Experimental model of emulsion viscosity during water-

based EOR: Effect of water content and pressure

Masoud Shafiei 
Shiraz University
Ghazal Mohammadzadeh Shirazi 
Shiraz University
Yousef Kazemzadeh 
(

yusefkazemzade@yahoo.com
)
Shiraz University
Masoud Riazi 
Shiraz University

Article

Keywords: Emulsion, Viscosity, Water content, Pressure, Mathematical model, Rolling ball viscometer.

Posted Date: October 17th, 2022

DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2108613/v1

License:
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Page 1/16
Abstract
Emulsion formation during production from oil reservoirs or even on the surface is one of the common phenomena in
the oil industry. Viscosity and stability of emulsions are very important parameters that have a significant impact on the
transfer, separation and sale of oil. The purposes of this work were to investigate the effect of water content and
pressure on the viscosity of emulsions and also to present an experimental mathematical model for predicting viscosity
at different pressures and water content. Viscosity was measured by a rolling ball viscometer that made and calibrated
by this team. The results show that the viscosity of the emulsions is a strong function of water content and pressure
and increases significantly with increasing these two parameters. In the next step, according to the viscosity behavior
with pressure, three mathematical models were developed. Examination of errors related to each of the models
illustrated that the lowest error between 2–7% was related to the exponential base model and the second-degree
polynomial based model and the highest error was related to the linear base model. Among these three models, the
polynomial base model showed the best and the linear base model showed the worst performance in prediction of
viscosity. The most errors related to linear, exponential and polynomial models were, 11.96, 6.99 and 4.52%, respectively,
which occurred at pressures of 12.53, 12.53 and 1000 psi respectively.

1) Introduction
According to the advancement of technology, population growth, and increasing energy needs in the world, enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) from oil reservoirs is essential. One of these methods is the injection of W/O emulsions. Injection of
water in oil emulsions due to the low interfacial tension and also having a higher viscosity than water and oil, increases
oil production from reservoirs. In the following, the properties of emulsions and mathematical models for predicting
viscosity are investigated.

1,1) Emulsion properties

Emulsions are dispersive systems in which liquid droplets are dispersed in one immiscible liquid and are kinetically
stable but thermodynamically unstable and become two-phase over time (Binks and Lumsdon 2000). Basically there
are two types of emulsions that depend on the type of continuous phase liquid (Kokal 2005):

1. Oil in water emulsions (O/W): water is continuous phase and oil dispersed in water
2. Water in oil emulsions (W/O): oil is continuous phase and water dispersed in oil

In the classical classification, emulsions consist of two non-miscible phases of water and oil, one of which disperses
into the other. Dispersed phases are usually referred to as internal phases and continuous phases as external phases.
Depending on the location of the phases, their physical properties will be different. According to Winsor theory, from a
microscopic point of view, water and oil emulsions are divided into three main categories (Maaref and Ayatollahi 2018):

1. Oil-in-water emulsion (O/W) in which oil droplets are dispersed in water.

2. Water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions in which water droplets are dispersed in oil.
3. Multiple emulsions, such as oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) and water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions, in which the
dispersed droplets themselves contain very fine particles dispersed from the continuous phase. Much more
complex multiple emulsions may also occur.

Stability in emulsions is achieved by surface active agents. Surfactants are molecules that migrate to surfaces between
two physical phases and therefore have a higher concentration in that region than other parts of the two phases.
Emulsions have dual properties, lipophilic and hydrophilic. By adding these materials to two immiscible liquids, the

Page 2/16
surface tension between the two phases is reduced and prevented biphasic; thus, two liquids will be able to form an
emulsion. These substances are also found in crude oil (Shi et al. 2018).

Resins and asphaltenes have a similar chemical structure that tends to be adsorbed on the surface between water and
oil, leading to their stability (Zaki, Schoriing, and Rahimian 2007). For this reason, emulsion formation is very common
in the oil industry. Emulsion formation occurs spontaneously in the processes of production, refining, distribution and
storage of crude oil because of natural surfactant presence in crude oil phase so that the amount of water in these
emulsions can reach 60% (Zaki, Schoriing, and Rahimian 2007). The emulsions can cause a lot of production issues
such as higher oil viscosity flow in pipes, need for more heat to reduce the viscosity and separation of crude oil and
water to meet marketing specifications, more time to separate in the storage tank caused more corrosion. These
problems lead to higher costs for oil refining. The stability and viscosity of the emulsions have an important role in
transfer and separation to meet marketing specifications (Maneeintr, Sasaki, and Sugai 2013). Between all these
features, viscosity is the most major parameter because of direct effects on pressure drop in oil systems (C. Li et al.
2016).

