1

ANIMAL NUTRITION

What is a balanced diet?

A meal that contains all the necessary nutrients in correct
proportions, i.e. carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins & minerals,
water and fibre.

Why should energy intake relate to the following?

Gender;
Male need more energy than females because they have a large
body.
Age;
Young children require more energy for their size than adults do. This
is because children are still growing and are more active. Also, extra
proteins are required for making new tissues as the child grows. In
addition, more calcium, iron and vitamin A are needed for bone
formation, formation of haemoglobin and disease resistance
respectively.

Occupation;
The amount of energy people use in physical activity varies according
to how active they are, i.e.
 Sedentary work (office workers, clerical services) needs less
amount of energy
 Moderately active – light industry workers need more energy
than sedentary workers.
 Very active – (e.g. mine workers, builders, steel workers) need
more energy than the other groups above.

Pregnancy;
Energy requirements are increased during pregnancy to allow for the
growth of the baby and the adjustment of the mother’s body to
pregnancy. Pregnant women require more supply of calcium,
proteins, iron and vitamin D.
Lactation;
Lactation means the production of breast milk for feeding the baby.
Extra energy is required for the production of milk. Fats are laid down
during pregnancy as an energy store. A lactating mother’s diet should
contain protein, calcium and vitamin A and D.
 2

The main food groups are;

 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fats / oils

Carbohydrates
- There are the major energy sources for the body.
- Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

Proteins
- Build new cells
- Replace and repair worn out tissues
- Essential in the manufacture of hormones, antibodies and
enzymes
- Excess is stored as an energy source
- Are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen elements
- Also contains small amounts of Sulphur, iron, phosphorus
Proteins are made of smaller units called amino acids
Structure of amino acid
H

R C COOH

NH2
There are 20 amino acids.
Examples of amino acids are cysteine, glycine, alanine, glutamine,
proline etc.

Proteins are classified as;

- Plant protein – e.g. beans peanuts (legumes)
- Animal protein – e.g. milk, meat, eggs

Fats
 It is a good energy source
 Fats are usually solids whilst oils are liquids and insoluble in
water
 Fats consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements
 3

 A fat molecule is made of a glycerol molecule and three fatty

acids

Fatty acids
glycerol

Food tests

Food Nutrient Methodology Result Expected

-If the food sample is a solid

Starch 1.cut and crush the food
(Use Iodine sample and add water to Positive: Blue-black
Solution) make a solution colour
2Place a food sample on a
white tile Negative: reddish-brown
3 Add 5 drops of iodine colour observed
solution on the piece of food

-If the food sample is a

solution
1.place the food solution in
a test tube
2.add 5 drops of iodine
solution

Observe the colour changes

- If the food sample is a
Glucose solid
Also called Testing for 1.cut and crush the food
reducing sugars sample, put I in a test tube
(Use Benedicts’ and add water to make a
Solution or Fehling’s solution
solution) 2.Add a 5 drops of Benedict’
s solution, shake
3. place the mixture in a hot
water bath for 2 minutes
Positive:Brick red colour
(Also, green, orange and
yellow indicate presence
of glucose in small
amounts)
Negative:blue colour
observed
 4

If the food sample is a solid

Protein 1.cut and crush the food Positive:Purple colour
Also called the biuret sample, place the food observed
test sample in a test tube and
(Use Copper sulphate add water to make a
solution & Sodium solution Negative:blue colour
hydroxide solution) 2.Add 5 drops of sodium observed
hydroxide and shake
3. Add a 5 drops of copper
II sulphate and shake

Fats If the food sample is a solid Positive: a white

(a) Emulsion test 1.cut and crush the food emulsion/ milky white
sample and place it in a test colour will be observed
tube
2.Add ethanol and shake Negative: a clear solution
3.Allow the mixture to settle will be observed
and then decant the top
layer into another tube with
(b) Using Filter paper water
Greasy opaque mark
appears on paper.
- Place a food solution on a
filter paper and leave it to
dry

Digestion
It is the breaking down of large insoluble food substances into smaller
soluble particles that can be absorbed.

