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The Story of Penicillim
The Story of Penicillim
The fundamental trainings of biologists and engineers are distinctly different. In the devel-
opment of knowledge in the life sciences, unlike chemistry and physics, mathematical theo-
ries and quantitative methods (except statistics) have played a secondary role. Most progress
has been due to improvements in experimental tools. Results are qualitative and descriptive
models are formulated and tested. Consequently, biologists often have incomplete back-
grounds in mathematics but are very strong with respect to laboratory tools and, more im-
portantly, with respect to the interpretation of laboratory data from complex systems.
Engineers usually possess a very good background in the physical and mathematical
sciences. Often a theory leads to mathematical formulations, and the validity of the theory
is tested by comparing predicted responses to those in experiments. Quantitative models
and approaches, even to complex systems, are strengths. Biologists are usually better at
the formation of testable hypotheses, experimental design, and data interpretation from
complex systems. Engineers are typically unfamiliar with the experimental techniques
and strategies used by life scientists.
The skills of the engineer and life scientist are complementary. To convert the
promises of molecular biology into new processes to make new products requires the inte-
gration of these skills. To function at this level, the engineer needs a solid understanding
of biology and its experimental tools. In this book we provide sufficient biological back-
ground for you to understand the chapters on applying engineering principles to biosys-
tems. However, if you are serious about becoming a bioprocess engineer, you will need to
take further courses in microbiology, biochemistry, and cell biology, as well as more ad-
vanced work in biochemical engineering. If you already have these courses, these chapters
can be used for review.
In September 1928, Alexander Fleming at St. Mary’s Hospital in London was trying to
isolate the bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus, which causes boils. The technique in use
was to grow the bacterium on the surface of a nutrient solution. One of the dishes had
been contaminated inadvertently with a foreign particle. Normally, such a contaminated
plate would be tossed out. However, Fleming noticed that no bacteria grew near the invad-
ing substance (see Fig. 1.1).
Fleming’s genius was to realize that this observation was meaningful and not a
“failed” experiment. Fleming recognized that the cell killing must be due to an antibacter-
ial agent. He recovered the foreign particle and found that it was a common mold of the
Penicillium genus (later identified as Penicillium notatum). Fleming nurtured the mold to
grow and, using the crude extraction methods then available, managed to obtain a tiny
quantity of secreted material. He then demonstrated that this material had powerful an-
timicrobial properties and named the product penicillin. Fleming carefully preserved the
culture, but the discovery lay essentially dormant for over a decade.
Sec. 1.4 The Story of Penicillin: How Biologists and Engineers Work Together 3
Figure 1.1. Photograph of Alexander
Fleming’s original plate showing the growth
of the mold Penicillium notatum and its in-
hibitory action on bacterial growth. (With
permission, from Corbis Corporation.)
World War II provided the impetus to resurrect the discovery. Sulfa drugs have a
rather restricted range of activity, and an antibiotic with minimal side effects and
broader applicability was desperately needed. Howard Florey and Ernst Chain of Ox-
ford decided to build on Fleming’s observations. Norman Heatley played the key role
in producing sufficient material for Chain and Florey to test the effectiveness of peni-
cillin. Heatley, trained as a biochemist, performed as a bioprocess engineer. He devel-
oped an assay to monitor the amount of penicillin made so as to determine the kinetics
of the fermentation, developed a culture technique that could be implemented easily,
and devised a novel back-extraction process to recover the very delicate product. After
months of immense effort, they produced enough penicillin to treat some laboratory
animals.
Eighteen months after starting on the project, they began to treat a London bobby
for a blood infection. The penicillin worked wonders initially and brought the patient to
the point of recovery. Most unfortunately, the supply of penicillin was exhausted and the
man relapsed and died. Nonetheless, Florey and Chain had demonstrated the great poten-
tial for penicillin, if it could be made in sufficient amount. To make large amounts of peni-
cillin would require a process, and for such a process development, engineers would be
needed, in addition to microbial physiologists and other life scientists.
The war further complicated the situation. Great Britain’s industrial facilities were
already totally devoted to the war. Florey and his associates approached pharmaceutical
firms in the United States to persuade them to develop the capacity to produce penicillin,
since the United States was not at war at that time.
Sec. 1.4 The Story of Penicillin: How Biologists and Engineers Work Together 5
that the necessary bottles would fill a row stretching from New York City to San Fran-
cisco. Engineers generally favored a submerged tank process. The submerged process pre-
sented challenges in terms of both mold physiology and in tank design and operation.
Large volumes of absolutely clean, oil- and dirt-free sterile air were required. What were
then very large agitators were required, and the mechanical seal for the agitator shaft had
to be designed to prevent the entry of organisms. Even today, problems of oxygen supply
and heat removal are important constraints on antibiotic fermenter design. Contamination
by foreign organisms could degrade the product as fast as it was formed, consume nutri-
ents before they were converted to penicillin, or produce toxins.
Figure 1.2(a). Series of large-scale antibiotic fermenters. (With permission, from T.D.
Brock, K.M. Brock, and D.M. Ward. Basic Microbiology with Applications, 3d ed., Pear-
son Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1986, p. 507.)
Figure 1.2(b). Inside view of a large antibiotic fermenter. (From Trends in Biotechnol-
ogy 3 (6), 1985. Used with permission of Elsevier Science Publishers.)
Sec. 1.4 The Story of Penicillin: How Biologists and Engineers Work Together 7
Figure 1.3. Schematic of penicillin production process.
To understand the mind set of a bioprocess engineer you must understand the regulatory
climate in which many bioprocess engineers work. The U.S. FDA (Food and Drug Ad-
ministration) and its equivalents in other countries must insure the safety and efficacy of