W/O emulsions viscosity is a complex function of water content, temperature, dispersed and continuous phase
viscosity, shear rate, particle size and water salinity. These parameters are manifold and can affect each other. For
example, a change in shear rate causes a change in droplet sizes, or as the temperature increases, the viscosity of the
emulsion decreases because the viscosity of the continuous and dispersed phase decreases with increasing
temperature. In general, if the temperature is kept constant in a specific crude oil, the main variables involved in its
viscosity are emulsion pressure and dispersed phase volume (dispersed phase concentration) (De Oliveira et al. 2018).

Many researchers have studied the prediction of W/O emulsion viscosity, and different relationship are presented based
on experiments. The studies on water in oil emulsions have mostly shown that viscosity increases with increasing water
content and decreases with increasing temperature and shear stress (Krieger and Dougherty 1959). When the volume
fraction of water is more than 0.2, increasing the shear rate results in a decrease in viscosity of the emulsions, and with
increasing water content, this phenomenon will be more pronounced; Therefore, as the water content increases, the
rheological behavior of the emulsion shifts to non-Newtonian fluids, and the emulsions relative and apparent viscosity
increase spontaneously (C. Li et al. 2016).

In 2020, Zhang et al. conducted a study on a water emulsion in paraffin oil containing a large amount of chitosan
polysaccharide and was stabilized by span80 oil-soluble surfactant. In this study, they investigated the effect of various
parameters such as water content in the system, the molecular properties of chitosan, the amount of span80 and the
ultrasonic process on the average particle size. They showed that reducing the negative zeta potential by increasing the
amount of water from 5–35% causes the emulsion particle size distribution to become more uniform, droplets to
become smaller and the viscosity increased. They observed that as the water content increased, the viscosity of
emulsion gradually increased. From this results it can be concluded that the viscosity of such water in oil emulsions
depends significantly on the water content in the emulsions system (Zhang et al. 2020). In 2021, Peña and Ghosh
studied the effect of volume fraction of water and pectin on improving the viscoelastic properties of water -in-oil
emulsions. They increased the water content in the range of 20 to 50 percent and observed that the emulsion viscosity
and gel strength increased with increasing water content (Romero-Peña and Ghosh 2021). In 2021, Du et al. Conducted
experimental research to demonstrate the effect of W/O emulsions by nitrogen/carbon dioxide to enhance oil recovery.
They found that as the water content increased, the viscosity significantly increased, but this increase was observed up
to a water content of 70%. The viscosity then decreased with increasing water content, which was attributed to the
conversion of simple water-in-oil emulsion to an oil-in-water-in-oil multiple emulsion. They explained that as the volume
of water increased, the amount of dispersed phase droplets increased in emulsion and the distance between the
droplets decreased. Under the influence of molecular force and IFT of water and oil, the viscosity increased and the
Page 3/16
emulsion showed a stable state but when the volume fraction of water increased to 70%, the amounts of water droplets
decreased and the size of the droplets significantly increased and the emulsion becomes more unstable and the
viscosity decreased (Du et al. 2021). In 2021, Li et al. Studied the deposition of water in oil emulsions and developed a
model for predicting it. In this model, they considered parameters such as water content, viscosity prediction, droplet
displacement models and the probability of droplet failure to predict the deposition process of W / O emulsion in
different conditions. In part of their simulation, they stated that the viscosity increases with increasing amount of water
in the early times, but because the particle size increases, the emulsion stability decreases and the viscosity decreases
(Y. B. Li et al. 2021).

Viscosity models in constant temperature

Most models used to predict emulsion viscosity estimate the relative viscosity, which is the ratio of emulsion viscosity
(µ) to viscosity of continuous phase (µc) and is defined as follows:

μ
μ
r
=
μc
(1

Einstein (1906, 1911) developed a thermodynamic model for very low-concentration suspensions, assuming that all
particles were spherical. He suggested that µr is a linear function of ϕ (volume content of the dispersed phase) and
relative viscosity increases with increasing ϕ (Farah et al. 2005).