This process takes place in the alimentary canal/digestive system

/gut, which is a tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. When
straightened, a mature gut measures between 7.5m and 9.0m long
 5

Types of digestion

1) Physical digestion (mechanical digestion)

The breaking down of food substances in to smaller pieces through

the action of teeth, bile and muscular contractions.
It involves the processes of chewing, emulsification and peristalsis.

 During chewing the teeth tear, cut crush / grind food into
smaller particles with a large surface area for enzyme action.

 During emulsification, lipids(fats & oils) are broken down in to

droplets

 As muscles contract and relax the crush the food

2) Chemical digestion

The conversion of large food molecules in to smaller food nutrients

that can be absorbed by the body, through the action of enzymes.

Stages involved in the human digestion.

1. Ingestion; the taking in of food through the mouth

2. Digestion; the breaking down of large insoluble food molecules into

smaller soluble particles.

3. Absorption; the passage of digested food through the intestinal

walls (in the ileum) to the body fluids. i.e. the circulatory system

4. Assimilation; the building up of body’s own materials from the

absorbed food substances. i.e. usage of the absorbed food
substances.

5. Egestion; The discharge of the undigested, unabsorbed material

form the alimentary canal. The is done through the anus.
 6

Structure of the alimentary canal/digestive system/gut

Functions of parts;
a) The mouth;
Ingestion and mastication (chewing) takes place in the mouth (buccal
cavity).
 Teeth serve to grind food into smaller particles for easy
swallowing and increasing the surface area for enzyme activity.
 The saliva moistens / lubricates the food
 The tongue helps to work the food into a ball called food bolus
to be swallowed easily.

The enzyme salivary amylase produced by salivary glands under the

tongue begins the chemical digestion of starch into maltose.

When food is swallowed, the soft palate closes the opening of the
nasal cavity and epiglottis closes opening the trachea to avoid
choking. The food bolus is then pushed down through the
oesophagus the process of peristalsis
 7

Circular muscle Note that the circular muscles

always contract behind the
food bolus, thus explaining its
direction

Longitudinal muscle

b) The Stomach;
-This is a muscular bag which stores food temporarily and release it
in small quantities to the lower alimentary canal.
-It produces gastric juices which mix with food and churns it to a
watery paste called chime.

-Peristaltic action helps to churn the food.

The gastric juice secreted from the stomach walls contains;

1. Hydrochloric acid – which inactivates the salivary amylase and
kills most of the bacteria ingested with food.
2. Enzyme pepsin – which begins the chemical digestion of
proteins to peptides. Pepsin is only active in acidic conditions.

3. Mucus – it prevents the stomach from being corroded by its

own hydrochloric acid and also prevent it from being digested
by protease.
 8

c) Small intestine
The upper part is wider and called Duodenum, it is about 20cm long.
The rest of the small intestine is called the ileum and it’s the longest
part of the gut, about 6m to 7m.

Duodenum

Bile; a greenish fluid made in the liver and stored in gall bladder, is
secreted into the duodenum to emulsify fats; i.e. making them
digestible.

Pancreatic juice; an alkaline made by the pancreas and contains a

number of enzymes.
Trypsin – This converts some proteins peptides.
 Pancreatic amylase – Acts on starch converting it to maltose.
 Lipase - This breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

Note also, that the pancreatic juice contains sodium hydrogen

carbonate which is alkaline in order to provide the suitable pH
needed by the request of the enzymes.

Though the cells of the gut are partly made of proteins, they are
not attacked by proteases for the following reasons;
 The protein enzymes are secreted in an inactive form and
only become active when in a suitable pH
 There is mucus secretion which also serves to protect the
gut cells from self digestion.

Ileum
The digestive process of the duodenum continues here shortly and
the walls of the ileum also secrete intestinal juice which completes
digestion.
Digestive enzymes contained in the intestinal juices are; maltase and
peptidase.
maltase
Maltose Glucose

peptidase
Peptides Amino acids
 9

The ileum is the site for absorption of the digested food material. The
ileum is adapted to carry out its function because of the following
features;
 It is fairly long thus increasing the surface area for
absorption.
 The epithelium cells are very thin for easy and rapid
diffusion of food substances.
 It has many folds (finger-like projections called villi) on the
inner lining thus increasing the surface are for absorption.
 It is surrounded by a large network of blood capillaries to
allow for easy diffusion and rapid transport of food
substances to other parts of the body.

