GEOGROPHY 101©

REVISION FOR END OF TERM TEST

BY: ADITYA PERSAD

 Plate Boundaries

 Divergent- A divergent plate margin is when two plates move apart.

When the plates move apart magma rises slowly upwards between
the two plates. New crust is formed. Landforms like underwater
volcanoes are formed.
 Convergent- A convergent plate margin is when two plates come
together. The heavier (oceanic) plate sinks beneath lighter plate
(continental).This happens in the zone of subduction. The oceanic
crusts melt to form magma. The magma then rises out of to create
volcanoes, island arcs etc.
 Transform- A transform plate margin is when two plates slide past
each other without converging or diverging. They produce major
earthquakes.
WEATHERING
 WEATHERING

Weathering- it is the breakdown of rocks to form soil. It does not involve

the removal of the rock.
The (3) types of rock weathering are:
❖ Physical weathering- it is the breakdown of rock but the rock doesn't
change its mineral composition.

❖ Chemical Weathering- It alters the minerals that make up the rock

and may produce changes in color or texture.

❖ Biological weathering- It is when Plants and animals sometimes help

to break down rocks, Particularly if unconsolidated or soft.
PHYSICAL
WEATHERING
 Frost Action- In cold climates
when the temperature falls below
freezing point at night, Frost action
is an important form of
weathering.

 Pressure Release- When rocks are

removed by erosion, the pressure
weighing down on the rocks
below them is reduced. They
expand slightly. As the rocks
expands, joints and cracks are
formed. This process is called
Pressure release.
 Chemical Weathering

 Hydrolysis- This happens when a mineral reacts chemically with water.

Feldspar is a hard rock forming material, which reacts with minerals to produce
clay minerals.
 Solution- Some minerals such as rock salt and calcium bicarbonate, can be
dissolved by water. Sometimes rainwater are slightly acidic and so is the water
in the soil. This increases the rate at witch solution operation on moist minerals.
 Oxidation- This happens when a mineral reacts with the oxygen in the air.
When iron is left exposed in the atmosphere, rusts starts to form on the surface.
Many rock forming minerals such as sulfur can also be altered by oxidation.
 Carbonation- Carbonation is a form of chemical weathering that affects
limestone. (Processes of carbonation will be discussed in detail in the next
slide.)
 PROCESS OF CARBONATION.

 Limestone consists of mainly calcium carbonate (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ). Before

weathering, This mineral isn’t soluble.
 The atmosphere contains Carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 ). There is a higher
concentration of carbon dioxide in the air trapped between soil
particles.
 Rainwater reacts with the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and in the
soil to form a weak carbonic acid (𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 ).
 This carbonic acid reacts with the limestone to produce calcium
bicarbonate in this chemical reaction:
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2
 BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

Biological Weathering involves the breakdown of rocks by the action f lants

and animals.

o Plants > Plant roots growing in joints in rocks help to split up the rocks.
o Animals > Animals burrowing through the soil loosen the soil, the soil is
moved to the surface
o Chemical Action > Decaying vegetation form humus, which is acidic.
The rocks are eaten away by acids.
MASS WASTING
 Mass Wasting- Mass wasting is the
movement of rock fragments downslope
under the influence of gravity.

MASS Soil creep- It is the slow movement of

WASTING material downslope.

Landslides- A rapid movement of large

masses of rock or soil and moves
downslope.
EVIDENCE OF
SOIL CREEP
Evidence:
❖ Bent Fence
❖ Leaning lamppost
❖ Leaning tree
❖ Leaning Wall
 CONDITIONS LANDSLIDES TAKE
PLACE IN
Conditions:
❖ A steep slope
❖ When the base of the slope is undercut
❖ When there is no support for the rock or the soil and it moves
downslope.
❖ Soil becomes saturated with heavy water during rainfall.
❖ Loose soil or unconsolidated rock.
❖ When there is a thin layer of clay between the rock.
 HOW ARE LANDSLIDES CAUSED

 Removing trees- tree roots hold together the soil. When trees are
removed the soil becomes loose and can slide easily downslope.

 Building on Steep Slopes- Slopes are not strong enough to withstand

the weights of heavy buildings. As result they can slide downslope.

 Road Construction- When roads are cut into a hillside the slope
angle is increased. As a result landslides can happen.
EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES
Structural
Damage

Crop
Loss of Life Landslides Destruction

Habitat
Destruction
LIMESTONE &
KARST FEATURES
 WHAT IS LIMESTONE

 Limestone are rocks mainly composed of calcium carbonate, a

mineral with a chemical formula of CaCO3.There is white limestone,
coral limestone and yellow limestone. There are many different
types of limestone:
 Some limestones are mainly made up of coral.
 Others composed mainly of shells.
 Most Bahamian limestone are oolites.
 Most limestone consists of pure calcium.
 Some contains high proportions of mud giving it a yellow/brownish
color.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIMESTONE

 It is a sedimentary rock
 Limestone is mainly composed of calcium carbonate
 Limestone are weathered by a process called carbonation
 Limestone rocks are permeable
 Limestone rocks are not soluble
 Limestone rocks contains, joints fissures and pores.
 KARST FEATURES
 Surface features that form on limestone rock are:
❖ Sinkholes
❖ Swallow holes
❖ Cockpit karsts
❖ Dolines
❖ Dry valley