μ
r
= 1 + 2.5φ (2

Years after Einstein, Taylor was trying to improve Einstein's equation. Taylor (1932) believed that both dispersed and
continuous phases affect viscosity, and again repeated Einstein's assumptions, considering particles completely
spherical, and the equation that Taylor proposed could be used only for low concentrations. To improve the previous
equations, Taylor defined the parameter α, which is the ratio of the dispersed phase viscosity (µD) to continuous phase
viscosity (µc) (Taylor and A 1932).

α+0.4
μ
r
= 1 + [2.5 (
α+1
)] φ (3

μ
α =
D

μc
(4

When the coefficient α tends to infinity (for the dispersing of spherical solid particles), Taylor's equation becomes
Einstein's equation.

In 1975, Choi Schowalter attempted to reduce the assumptions of the Einstein and Taylor equations. They stated that
with increasing concentration, the emulsion particles are not spherical, so to solve this problem, they considered a
function of the volumetric content of the dispersed phase to modified the viscosity of emulsions. Refer to the reference
provided for more details on the correction factor (Choi and Schowalter 1975).
1

μ
r
= 1 + f (φ 3 ) φ (5

Thien and Pham in 1997 proposed another model for estimating viscosity. At low concentrations the viscosity increases
linearly with increasing water content and when Φ tend to unity, μr asymptotically grows. In this model, as in the
previous model, there is no limit to the concentration and it will be suitable for low capillary numbers ( Thien and Pham
1997).

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 3

2μ +5α 5

(6
2.5 r 1
μr ( ) = ( )
2+5α 1−φ

Krieger and Dougherty (1959) suggested an experimental model that is credible for the dispersed phase at high-level
concentrations. They introduced the parameter ϕm which is known as the maximum dispersed phase concentration and
1
it occurs when the emulsions' viscosity tends to infinity. To estimate ϕm , the values ϕ must be plotted in terms of μ −1
r

and by extrapolating, can find a point whose coordinates are zero. When µr tends to infinity, ϕ tends to ϕm and the value
ϕm is obtained [10].

−[μ]φm
φ
μ
r
= [1 − (
φ
)] (7
m

μD
[μ] =
μ
− 1 (8
C

In 1998, Pal proposed a model based on experimental studies and dimensional analysis for single-dispersion emulsions
with assumptions such as similar phase density, low surface tension, constant flow, and ignoring Brownian motion (Pal
1998).
1
1 −
2
(9
[μ]φm
2
φm (1 − μr ) = c0 + c1 log (NRe,p ) + c1 log (NRe,p )

Where c0, c1 and c2 are constant and NRe, p is the Reynolds number of the particles.

2
ρc γr
NRe,p = (
μ
) ( 10
c

Where ρc and µc are the density and viscosity of the continuous phase, r and γ are radius of particle and share rate
respectively.

Mendoza and Holek used a spherical rigid particle model to calculate the emulsion viscosity. The semi-empirical
correlation obtained is as follows (Mendoza and Santamaría-Holek 2009):
φ
η
r
= (1 −
cφ
) ( 11

(1−φ )
( 12
m
c =
φm

Faroughi and Huber used a method similar to Mendoza and Hulk to calculate the viscosity of the emulsion using an
effective medium model (Faroughi and Huber 2015).
2.5φ
m
−
φm −φ 1−φ

( 13
m
η = [ ]
r φ (1−φ)
m

The main purpose of this investigation is providing a method for estimating the viscosity of W/O emulsions as a
function of water content and pressure. Emulsion properties and emulsion viscosity models were described as a
function of water content or dispersed phase volume content in this Section. The method of work is explained in
Section 2. In Section 3, the results were discussed. The proposed relationship was investigated using the various errors
in Section 4 and eventually, the results and conclusions of this work is given in section 5.

2) Materials And Equipment

Page 5/16
2,1) Materials

Crude oil from one of Iran's fields, the characteristics of which are listed in the Table 1. Distilled water that is
commercially purchased. Nitrogen capsules are used to dry the device and gasoline is used to wash the device.

