MAPEH

MONA LISA
• Mona Lisa, also called Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo,
Italian La Gioconda, or French La Joconde, oil painting on a poplar wood panel by Leonardo
da Vinci, probably the world’s most famous painting. It was painted sometime between 1503
and 1519, when Leonardo was living in Florence, and it now hangs in the Louvre
Museum, Paris, where it remained an object of pilgrimage in the 21st century. The sitter’s
mysterious smile and her unproven identity have made the painting a source of ongoing
investigation and fascination.

TRIVIA ABOUT MONA LISA

• It may be unfinished - Although he began
working on the Mona Lisa in the first decade of
the 1500s, there is evidence to suggest that
Leonardo da Vinci was still refining the painting
around 1516 or 1517. Da Vinci’s right hand was
partially paralyzed by 1517, so any finishing
touches may have been impossible for him to paint.
A popular piece of evidence used to argue that the Mona Lisa  is unfinished is the subject’s
lack of eyebrows, though this has been hotly debated. Some historians argue that not having
eyebrows was fashionable for Italian women in the early 1500s. In 2007, French engineer
Pascal Cotte performed high-resolution scans on the painting and found that Mona Lisa did
once have eyebrows, but they had faded, likely as a result of time and shoddy restoration
work.

• It was once believed to be a self-portrait - One of the

most enduring mysteries of the Mona Lisa  is the identity of its
subject. One particularly interesting theory suggested that the
painting is actually a self-portrait of da Vinci himself! Given
that the Mona Lisa portrays a woman, that seems unlikely, but
bear with us. Artist Lillian Schwartz did a digital analysis in
which she found similarities between the facial features
of Mona Lisa  and da Vinci’s Portrait of a Man in Red Chalk, which is thought to be a self-
portrait of the artist. Could da Vinci's famous portrait depict his own face, with a feminine
twist? If you're shaking your head no, most scholars
are in agreement with you. The identity of the Mona
Lisa has been largely put to rest in recent years. It's now believed to depict Lisa del Giocondo,
a wealthy woman from Florence, Italy, and was most likely commissioned by her husband
Francesco del Giocondo. This theory is corroborated by a 1503 note written by Florence city
official Agostino Vespucci. The note was discovered in 2005, in the margins of a book at
Heidelberg University.

• It once hung in Napoleon’s bedroom - Before it found a home in the Louvre,

the Mona Lisa spent time with several French leaders. After da Vinci died, his favorite
apprentice was in possession of the painting. It then came into the possession of King Francis
I of France, who displayed it in the Palace of Fontainebleau. Later, Louis XIV moved the Mona
Lisa to the Palace of Versailles, where it remained until the French Revolution. In 1800,
Napoleon had the Mona Lisa  moved from the Louvre to the Tuileries Palace. He had the
painting hung in his bedroom so he could admire it whenever he wanted, which he did for
about four years.

• It was stolen in 1911 - In late August 1911, a handyman at the Louvre stole the Mona
Lisa. Vincenzo Peruggia was an Italian nationalist who believed the painting should be
brought back and displayed in its home country. It was in his possession for two years, and no
one was any the wiser. He was finally caught trying to sell the painting in Florence. The theft
of the Mona Lisa was a worldwide news sensation and made the painting the household
name it is today. Prior to its disappearance, it had only been well known to members of the
art world and academics. People all over the world followed the story of the missing
masterpiece, especially the French. People lined up for hours just to see the blank space
where Mona Lisa  once hung and brought flowers and notes for her.

• Pablo Picasso was one of the suspects in the theft - Before Peruggia was
caught, the manhunt for the Mona Lisa’s thief was immense. Suspicion soon fell on a group of
“art dissidents”, including Pablo Picasso and his friend, art critic Guillaume Apollinaire. They
had been known for their vocal dislike of the kind of art displayed in museums like the
Louvre. Apollinaire had even signed a manifesto that threatened to burn the museum to the
ground. The suspicion deepened when it was discovered that Apollinaire had protected a
man who had stolen multiple items from the Louvre in the past, and two of those items were
found in Picasso’s apartment. Apollinaire was even briefly arrested. Both men were soon
exonerated.

