SEE4121 (2022-2023)

Gas Engineering (SEMESTER B)

Basic Gas Engineering

Ir Peter Chak
16 Jan 2023
 Basic Gas Engineering
1. Properties of Gases
2. Piping System – Basic Components

3. Soundness Test & Commissioning

4. Gas Flow Fundamentals

2 2
1. Properties of Gases

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3
 Properties of Gases
Property TG LPG NG
Specific Gravity 0.52 1.84 0.61
Air Requirement 1：4 1：28 1：9.75
Calorific Value 17.27 113 39.3
(MJ/m3)
Wobbe Index 24.0 83.3 51.6
Flame Speed (m/s) 1.42 0.39 0.36
Flammability 5.5 to 33.7 1.8 to 9.5 5.0 to 15
Limits (%)
4
 Air Requirement of Town Gas
Constituent % by Chemical Equation Oxygen
Vol. Required

H2 48.9 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O 48.9 x 0.5 24.45

CH4 28.4 CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O 28.4 x 2 56.8

CO 3.0 2CO + O2 = 2CO2 3 x 0.5 1.5
C3H8 0.06 C3H8 + 5O2 = 3CO2 + 4H2O 0.06 x 5 0.3
C4H10 0.14 C4H10 + 13O2 = 8CO2 + 10 0.14 x 13 1.82
H2 O
CO2 19.5 None
TOTAL 84.87

1 cu m of TG requires 0.85cu m of Oxygen

1 cu m of TG requires 0.85 x 100 = 4 cu m Air
21
For pre-aerated TG burner, primary air/gas ratio at stoichiometric condition
is 2 5
 Air Requirement of LPG

Constituent % by Chemical Equation Oxygen

Vol. Required
C 3H 8 30 C3H8 + 5O2 = 3CO2 + 4H2O 30 x 5 150
C4H10 70 2C4H10 + 13O2 = 8CO2 + 10 H2O 70 x 6.5 455
TOTAL 605

 1 m3 of LPG requires 6.05 m3 of Oxygen

 1 m3 of LPG requires (6.05 x 100)/21 = 29 m3 Air

For pre-aerated LPG burner, primary air/gas ratio at

stoichiometric condition is 14.5
6
Air Requirement of Natural Gas
Constituent % by Chemical Equation Oxygen
Vol. Required
CH4 90.0 CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O 90 x 2 180
C2H6 5.3 2C2H6 + 7O2 = 4CO2 + 6 H2O 5.3 x 3.5 18.6
C3H8 1.0 C3H8 + 5O2 = 3CO2 + 4H2O 1x5 5
C4H10 0.4 2C4H10 + 13O2 = 8CO2 + 10 H2O 0.4 x 6.5 2.6
N2 2.7 -
CO2 0.6 -
TOTAL 206.2

• 1 m3 of NG requires 2.6 m3 of Oxygen

• 1 m3 of NG requires (2.6 x 100)/21 = 10 m3 Air
For pre-aerated NG burner, primary air/gas ratio at
stoichiometric condition is 5 7
 Calorific Value (CV)
 The quantity of heat released by complete combustion under isothermal
conditions at a constant pressure of one atmosphere and at a specified
reference temperature - kJ (or MJ) per m3 (gaseous fuels), kJ (MJ) per
kg (others)

 Gross CV (Higher Heating Value) is the total heat content of the gas
when all the water vapour has been condensed to liquid i.e. including
the latent heat of condensation

 Net CV (Lower Heating Value) is the heat content of the gas where the
water is still gaseous (not condensed out)

 The difference between GCV and NCV is a small part of the total
amount of waste heat emitted to the atmosphere & for practical
reasons only a part of this total heat loss can be recovered

 Net CV = Gross CV/1.11 8

 Wobbe Index
 An artificial number (without specific unit): gives an
indication of the amount of heat (or heat input) that will
pass through a jet or orifice at a specific gas pressure
CV Gross calorific value (MJ/m3 )
WI =
SG  Relative density (air=1)
0.5