The end products of digestion (glucose, amino acids, glycerol and

fatty acids) are absorbed into the blood stream through diffusion and
active transport and they reach the liver through the hepatic portal
vein.

Structure of a villus as seen through a small section of the ileum.

 10

LOCATION GLANDS ENZYME SUBSTRATE PRODUCT

Mouth Salivary Amylase Starch Maltose

Stomach Gastric Pepsin Protein Peptides

Duodenum Pancreas Amylase Starch Maltose

Lipase Fats Fatty acids &
Trypsin Protein & Glycerol
Peptides Amino acids

Ileum Ileum Peptidase Peptides Amino acids

ASSIMILATION
This is whereby the end products of digestion are used within the
body.

1. Glucose
 Used by all cells during respiration
 Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver

2. Amino acids
 They are used to make protoplasm (living material), hormones
and enzymes
 Used to repair and replace worn out tissues
 Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver to form urea
which is excreted in urine

3. Fatty acids & glycerol

 These recombine in the lacteal to form fat globules
 They are stored under the skin and around organs for heat
insulation and as an energy store
 Used by cells for respiration when glucose and glycogen are
used up.
 11

d) Large Intestine
The large intestine is divided into the caecum, colon, and rectum.
 The caecum is a swollen sac located in the lower right-hand
portion of the abdominal cavity.
 The colon plays a very important role in the re-absorption of water
from the undigested waste food.
 The rectum, about 15 cm, is the terminal portion of the large
intestine. At the exit of the rectum, called the anus, is a round
muscle, the anal sphincter that closes the anus. The rectum stores
faeces and release them through the anus at interval. The release
of faeces is called egestion / elimination / defecation

Faeces are a mixture of substances such as;

 Undigested food mainly the cellulose
 Dead and living bacteria from the alimentary canal
 Mucus and dead cells from the gut walls. The cells lining the
gut have a limited life span.
 Surplus bile and other secretions which colour the faeces.

The large intestine has a smooth mucosal lining (only the rectum has
folds) that secretes mucus to lubricate the waste materials.

Describe the role of the liver in metabolism

1. Deamination
A process whereby excess amino acids are broken down by the liver
into glycogen and urea (nitrogenous waste)
The human body cannot store excess amino acids; therefore they are
taken to the liver for deamination where the amino group is removed
and the residues converted to glycogen for storage.

2. Fat metabolism
Breaking down of fats into CO2 and H20 to release energy.

3. Detoxification
The conversion of harmful substances into less harmful ones; e.g.
 Chemical substances in drugs and alcohol are broken down
into harmless substances.
 Used hormones are broken down into inactive forms
 12

 Ammonia produced during Deamination is converted into less

poisonous substance called urea – to be excreted through the
kidneys.
 Dead red blood cells are broken down and the iron stored. The
other waste forms bile.

4. Formation of bile
The liver produces bile which contains bile salts which are important
in the emulsification of fats bile is also alkaline in nature and so it
neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach.

5. Storage organ
A number of substances used by the body (such as glycogen, iron,
vitamin A, E, D ,K and B12) are stored in the liver.
6. Regulation of blood sugar
The liver is able to convert glucose, amino acids and other
substances to an insoluble carbohydrate called glycogen. Some of
the glucose may be from the hepatic portal vein carrying blood rich in
digested food from the ileum to the liver.
When the glucose level is higher than normal range (80mg
/100cm3 to 160mg/100cm3 of blood) the pancreas secretes
insulin hormone into the blood which activates the liver cells to
convert glucose to glycogen.
If the concentration of blood sugar falls below 80mg/100cm 3 of
blood, the pancreas secretes another hormone – glucagon
which activates the liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose.
Converted by

Glucagon

GLUCOSE
by
Converted
Insulin

GYCOGEN

Therefore this brings the glucose concentration to normal range.

 13

Note; if the blood glucose level rises above 160mg/100cm 3,

glucose is excreted by the kidneys. A Blood glucose concentration
below 40mg/100cm3 affects the brain cells adversely leading to
convulsions and coma.
Lack of insulin leads to a condition called Sugar diabetes

Addendum