• It has been attacked multiple times - After the Mona Lisa was rediscovered in 1913,
major steps were taken to ensure its safety, but that did not stop people from trying to
damage the famous painting. In 1956, a Bolivian tourist threw a rock at it, shattering the
protective glass and damaging the painting. You can still see where the pigment was
damaged near the subject's left elbow if you look hard enough. In 1974, a woman sprayed the
protective glass with red paint while the Mona Lisa was on display at the Tokyo National
Museum to protest the museum’s failure to provide access to disabled people. The most
recent major attack on the Mona Lisa was in 2009. A Russian woman who was upset that she
had been denied French citizenship threw a teacup at the painting. Luckily, no damage was
done as the teacup simply shattered when it hit the bulletproof glass.

• It came to America at the request of Jackie

Kennedy - When French minister of culture Andre Malraux was
visiting the United States in 1962, First Lady Jackie Kennedy
gave him a tour of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.
Being an art lover and Francophile herself, Jackie mentioned
that it would be wonderful if Americans could see France’s most
famous painting. Malraux and French President Charles de
Gaulle agreed. The Mona Lisa  sailed across the Atlantic and
arrived in America in 1963. It was displayed first at the National
Gallery of Art in D.C. and then at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
in New York City. The very first visitor at the Met to see the Mona
Lisa was Ruth Amanuel from Langley Park, Maryland, who had
been standing in line since 7:30 that morning. After her visit, she
said it was well worth the wait.

• It has the highest known insurance valuation in art history - When the Mona
Lisa went on tour in the 1960s, it was given an insurance valuation of $100 million, the
equivalent of roughly $870 million today. The Mona Lisa currently holds the Guinness World
Record for the highest insurance valuation for a painting, and it’s hard to imagine another
work of art taking her place anytime soon.

•  "Mona Lisa" is not her name. - The painting's subject is commonly thought to be
Lisa Gherardini, whose wealthy—and presumably adoring—husband Francesco del
Giocondo commissioned the work in Florence, Italy around 1503. This explains the less
prevalent title for the painting, La Gioconda, or La Joconde in French. The name Mona
Lisa (or Monna Lisa, as the Italians prefer) roughly translates to "My Lady Lisa." Leonardo da
Vinci never completed the portrait though—when he died in 1519, it was one of many
unfinished works left to his assistant.
• Her eyebrows are a matter of debate. - Some claim the subject's lack of eyebrows
is representative of high-class fashion of the time. Others insist her AWOL eyebrows are proof
that Mona Lisa is an unfinished masterpiece. But in 2007 ultra-detailed digital scans of the
painting revealed da Vinci had once painted on eyebrows and bolder eyelashes. Both had
simply faded over time or had fallen victim to years of restoration work.

• Men have died from loving her. - In 1852, an artist named Luc Maspero supposedly
threw himself from the fourth floor of a Parisian hotel, leaving a suicide note that read: "For
years I have grappled desperately with her smile. I prefer to die." In 1910, one enamored
fan came before her solely to shoot himself as he looked upon her.

• Mona Lisa's smile doesn't change, but your mindset does. - That is-she-or-
isn't-she smile has long fascinated artists and historians. But in 2000, Harvard neuroscientist
Dr. Margaret Livingstone applied a scientific method to why Mona Lisa's smile seems to shift.
It's all about where your focus is and how your brain responds.

BAROQUE PERIOD
Baroque period, (17th–18th century) Era in the arts that originated in Italy in the 17th century
and flourished elsewhere well into the 18th century. It embraced painting, sculpture,
architecture, decorative arts, and music. The word, derived from a Portuguese term for an
irregularly shaped pearl and originally used derogatorily, has long been employed to describe
a variety of characteristics, from dramatic to bizarre to overdecorated. The style was
embraced by countries absorbed in the Counter-Reformation; artworks commissioned by the
Roman Catholic church were overtly emotional and sensory. The period’s most notable
practitioners were Annibale Carracci (see Carracci family), Caravaggio, and Gian Lorenzo
Bernini. A spectacular example of the Baroque arts is the Palace of Versailles. In music, the
Baroque era is usually considered to extend from c. 1600 to c. 1750, when such significant
new vocal and instrumental genres as opera, oratorio, cantata, sonata, and concerto were
introduced and such towering composers as Claudio Monteverdi, J.S. Bach, and George
Frideric Handel flourished.