 Measure of burning character

 Important criterion in interchangeability of gases & in
burner design
Family WI Type of Gas
1 22.5 - 30 Manufactured
(incl. LPG/air)
2 39.1 – 55 Natural gases
3 73.5 – 87.5 LPG
9
Example on Wobbe Index
Calculate the Wobbe number for a by-product gas from an industrial
process with the following composition by volume:
H2 12%
CO 29%
CH4 3%
N2 52%
CO2 4%
(Gross CV – CO : 11.85 MJ/m3, CH4 : 37.07 MJ/m3, H2 : 11.92 MJ/m3)
Solution
CV of the mixture: CV=(0.12×11.92)+(0.29×11.85)+(0.03×37.07)=5.98 MJ/m3
The relative density of the mixture is calculated by dividing the mean
molecular weight of the gas by the corresponding value for air (28.84)
Mean molecular weight of the mixture:
(0.12×2)+(0.29×28)+(0.03×16)+(0.52×28)+(0.04×44) = 25.16
The relative density is: 25.16÷28.84 = 0.872
The Wobbe number is: 5.98/(0.872)0.5 = 6.36
10
 Burning Velocity
 Burning velocity of a gas-air mixture is the rate at which a flat
flame front is propagated into the unburned fuel/oxidizer
mixture and is dependent on the composition of both fuel
and oxidizer, temperature & the air excess ratio
 Typical Burning velocity (m/s)
Methane 0.34
Propane 0.40
Town gas 1.0
Hydrogen 2.52
Carbon monoxide 0.43
U = Mean velocity of gas-air mixture at
end of tube
α = half-angle of the cone at the top of tube
Burning Velocity S = U sin (α)

* Normally underestimated owing to velocity

distribution across end of the tube & heat
losses from the flame to the rim of tube
11
Burning Velocity Vs Flame Speed
 Burning velocity should not be confused with the speed of
propagation of the flame front relative to a fixed point, which is
generally referred to as flame speed
 A gas flame represents a balance between the velocity at which
the gas and air mixture is ejected from the burner and the speed
with which the flame front travels back towards the mixer

12 12
Gas Velocity

13
 Lightback
 The flame speed of an air/gas mixture increases
as more primary air is added
 As more primary air is added, the inner cone
becomes shorter, brighter & more clearly defined
With even more primary aeration, the inner cone
becomes ragged, noisy & flat. Finally the flame
lights-back (for TG)

14
Lift-off & Blow-off
 Lift-Off: Speed of air/gas mixture up to burner
tube is greater than speed at which the flame can
burn, then the flame will be pushed away from
burner port
 Blow-off: With much greater speed, flame will be
pushed away from burner port completely & will
disappear. This is because the gas diffuses into
the surrounding air and the mixture becomes too
weak to burn.
Lift-off Blow-off

15
Example of Lift-off
 Flammability Limits
 Mixtures of gas & air will burn only within limits. If there is either
too much gas or air, the mixture will not burn or explode
 These limits are referred to as Flammability or Explosive limits, given
as % gas in air: Lower/Upper Flammability Limit (LFL/UFL),
Lower/Upper Explosive Limit (LEL/UEL)
 These limits are affected by temperature & pressure but normally
quotes as volume percentages at atmospheric pressure & 25oC

Supposing a fuel/air mixture comprises many small discrete volumes:

• If an ignition source is applied, a flame will propagate throughout the
mixture if energy transfer is sufficient to cause ignition in the adjacent
regions/volumes
• The temperature generated will be greatest if the mixture is stoichiometric, if
the mixture goes either fuel-rich or fuel-lean, the temperature will decrease
• If initial energy transfer is insufficient to propagate a flame, the mixture will
be non-flammable
• The upper/lower flammability limits will thus approximately symmetrically
distributed about the stoichiometric fuel/air ratio
17
2. Piping System –
Basic Components
 Pipes
 Fittings
 Support Branch Riser

 Valves Underground Pipe

 Others
Ground
Level

18
Types of Gas Pipe – Above-ground
Type Location Material Installation Connection Standard
Method Method
Lateral Riser Main Galvanized Exposed Screw EN10255
Riser
Riser supply Steel (up to thread (Heavy or
pipe DN150) EN10226-2 Class C)
outside Carbon Exposed Welding/ EN10216
the Steel Pipe Flanged /EN10217
building (>DN150) joint
EN1092-1
Lateral Branch to Galvanized Exposed Screw EN10255
Riser individual Steel thread
flat EN10226-2
Install- After Galvanized Exposed / Screw EN10255
ation meter Steel Concealed thread
Pipe (inside EN10226-2
premises) Exposed Compress- GB19228.2
Thin wall
stainless ion fitting
Installation steel
Pipe
What is the supply pressure?
Why PE pipes cannot be used? 19
Non-metallic or PE Pipes 3 Failure Modes