Table 1 : Characteristics of the oil

Density Viscosity SARA

    Saturates Aromatics Resins Asphaltenes

0.80 180.63 40.85 48.79 2.61 7.71

2,2) Equipment

Rolling ball viscometer: This device was made by the same research team and the calibration process was performed
on it. Calibration was performed in the range of 0.2 to 10000 cP. The characteristics of this system can be seen in the
Table 2.

Table 2 : Characteristics of rolling ball viscometer

Viscosity calibration range 0.2 to 10000 cP

Temperature  Ambient to 90 C

Maximum pressure 6000 psi

Pressure accuracy 0.1% F.S

Time accuracy 0.0001 Sec

ball holder Electrical magnet

Ball receiver Electric switch

Connection size NPT 1/8"

Material in contact with the fluid  Stainless steel 316

Eldex pump: Optos series high pressure liquid measuring pumps that have the ability to increase the pressure up to
6000 psi.

Nitrogen capsule: used to dry the system. The schematic of the device can be seen in the Fig. 1.

2,2,1) Experiment

2,2,2) Emulsion preparation

The sample of crude oil used in this experimental investigation is from reservoir J in one of the Iranian fields. The
properties of crude oil are given in Table 1. Emulsions were prepared by dispersing different water content in the oil
phase. Total volume of emulsions were fixed at 70 milliliter. Emulsion water content varies between 0 and 50%. The oil-
water phase mixture was placed in a container and then stirred for 5 minutes to form an emulsion.

2,2,3) Rolling ball viscometer

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The rolling ball viscometer consists of a cylindrical tube that is filled with a fluid sample and the viscosity can be
measured by applying the desired pressure and temperature on the system. When the cylinder is positioned at the
desired angle, the ball begins to accelerate and after a while reaches a constant speed that can be used to calculate
viscosity (Sato et al. 2019, Sage 1933). If the flow around the ball is considered laminar, the viscosity can be obtained
using the following equation:
ρ −ρ

( 11
b f

μ = C
V

Where:

µ: Viscosity gr/cm.sec

C: Equation constant

ρb: Density of ball gr/cc

ρf: Density of fluid gr/cc

V: Ball velocity cm/s

Hubbard and Brown by using dimensional analysis were able to provide the following equation for estimating the
viscometer constant using the device dimensions (Hubbard and Brown 1943).

5π
C = Kgsinθd(d + D) ( 12
42

Where:

K: Calibration constant

g: Gravity acceleration cm/s2

θ: The angle of inclination of the tube from the horizontal position

D: Tube radius cm

d: Ball radius cm

This equation can be simplified as follows:

μ = Kt (ρ
b
− ρ ) sin
f
Ѳ ( 13

ρb: Density of ball gr / cc

ρf: Density of fluid gr / cc

θ: The angle of inclination of the pipe from the horizontal position

t: Duration of bullet movement

2,2,4) Method of work

Page 7/16
System components must be thoroughly cleaned before testing. To prevent from forming bubbles inside the system, the
system should be drained by a vacuum pump or light hydrocarbons such as ethane and methane. After this, the desired
fluid can be introduced into the system. The system must be pressurized before measuring the viscosity. If there is no
decreasing pressure after ten minutes, the pressure will return to atmospheric pressure. This is done to ensure that the
system does not have any leakage. After this step the fluid is pumped into the viscometer. Then the required heating
system and insulation are placed around the cylinder. It usually takes two hours for the system to reach equilibrium.
Then the system is moved to the desired angle, at which time the magnet or magnetic pin is removed and the ball
begins to move, and its travel time is recorded by the system used.

3) Results And Discussion

The W/O emulsions effective viscosity mainly depends on the water content, temperature and pressure, Comes with
various minor effects like oil density and viscosity, average and distribution of droplet size, shear rate, surface tension
between the two phases and emulsion stability which can be effective. In this article, the effect of volume content of
dispersed phase and pressure on emulsion viscosity is investigated.

The effect of water content was examined at 5 levels, which include 0%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%. And the effect of
pressure was examined in 5 stages, atmospheric, 1000, 2000, 2500 and 3000. The effects of volume fraction of water
and pressure on viscosity of water in crude oil emulsions are shown in Fig. 2.

3,1) Effect of water content

As shown in the Fig. 2, with increasing volume fraction of water, the apparent viscosity of the emulsions increase. This
phenomenon is due to the fact that as the water content increases, the amount of emulsion droplets in a certain volume
increases and the interaction of these droplets causes the viscosity to change.