RENAISSANCE PERIOD
The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and
economic “rebirth” following the Middle Ages. Generally described as taking place
from the 14th century to the 17th century, the Renaissance promoted the
rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art. Some of the greatest
thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and artists in human history thrived during
this era, while global exploration opened up new lands and cultures to European
commerce. The Renaissance is credited with bridging the gap between the Middle
Ages and modern-day civilization.

From Darkness to Light: The Renaissance Begins

During the Middle Ages , a period that took place between the fall of ancient Rome
in 476 A.D. and the beginning of the 14th century, Europeans made few advances in
science and art.
Also known as the “Dark Ages,” the era is often branded as a time of war, ignorance,
famine and pandemics  such as the Black Death .
Some historians, however, believe that such grim depictions of the Middle Ages
were greatly exaggerated, though many agree that there was relatively little regard
for ancient Greek and Roman philosophies and learning at the time.
Humanism
During the 14th century, a cultural movement called humanism began to gain
momentum in Italy. Among its many principles, humanism promoted the idea that
man was the center of his own universe, and people should embrace human
achievements in education, classical arts, literature and science.
In 1450, the invention of the Gutenberg printing press allowed for improved
communication throughout Europe and for ideas to spread more quickly.
As a result of this advance in communication, little-known texts from early
humanist authors such as those by Francesco Petrarch  and Giovanni Boccaccio,
which promoted the renewal of traditional Greek and Roman culture and values,
were printed and distributed to the masses.
Additionally, many scholars believe advances in international finance and trade
impacted culture in Europe and set the stage for the Renaissance.
Medici Family
The Renaissance started in Florence, Italy, a place with a rich cultural history where
wealthy citizens could afford to support budding artists.
Members of the powerful Medici family , which ruled Florence for more than 60
years, were famous backers of the movement.

Renaissance Geniuses
Some of the most famous and groundbreaking Renaissance intellectuals, artists,
scientists and writers include the likes of:
• Leonardo da Vinci  (1452–1519): Italian painter, architect, inventor and
“Renaissance man” responsible for painting “The Mona Lisa” and “The Last Supper.
• Desiderius Erasmus  (1466–1536): Scholar from Holland who defined the humanist
movement in Northern Europe. Translator of the New Testament into Greek.  
• Rene Descartes  (1596–1650): French philosopher and mathematician regarded as
the father of modern philosophy. Famous for stating, “I think; therefore I am.”
• Galileo  (1564-1642): Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer whose pioneering
work with telescopes enabled him to describes the moons of Jupiter and rings of
Saturn. Placed under house arrest for his views of a heliocentric universe.
• Nicolaus Copernicus  (1473–1543): Mathematician and astronomer who made first
modern scientific argument for the concept of a heliocentric solar system.
• Thomas Hobbes  (1588–1679): English philosopher and author of “Leviathan.”
• Geoffrey Chaucer  (1343–1400): English poet and author of “The Canterbury Tales.”
• Giotto (1266-1337): Italian painter and architect whose more realistic depictions
of human emotions influenced generations of artists. Best known for his frescoes in
the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.
• Dante  (1265–1321): Italian philosopher, poet, writer and political thinker who
authored “The Divine Comedy.”
• Niccolo Machiavelli  (1469–1527): Italian diplomat and philosopher famous for
writing “The Prince” and “The Discourses on Livy.”
• Titian  (1488–1576): Italian painter celebrated for his portraits of Pope Paul III and
Charles I and his later religious and mythical paintings like “Venus and Adonis” and
"Metamorphoses."

MEDIEVAL PERIOD
Medieval Literature (c. 350 – c. 1475)

The Medieval period runs from the end of Late Antiquity in the fourth century to the English
Renaissance of the late fifteenth century.

The early portion of the Medieval period in England is dominated by Anglo-Saxons, whose
language is incomprehensible to today's speakers of English. That early portion is known as
the Old English period. (It is covered in a separate section of this website.) The Old English
period came to an end with the Norman Invasion of 1066. Normans spoke a dialect of French
later called Anglo-Norman.