Corrosion free, leak free

Less expensive
• Materials, installation, maintenance
Light, flexible, ease to handle & store
Limited to underground or outdoors
• Lack physical strength – being easily cut/severed/pierced
• Fail quickly in a fire & the released gas would accelerate a fire
• Deteriorate rapidly at elevated temperature
• UV attack
3 Failure Modes
• Mode 1 (Ductile Failure):large-scale plastic deformation under stress
• Mode 2 (Creep rupture): a time-dependent, non-reversible
deformation when exposed to constant tensile stress
• Mode 3 (Degradation & embrittlement): thermo-oxidation over time
20
Comparison of Steel & PE Pipes

Mind Third Party Damage

especially for PE pipes

21
Stainless Steel Pipes Vs
GI Pipes (Pre-coated)
 Installation skills/time
 Ease of transport
 Work safety
 Outlook
 Work environment
 Cost
 Maintenance/Durability
(corrosion resistance)

22/3222
 Pipes & Fittings
• Pipe coating Acrylic layer (40m)
Epoxy layer (75m)
– Factory pre-coated epoxy & acrylic paint Galvanized layer (55m)
on Galvanized pipes to enhance corrosion Steel pipe
water & UV resistance

• Collar Fitting the exposed threads are the

most susceptible for corrosion
– Extend fitting ends to cover the exposed
threads

• Filling Compound
– Fill up the gap of pipe and fitting to isolate Plain fitting Collar fitting
threads from corrosive substances
Filling
Compound

23
 Collar Fittings
Anti-acid
thread sealant Shelter
 The collar shelters the Collar fitting

exposed threads & sealed

by anti-acid thread
sealant to reduce risk of
corrosion.
Thread
Exposed thread

24
 Pipe Support
• Types of Support: Can Pipe support be used to
prevent thermal movement?
 Service riser base supports
 Intermediate load bearing supports
 Pipe clips
 Brackets and Hangers
• Objectives:
 Prevent excessive stress on pipes
 Retain pipeline in a particular position
 Prevent contact of pipework with surfaces of structure
which may cause corrosion (except timber)
• Material:
– Stainless steel, grade 304 (including associated bolts,
nuts, washers, rods & anchors, etc.) 25
Riser Base Support
Typical base
bracket support

Socket
Bush
Pipe Support
Guard rail
Masonry Bolts

Typical duck
foot support

Pipe
Support

26
Riser Base Support

* No Riser Base Support may be required for vertical pipe < 100kg
27
 Riser at high-rise buildings
 For buildings over 40 storeys & with
refuge floor(s)
 Add an “offset” design at one of the
refuge floors
- at the upper one for buildings Above the
with 2 refugee floors span of the
refuge floor
 Avert stress-overloading on the riser
network owing to relative movement
between riser & building (own weight Min. 0.5m
+ contraction/expansion)
 Reduce excessive stresses under
high temperature variations (say over
60K)

28
 Thermal Expansion

• Expansion of concrete various depends on its composition

• Usually temperature raises 5 - 10ºC from mid-night to mid-day
• Differential expansion occurred between iron & concrete
• Bending stress would be induced in the branches especially at
top floor for tall buildings
• Taking the worst scenario, differential expansion is approx
5mm per 100m
 (12.1-7) x 10-6 x 100,000mm x 10ºC 29
Intermediate Load Bearing Support
 Where upper part of
pipeline cannot be
sufficiently supported

30
Pipe Support – Clips

Type ‘A‘ Type ‘B‘ Type ‘C‘

Pipe clips Pipe clips Pipe clips

Pipe Size Pipe Clips

(mm) Type A Type B Type C
15   
20   
25   
32 
40 
50 
31
Pipe Support : Brackets and Hangers
• Specially fabricated brackets and hangers
should be provided as supports for large
pipes of nominal size of 80 mm (3") & above

80mm (3”) – 150mm (6”) horizontal pipe 80mm (3”) – 300mm (12”) horizontal pipe
32
Pipe Support Spacing

