property: (λa) · b = λ(a · b) = a · (λb)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Distributive Property:

a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
and
(b + c) · a = b · a + c · a
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

The Scalar (Dot) Product Summary 27 / 38

Summary

Useful Bounds:
|a · b| ≤ |a||b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
and
|(|a| − |b|)| ≤ |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Scalar Product w.r.t their Components: a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .
˜ ˜
Angle between vectors:
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
cos θ = q  q .
a21 + a22 + a23 b21 + b22 + b33

Direction Cosines: a = |a|(i cos α + j cos β + k cos γ) such that

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
1 = cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ.

The Scalar (Dot) Product Summary 28 / 38

The Vector (Cross) Product

Definition
Let a and b be two non-zero vectors with a common initial point and whose
˜ ˜
directions are inclined at an angle θ, where 0 < θ < π. The vector product
of a and b, denoted by a × b, is the vector whose magnitude is |a||b| sin θ
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane containing a and b. Thus
˜ ˜
a × b = |a||b| sin θˆ
n,
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
where n
ˆ is a unit normal vector to the plane containing a and b.
˜ ˜ ˜
Remark
It is clear that this product operation yields a vector quantity hence the
name vector (or cross) product.

The Vector (Cross) Product Definition 29 / 38

The Direction of the Vector Product

The direction of the vector product follows the right-hand rule.

Right-Hand Rule
Using the right hand;
point the index finger in the direction of a and
˜
point the middle finger in the direction of b then
˜
the thumb is in the direction of a × b.
˜ ˜

The Vector (Cross) Product Definition 30 / 38

Properties of the Vector Product

If a = 0 or b = 0 then the angle between them is indeterminate.

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
However, we have that a × b = 0 since |a| = 0 or |b| = 0.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
If θ = 0 or θ = π (thus parallel or anti-parallel vectors) then sin θ = 0.
We have that a × b has indeterminate direction and magnitude equal
˜ ˜
to zero. So a × b = 0. Conversely, if a × b = 0 and a and b are
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
non-zero vectors then sin θ = 0. This implies that θ = 0 or θ = π.
We conclude that two non-zero vectors are parallel or anti-parallel if
and only if their the vector product is equal to zero. So for any vector
a we have that a × a = a × (−a) = 0.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
There exist a vector which is perpendicular to the plane of two
non-parallel vectors a and b. That vector must be parallel to the
˜ ˜
vector product of a and b.
˜ ˜

The Vector (Cross) Product Properties of the Vector Product 31 / 38

Properties of the Vector Product
Non-Commutative Property
Let a and b be any two vectors, then
˜ ˜
a × b = −b × a.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
This implies that vector product of two vectors is not commutative.

Proof.
Let θ be the angle between a and b then π − θ is the angle between the
˜ ˜
vectors −b and a. Let nˆ be a unit vector perpendicular to the plane
˜ ˜ ˜
containing a and b. Since the rotation from a to b is the same at that from
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
−b to a we have that
˜ ˜
−b × a = | − b||a| sin(π − θ)ˆ
n
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= |b||a| sin(θ)ˆ
n
˜ ˜ ˜
= a × b.
˜ ˜
The Vector (Cross) Product Properties of the Vector Product 32 / 38
Properties of the Vector Product
Mutually Perpendicular Vectors
Let θ = π2 be the angle between a and b then the three vectors a, b and
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
a × b are mutually orthogonal. We have that
˜ ˜
a × b = |a||b|ˆ
n
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜˜
or
a×b
ˆ=˜ ˜ =a
n ˆ × ˆb,
˜ |a||b| ˜ ˜
˜ ˜
where a, ˆ ˆb and n ˆ are the unit vectors in the directions of a, b and a × b
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
respectively.
For instance, standard unit vectors i, j, k are mutually orthogonal and
˜˜ ˜
satisfy the following
i × j = −j × i = k,
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
j × k = −k × j = i,
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
k × i = −i × k = j.
The Vector (Cross) Product
˜ ˜ Properties
˜ of ˜the Vector
˜ Product 33 / 38
Properties of the Vector Product
Homogeneous Law
Let a and b be non-zero vectors and λ a real number, then
˜ ˜
a × (λb) = (λa) × b = λ(a × b).
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Deductions:
(λa) × (µb) = λµ(a × b),
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
where λ and µ are real numbers.

Distributive Law
For any three vectors a, b and c, we have that
˜ ˜ ˜
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
and
(b + c) × a = b × a + c × a
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
The Vector (Cross) Product Properties of the Vector Product 34 / 38
Properties of the Vector Product

Remark
The addition, scalar and vector products are the three standard
operations in vector algebra.
It is important to note that a · b = a · c does not necessarily imply
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
that b = c in vector algebra. This is because we can simplify it as
˜ ˜
a · (b − c) = 0 and this means that a is perpendicular to b − c.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
Similarly, if a × b = a × c then it is not true that b = c since we can
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
rewrite the equation as a × (b − c) = 0. Thus a is parallel to (b − c),
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
which can also be expressed as b − c = λa or b = c + λa.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜

The Vector (Cross) Product Properties of the Vector Product 35 / 38

Geometrical Meaning of the Vector Product
Consider the parallelogram OACB with OA and OB as its non-parallel
sides and h its height. We let θ be the angle between OA and OB. This is
depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Vector area of a Parallelogram

The Vector (Cross) Product Geometrical Meaning of the Vector Product 36 / 38

Geometrical Meaning of the Vector Product
We know that the area A of a parallelogram is the product of its height
and the length of its base side. From Figure 5, we can deduce that
A = |a|h and h = |b| sin θ. Therefore the area of the parallelogram is given
˜ ˜
by
A = |a||b| sin θ = |a × b|.
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
For this reason, a × b is referred to as the vector area of the parallelogram.
˜ ˜
Deduction:
It is clear that the area of the parallelogram OACB is twice that of
the triangle OAB. It follows that the vector area of a triangle ABC
is given by
1 1 1
|AB × AC| = |BC × BA| = |CA × CB|.
2 2 2

The points A, B and C are collinear if and only if AB × AC = 0.

˜
The Vector (Cross) Product Geometrical Meaning of the Vector Product 37 / 38
The Vector Product in Terms of their Components

Definition
Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k be two vectors. By the
˜ ˜ ˜
˜ product, ˜ ˜ ˜
properties of vector we have that˜

a × b = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) × (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k)
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k
 ˜ ˜ ˜
i j k 
˜ ˜

= a1 a˜2 a3  .
 
 b1 b2 b3 

The Vector (Cross) Product The Vector Product in Terms of their Components 38 / 38