Alongside Anglo-Norman, Old English developed into Middle English. Middle English is a
distinct variety of English, influenced in large part by Anglo-Norman French. For example, Old
English speakers did not distinguish between /f/ and /v/. Just like speakers of Modern
German, OE speakers would use both sounds ([f] and [v]) for the letter <f>. "Aefre" was
pronounced [ever]. But French speakers do distinguish these two sounds. (Vouz means "you"
and fou means "crazy.") After the Conquest, English people had to distinguish between, for
example, veal and feel. So, new sounds, new words, new syntax—all contribute to a
significant change in the English language. And to a new literature.

The Invasion put French-speaking people at the highest levels of society. Families that ruled
England also ruled and held land in France. William the Conquerer was also Duke of
Normandy, and the English King continued to hold that office and its lands until the
thirteenth century. Only a handful of Anglo-Saxon families remained in any postions of
power. In England, French was the language of education and literature. It was not an
obvious choice for Chaucer to write his Canterbury Tales in English. Consequently, the High
Middle Ages in England were characterized culturally by their close relation to French and
Italian arts. This will change in the late thirteenth century as England and France come to
loggerheads.

Literary selections from various centuries will give you a very rough idea of the wide variety of
literature circulating in Medieval England.

12th Century

In the twelfth century,  perhaps the most accomplished vernacular writer was an English
woman named Marie de France. She wrote in Anglo-Norman. (We will read her in an English
translation.) Marie was one of the main forces behind the stories of King Arthur and the
Round Table. In France, Chretien de Troyes was writing Arthurian romances for Marie of
Champagne. Other Anglo-Norman writers are described in our authors page.

The works of Aristotle and other Greeks became widely available in the twelfth century.
Translated into Latin for the first time, they fueled a renaissance. Universities in Bologna,
Padua, Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge took up the teaching of logic and science. Most reading
was done by cloistered clerics or by French aristocracy. There was almost no social cachet in
being an author or in owning books.

13th Century

The thirteenth century marks the flowering of Latin literature in England. The reign of King
John (1167–1216) is characterized in part by an increasingly deep cultural separation
between France and England. Anti-papal attitudes (Oxford professor Robert Grosseteste
called Pope Innocent IV the Antichrist) and a growing sense of nationalism helped to fuel
native literary talent. English literature comes into its own. Still, very little survives, and most
of it is in Latin.

The "preaching orders" of monks came into existence: the Dominicans and the Franciscans.
Scholar A.G. Rigg says, "They formed a new kind of intellectual elite....Their evangelical
fervour and commitment to academic training contributed to the rise of the English
universities." Their squabbling and venal excesses do not become objects of widespread
literary satire until the fourteenth century. In this century, they help to increase literacy and
the stock of books in England.

14th Century

During the fourteenth century English literature comes into its own. This is the century
of John Gower, Geoffrey Chaucer, and William Langland. We also have a number of surviving
vernacular romances such as Sir Orfeo, as well as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. (We will
read these in the original Middle English.)

The Battle of Bannockburn (1314) and the defeat of the English by the Glorious Scots is only
one of many upheavals and revolutions during this tumultuous century. Other calamitous
events include the Black Death (or Plague) in the middle of the century; the Peasants'
Revolt of 1381; and the Hundred Years' War.

Perhaps the single most important development for our purposes is the wholesale
replacement of the French language in government and law by the English language. Anti-
French attitudes (due to the war, among other things) helped displace French from polite
society and from literature. John Gower, Chaucer's friend, wrote one of his major poems in
Latin, another in French, and a third in English.

15th Century

1422 marks the death of Henry IV and a subtle shift from medieval to humanistic themes in
literature. For our purposes, one of the interesting developments concerns the Mystery
Plays. (Mysteries were unions or guilds.) These plays were performed in a number of towns
and involved much of the working population. They retell the story of the Bible, sometimes
humorously.

Another remarkable literary phenomena of the early fifteenth century is Scottish interest in
Chaucer. Like today's "fan fiction," Scots authors copied Chaucer's style so well that for
centuries some of their stories were thought to be Chaucer's own.

At the end of the century, a German silversmith named Johannes Gutenberg invented
moveable type. The printing revolution made books cheaper and more widely accessible.
The first successful printer in England was William Caxton. He printed self-help books and
romances, including the tales of King Arthur. He also printed a book on chess.