 Pipe support shall be fitted as close as practicable to centre-line of

the riser, no more than 200mm or 4 times riser pipe diameter,
whichever is the lesser
 If there is change in direction from horizontal to vertical, pipe
support shall be fitted on the horizontal section of a pipe in close
proximity to the change in direction from horizontal to vertical 33
Control Valves and Fittings
Control Valves
 Regulate/Control flow of gas
 Prevent backflow in most cases (valve disc closed by reverse flow)
 Should be accessible especially for emergency control (or operated remotely)
Valves/ Application Riser Gate valve
Fittings

Ball Valve For quick action shut-off,

DIN3537/DIN3357/BS5159
Gate Valve For isolation purpose
BS5154
Solenoid Cutoff gas supply automatically,
Valve especially in some hazard locations
Expansion Use when gas pipe passes through two
Joint buildings or to allow relative movement due
to thermal expansion/contraction 34
2. Piping System -
Maintenance

35
Corrosion
 Destructive attack of a material by reaction with its environment
 The corrosion process (anodic reaction) of the metal dissolving as
ions generates some electrons that are consumed by a secondary
process (catholic reaction) in close proximity
 Corrosion results in huge cost impact & safety risk - largely avoidable
by proper maintenance & protection methods

Rusting

What is the difference

between Corrosion,
Degradation & Dissolution?

36
Pipeline Corrosion Factors
Internal Factors
• pH of the material carried
• Dissolved acid gases (CO2,
H2S)
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Dissolved solids
• Velocity of material carried
• Dissolved oxygen (O2)
• Suspended solids
External Factors
• High Chlorides environment
(Proximity to sea)
• Acidic Soil
• Dissimilar Soils
• Differential Aeration
• Dissimilar Surface Conditions
• Dissimilar Metals
• New & Old Steel Pipe
• Bacteriological Agents
• Interference-current effects
– Steady State
– Transient
• Effect of Stress
37
 Galvanic/Dissimilar Metal Corrosion

• An electrochemical action of 2
dissimilar metals in the
presence of an electrolyte &
an electron conductive path
A stainless • Greater willingness of one
screw in
contact with a (anode) to give up electrons
cadmium plated than the other (cathode)
steel washer
• One of the most common
forms of corrosion as well as
Galvanized one of the most destructive
Fitting • Desired combination:
(Anode)
Large Anode + Small Cathode
Steel Pipe (Cathode)
Steel Pipe 38
Prevention and Control of Corrosion
• Design
 Geometry/relative sizes, joints/interfaces, applied stress, etc.
• Material Selection
 Corrosion resistance, heat treatments, surface treatments
(anodization/alloying/coating), quality control/impurities, etc.
• Cathodic and Anodic Protection (for buried pipes)
 Sacrificial anodes: active metal is consumed (anodes must
be periodically replaced)
 Impressed current
• Protective Coatings
• Modify/Control the operating environment
 Humidity (RH below 60%), temperature, cleaning, preventive
maintenance (recoating), regular inspection/monitoring
sensors, accessibility for cleaning/maintenace, etc.
• Cost vs Effectiveness (Quality over Pricing)
39
A/G Pipelines Corrosion Protection
 Galvanizing
 Watch out for damaged galvanizing layer at screw threads or welded
joints & where non-galvanized fittings joined to galvanized pipes
 Painting
 Self-priming topcoat over most existing coatings
 Cures through wide temperature range
Black steel elbow (LPG) joining
 Resists high humidity & moisture galvanized pipes were not given
 Low VOC adequate paint protection

 Paint layer should be correctly applied (thickness/no missing part)

 Proper adhesion (cleaning, correct choice of paint/primer)
 Wrapping
 Usually for pipes going through walls
 Surface must be clean
 Adequate overlap (50%) Wrapping of long sections will
 No gap between tape and pipe surface create problems with aging 40
Common Causes of Corrosion in
Aboveground Pipes
 Weathering/Damaging/Poor
adherence of protective coating
 Localized attack
 Acid Wash on building walls
 Dissimilar metals
 Air/soil/concrete interface
 Leakage from A/C or drainage pipes
 Crevices collecting debris & dampness
 Confined space/partially enclosed
 Tool marks/scratches/Exposed pipe
threads
41
Corrosion due to Tool Marks,
Scratches or Exposed Pipe Threads
 Anodic to other pipe surfaces
 Subject to active corrosion
 Solved by scratchless threading or good touch-up