❖ Underground Features:
❖ Caves
❖ Stalagmites & Stalactites, Pillars
❖ Underground Rivers/ Streams
SINKHOLES

 A sinkhole is a funnel shaped

depression formed on a limestone
landscape.
 Causes:
 Heavy loads on the surface
 Disturbance of the soil
 Concentration of water flow
 Water impoundments
SWALLOW HOLES

 A sinkhole can develop into a

swallow hole. This is a larger
depression. These holes allow rivers to
pass underground.
 Formation:
 Sinkholes and Swallow holes develop
as water penetrates the poures and
fissures of the limestone. The fissures
are enlarged by the process of
solution.
LIMESTONE PAVEMENT

 A limestone is a surface with bare limestone rock with

no soil.
 Formation of limestone:
 When rain-falls on limestone the joints and cracks
become eroded
 Small groov es dev elop leav ing ridges in-between.
 The ridges are called clints and the eroded areas are
called grykes.
 All limestone in the Caribbean are pitted and
groov ed by this process.
 The carbonation process is the weathering process
that operates to form a limestone pavement.
Solution is also inv olved.
COCKPIT KARST

 Cockpit Karst are made up of small Criss Cross

pattern of joints which dissolve to form
depressions and Conical hills.
 Formation:
 The limestone has a cress cross pattern of joints
 The rock nearest to the joint dissolves the
fastest, because this is where water collects.
 A deep star shaped depression is formed
where the two joints meet.
 Small conical hills remain away from the joints.
Where jointing is regular the hills arrange in
rows.
DOLINE

 A doline is formed when several

swallow holes combine. This is a
funnel shaped depression. Size 10 to
100m in diameter.
 There are (2) types of doline:
 Solution Doline
 Collapse Doline
CAVES & CAVERNS

 A cav e is a natural underground hollow in the rock

usually large enough for humans to enter.
 A cav ern is a large extensiv e cav e with a deep
chamber of sev eral passages.
 Formation:
1. The process of carbonation dissolv es the limestone
along the joints and the bedding planes of the rock.
2. This causes the formation of a tunnel
3. Further the solution of the rock leads to the
formation of a cav e
4. This process happens below the water table. The
water table sinks as the rocks are dissolv ed forming
cav es.
Formation of Stalactites and Stalagmites

 Stalactites:
 Carbonated water filters through the joints and rock of the
limestone rock.
 Drop after drop it slowly trickles through the rocks of the roofs of the
cav e
 As each drop hangs from the ceiling it looses carbon dioxide by
ev aporation and a thin layer of calcite is deposited
 Stalagmites:
 I n the same process some of the carbonated water from the
hanging stalagmites drips through the floor to the hollow centered
of the stalagmites.
 Some of it ev aporates, leaving deposits spread on the floor.
 As the w ater continues to drip to the floor, calcite deposits
gradually build upwards in a short fat columns
 These are stalagmites
CORAL
REEFS
CORALS & CORAL REEFS

There are 3 types of

Corals: Coral Reefs:
coral reefs:
• They are tiny • Coral reefs are an • Fringing Reef
marine animal offshore ridge • Barrier Reef
organisms called made out of • Atolls
polyps. calcium
• They grow in carbonate which
clean shallow has been formed
water no more by secretion of
than 45m deep. the polyps.
FORMATION OF
CORAL REEFS
 Coral Reefs are formed when the
coral polyps use the calcium
carbonate in the seawater to
build a casing around themselves.
Corals have amazing colors
because of a plant that lives in the
coral tissue called zooxanthellae.
FRINGING
REEFS
 This reef dev elops close to the
shore and is separated by a
shallow lagoon.
 Size- 0.5km to 2.5km wide
 E.g. Bucco Reef
BARRIER REEF
 A barrier reef is a reef lying
parallel to the coast but
separated by a wide and
deep lagoon.
 Lagoons Vary from 1.5km to
2km.
 E.g. The Great Barrier Reef in
Australia.
ATOLLS

 An atoll is a circular ring or horse shaped

reef, often surrounding an island or several
islands and enclosing a lagoon.
 Formation:
 Atolls develop at or near the surface of the
sea. They are built around the rims of
sunken volcanic corner or flat topped , with
circular mountains rising from the sea floor
which are called guyots.
 The atoll comprises of outer or seaward reef
and an inner lagoon section.
MAP WORK
COMPASS DIRECTION

 A compass is an instrument which is

used to measure direction. It points
northwards on a flat surface. The
compass has 360 degrees and is
divided into 4 equal parts; north,
south, east, west.
EIGHT & SIXTEEN POINT COMPASS
 ANGULAR BEARING

 Angular bearing gives the precise direction of any particular point

from another and is expressed in degrees.
 How to Calculate Angular Bearing:
 Find the bearing from Y to X.
 Connect point X to Y.
 Draw a North and South line through Y.
 Place the protractor with the angle aligned at 0 degrees and read
clockwise.
 State the angular bearing.
LINES OF LATITUDE & LONGITUDE

 Lines of Longitude:
 Determines a position of a place
 Any place on a meridian has the same line of longitude
 Longitudes are lines of median passing through poles. Each line of
longitude is a semi-circle.
 Lines of Latitude:
 They run east to west but measure your distance north to south.
LINES OF LATITUDE
LINES OF LONGITUDE
THE ROCK CYCLE
THE ROCK CYCLE
THANK
YOU