In addition, Fig. 3 shows the steric repulsion produced by the interaction between non-polar or hydrophobic groups of
asphaltene molecules. Due to this figure, asphaltene molecules as surfactants can extend the side chains significantly
to the oil phase and the steric repulsion can keep the connection surface at a sufficient distance to prevent aggregation.
As a result, the molecules present on the surface of the oil and water lead to an increase in apparent and interfacial
viscosity of the crude oil in the film among droplets. Both of these effects increase viscosity and prevent aggregation
(Velayati and Nouri 2021)(Ismail et al. 2020)(Ma et al. 2021)(Pang et al. 2021).

Zhang et al.'s results also point to this. They stated that increasing the viscosity of the emulsion and decreasing the
negative zeta potential in the water content increases from 5–35%. To obtain smaller and more uniform droplet size
distribution in emulsions.(Zhang et al. 2020). They stated that the viscosity of emulsions is a function of particle size
and water content. Krieger and Dougherty (1959) also showed that the W/O emulsions viscosity dramatically increased
with water content and decreasing temperature (Krieger and Dougherty 1959). Farah et al., Pointing out that water
content is a very important factor in changing the emulsion viscosity, showed that as the water content increases, the
emulsion viscosity also increases (Farah et al. 2005). Maneeintr et al. also stated that with increasing the water content,
the amount of viscosity increases because in high water content, the amount of water increases and the number of
water droplets per unit volume of emulsion increases and the interaction of droplet-droplet increases (Maneeintr, Sasaki,
and Sugai 2013). In addition, as the contact surface of water and oil increases, the share of surface viscosity in the total
viscosity of the emulsion increases. In addition, as the interfacial contact of water and oil increases, the share of
interfacial viscosity in the total viscosity of the emulsion increases. The effect of water content can increase the
viscosity by up to 454% compared to pure crude oil. However, this effect is acceptable as long as there are no multiple

Page 8/16
emulsions such as w / o / w, otherwise, the viscosity decreases due to the increase in particle size. (Mazouzi and Karas
2021)(Juntarasakul and Maneeintr 2018).

3,2) Effect of pressure

In this section, the pressure of system was kept constant at 12.53, 1000, 2000, 2500 and 3000 levels by means of an
Eldex pump, and the viscosity of the fluid at these pressures was examined. Viscosity is normally independent of
pressure, but liquids under extreme pressure often experience an increase in viscosity. As can be seen in the Fig. 4, the
viscosity increases with increasing pressure, which is obvious because as the pressure increases, the viscosity of the
liquid molecules increases due to the increased resistance to liquid flow. In addition, as the pressure increases, the
molecules per unit volume of the emulsion increase, which in turn increases the resistance to motion and ultimately
increases the viscosity.

In 1996, Khan examined the effect of various parameters such as temperature and pressure on the emulsion viscosity
and stated that with increasing pressure, the emulsion viscosity increases significant (Rashid Khan 1996). The results
of Cogswell and McGowan also showed that the viscosity also increases with increasing pressure (Cogswell and
McGowan 1972).

4) Discussion On Models
In this section, three mathematical models are presented that study the behavior of viscosity by changing the pressure
and water content. These models are obtained from experimental data. In this section, various errors (MAD, MSE, RMSE,
MAPE) were examined and models were discussed.

4,1) Linear based model

This model is based on the linear behavior of viscosity with pressure. In this model, it is assumed that the pressure
changes linearly with viscosity.

μ (φ, P ) = 0.634e
3.7913φ
P + 2092.2φ
2
− 150.85φ + 183.22 ( 14

Where the pressure in terms of bar

In these models, by examining the four errors of MAD, MSE, RMSE, MAPE, the accuracy of each model was discussed
(Table 3).

It can be seen that in this model, the lowest error is related to 2000 psi and the highest error is related to ambient
pressure. Due to the high error in this case, this model cannot be used as a model to predict the viscosity behavior.

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4,2) Exponential based model

In this model, it has been assumed that the viscosity changes exponentially with pressure. In this model, the pressure is
in terms of bar. The desired model is as follows.
3 2

μ (φ, P ) = (2022.4φ
2
− 40.634φ + 188.89)e
(0.0794φ −0.0663φ +0.0165φ+0.0023)P
( 15

The model deviation from the laboratory values can be seen in the Table 4.