42
Common Causes of Mechanical Impact
to Aboveground Pipes
 Vehicle traffic near riser base
• Protective guards for a
height of not less than
1.5m above floor level
 Vehicle impact on gas pipes
across passageway
 Gas pipes(across floors)
being stepped on
 Scaffolding loading tied to
gas pipes
 3rd party damage

43
Town Gas Pipes

Lateral through Concealed pipes damaged Poor back-filling on

external wall by decorator external wall

Dissimilar metals Pipes partly covered

Soil/water contamination44
by concrete
LPG Pipes

Black steel elbow not

Bottom of pipe missed Humid environment given adequate paint
when painting/inadequate
protection
paint thickness

Poor cleaning of welds

leading to poor adhesion
Wrong choice of paint/primer between paint & metal
leading to flaking & peeling surface Poor welded joint 45
Various Riser Inspection Methods
Laser Methane Gun

Extendable Reflective Mirror

Riser Inspection
Robot

Video Camera with Methane Detector

Camera with
Telescope
Use of existing
46
Scaffolding
Riser Inspection Quadcopter/Drone

4747
立管飛行器 介紹短片

48
Camera + Laser Methane Gun + AI System

49
Smart Inspection

50
Corrosion Prevention
• Anticorrosion Tapes (PVC)
• Heat Shrink Tube (Polyolefin - shrinks radially
but not longitudinally when heated)
• Sleeve (PVC)
• Others
Anti Corrosion Heat
Sleeve
Tape Shrink
Service Lateral through Solid Wall  
Embedded Pipe and Fitting 
Gas Pipe through Cavity Wall  
Gas Pipe through Floor Wall  
51
Service Lateral through
Solid Wall

Anti-corrosion Tape
Heat Shrink Tube - is ordinarily made of polyolefin, which shrinks
radially (but not longitudinally) when heated, to between one-half
and one-sixth of its diameter 52
Wrapping Embedded Pipe & Fitting

• Pipes embedded in concrete, near wall-to-floor junction, close to a

drain, within area of bathroom, exposed to water/cleaning fluid
ingress, should be wrapped with tape
• Pipes & fittings cleaned before wrapping anti-corrosion tape
• Overlap > 50%: provide a protective layer of double thickness 53
Gas Pipe through Cavity/Floor Wall
Sleeve (PVC Pipes) + Anti-corrosion Tape

sleeve (PVC Pipe)

• Separate iron pipe with concrete
• Stop chemical reaction at permeable zone
• Easy future replacement (if needed) with
no breaking of concrete & wall tiles
*Sleeve’s Internal diameter - at least 25mm greater than external diameter of gas pipe
Wrapping – extended to at least 50mm from both ends of sleeve 54
Others
 Stainless Steel Pipe Clips & Base Support

S/S
 Collar Fittings

Thread Sealant Standard Connection

 Anti-corrosive Paint
 Epoxy primer/Zinc rich primer
 Re-paint damaged surface

 Scratch Free Tools/Equipment

55
3. Soundness Test &
Commissioning

56
Above-ground Gas Installations
Town Gas
Above-ground: 1m above ground level
Low Pressure A: below 2.0 kPa (8 in.w.g.)
Low Pressure B: 2.0 – 7.5 kPa Underground pipe
Medium Pressure: 7.5 – 240 kPa (2.4 bar) U/G pipe control valve
Service Riser
Lateral riser
Installation pipe
Flexible tubing
Riser control valve
Meter control valve
Meter regulator
Meter
Hotplate

Water Heater
LPG (Top-down design)
Service Regulator inside apartment: 7 to 2.75 kPa (28 – 11 in.w.g.)
Secondary Regulator at Roof: 55 to 7 kPa
Primary Regulator at Vaporizer Outlet: 4 to 0.55 bar 57
 Soundness Test
• Make sure the system is gas tight
without leakage
• Equipment
 Pressure gauge – system soundness
 Detection fluid (soapy water) – leakage tracing
 Gas detector – leakage tracing Gas
Detector

Detection Fluid
Digital
Manometer

U-gauge
58
Soundness Test Procedures

PG – Pressure gauge P
G

 Connect a pressure gauge to a pressure testing point or to an outlet

of system fitted with a T-piece carrying a valve on one branch
 Turn off all appliance operating taps & pilot or valve of gas outlet
 Close the gas supply control valve
 Raise the pressure to the soundness test pressure
(1.5kPa for internal pipe/supply pressure)
 After temperature stabilization (I min), take the pressure drop after P
the testing period (2 min for internal pipe) G