As you can see, the error in the exponential based model is significantly less than the linear based model. In this model,
the highest error is related to the pressure of 3000 psi and the lowest error is related to the pressure of 2000 psi.

4,3) Polynomial based model

In this model, it was assumed that the viscosity changes with pressure as a quadratic polynomial (Table 5). The desired
equation is as follows and pressure is in terms of bar.

2 2 2
μ (φ, P ) = (0.1475φ − 0.1278φ + 0.0335) P + (14.045φ − 4.3575) P + (3210φ − 1096.2φ + 419.91)

( 16

As it is known, this model has a higher accuracy than the linear base model and is very close to the exponential base
model and the data of these two models are very close to each other. Regarding this model, it is necessary to know that
unlike previous models, it is not valid at low concentrations (ϕ < 0.1).

Among the above relationships, models 2 and 3 showed the best performance and had the lowest error. Model number
three has more limitations than model number two due to invalidity in dispersed phase concentrations (water) less than
0.1.

Page 10/16
5) Conclusions
The purpose of this work was to investigate the behavior of emulsions under different pressures and water content and
to present a mathematical model for predicting viscosity under different conditions. According to studies, no equation
has been developed based on the effect of pressure on emulsion viscosity in different water contents. According to the
experiments performed on emulsions at different pressures and water contents, the following results were obtained:

1. As the amount of water increases, the viscosity of W / O emulsions increases, because in high water content, the
amount of water increases and the number of water droplets per unit volume of the emulsion increases and the
interaction of droplets and droplets increases. In addition, as the interfacial contact of water and oil increases, the
share of interfacial viscosity in the total viscosity of the emulsion increases. The effect of water content can
increase the viscosity by up to 454% compared to pure crude oil.
2. The viscosity increases with increasing pressure, which is obvious because as the pressure increases, the viscosity
of the liquid molecules increases due to the increased resistance to liquid flow. As the pressure of the molecules per
unit volume increases, the volume of the emulsion increases, which in turn increases the resistance to motion and
ultimately increases the viscosity. 
3. As the the water content increases, the droplets become smaller, which increases the surface area and the number
of intrinsic surfactant molecules that settle on the surface of the water and oil and the electrostatic repulsion force
of the dielectric double layer increases. In this case, the droplet volume decreases and the emulsion viscosity
increases.
4. Among the introduced models, the exponential and polynomial base models had the best performance, but the
linear base model overestimated the viscosity and had a higher error than the previous two models.
5. Among the two models of polynomial base and exponential base, the exponential base model is more efficient than
the polynomial model due to the lack of restrictions on all water contents. However, the polynomial based model
has less error than the exponential based model.

Symbols
μ : Emulsion viscosity

μ
r
: Relative viscosity

µc: Continuous phase viscosity

µD: Dispersed phase viscosity

ϕ: Volume content of the dispersed phase

ϕm : Maximum dispersed phase concentration

α: Dispersed phase viscosity divided by continuous phase viscosity

NRe, p: Reynolds number of the particles

ρc: Density of the continuous phase

r: Particle radius

γ: Shear rate
Page 11/16
C: Equation constant

ρb: Density of ball

ρf: Density of fluid gr/cc

V: ball velocity cm/s

K: Calibration constant

g: Gravity acceleration cm/s2

θ: The angle of inclination of the tube from the horizontal position

D: Tube radius cm

d: Ball radius cm

t: Duration of bullet movement

c0, c1, c2: Constant

Nomenclature
O/W: Oil in water emulsion

W/O: Water in oil emulsion 

WC: Water content

EOR: enhance oil recovery 

MSE: Mean square error 

MDA: Mean absolute deviation 

MAPE: Mean absolute percentage error

RMSE: Root mean square error 

Declarations
Acknowledgment

The authors thank the National Elite Foundation, Shiraz University enhance oil recovery Research Institute, and School
of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering and Mr Sina Avaji for their cooperation and support.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

References
Page 12/16
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Figures
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Figure 1

schematic of the rolling ball viscometer setup

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Figure 2

Effect of water content on viscosity

Figure 3

Steric repulsion between droplets

Figure 4

Effect of pressure on viscosity of emulsions

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