 No permissible pressure drop

 Cap off unsafe gas installation with cap-off label
 Ensure no leakage at gas supply valve 59
 Leak Rate Estimation
Derivation of Pressure loss to Leak Rate Formula from the Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT
P: pressure V: volume n: number of moles of gas T: temperature R: constant

After t seconds, the moles of gas lost from the test volume will be:
L.R. (t) Patm
Nlost = -------------------- where L.R. = Leak Rate per second
RT
And the moles remaining in the volume will be:
PV L.R. (t) Patm
n’ = n – Nlost = ----- - -------------------
RT RT
Assuming a constant temperature, the pressure after time (t) is:
PV L.R. (t) Patm
(------ - -----------------) RT
n’ RT RT RT L.R. (t) Patm
P’ = ------------ = ------------------------------------ = P - ------------------
V V V

L.R. (t) Patm

dPLeak = P - P’ = ------------------
V
Solving for L.R. yields:
V dPLeak
L.R. = --------------
t Patm 60
 EXAMPLE
Permissible pressure drop for riser
soundness test
Permissible leakage rate : 1.4dm3/h = 2.33 x10-5m3/min
For a 5m long DN80 pipe: Volume = 0.03 m3

L.R. (t) Patm 2.33 x10-5 x 1 x 101.3kPa

dPLeak = ------------------ = ------------------------------------
V 0.03
= 0.08kPa
= 0.3”w.g.

61
Pipe volume of different pipe sizes

62
 Purging
 For commissioning & decommissioning
 Eliminate the air inside the pipework
 For riser
– Vented at the highest floor
– Flame arrestor at vent point (external to building & well ventilated)
– Gas detection to monitor the gas concentration at vent point
– Completed when 90% gas is confirmed
– If pipe volume > 2.5m3, inert gas, e.g. nitrogen should be used
– For decommissioning, inert gas vol = 1.5 times of the pipe volume
– Naked light and spark generation devices must be prohibited
within 3m of the vent point
 For internal pipe system with appliance
– Lit on appliance burner until the flame becomes normal

63
Typical Service Riser Location

64
Purging for Riser Replacement
• Replace part of riser from 7/F to 8/F
• Resume gas supply after Purging & Soundness Test

65
4. Gas Flow Fundamentals

66
 Altitude Effect on Pressure
Atmospheric pressure (1,013mbar) decreases as altitude increases
Supposing P0 = Pressure at ground level
For air, Pressure at height h (in m)
Ph + ρair x gravity x height = P0
Ph + 1.248kg/m3 x 9.81m/s2x h = P0 (Density of air = 1.248kg/m3)
Ph + 12.24h = P0
For a gas with specific gravity S
Pressure at height h P’h +ρgas x gravity x height = P0
P’h + S x ρair x gravity x height = P0
P’h + S x 12.24h = C
Equating P0 Ph + 12.24h = P’h + S x 12.24h
P’h - Ph = 12.24h - S x 12.24h
ΔP = 12.24（1-S）h
Pressure gain of gas with specific gravity S at height h
∆P = 12.24 (1-S) h N/m2
= 0.1224 (1-S) mbar
(or difference between h metre of air & gas)
67
 EXAMPLE
Pressure drop at 100m
Pdrop = ρair x gravity x height
Pdrop = 1.248kg/m3 x 9.81m/s2x 100m
= 1224N/m2 = 12.24 mbar
For town gas, specific gravity = 0.5
For 100m:
Pdrop = 1.248kg/m3 x 9.81m/s2 x 0.5 x 100m
= 6.12 mbar
Difference in pressure for 100m:
∆P = (12.24 – 6.12) mbar = 6.12 mbar
An apparent gain of pressure of 6.12 mbar
OR
Pressure gain of gas with specific gravity S at height h
∆P = 0.1224 (1-S) x 100 mbar
= 6.12 mbar
If the gas heavier than air e.g. LPG (S=1.9)  ∆P is –ve  pressure drop
68
Flow of Gas in Pipes
• When gas is standing still in a pipe the
pressure throughout the whole length of
the pipe is the same
• As soon as gas begins to flow, the
pressure falls progressively along the pipe
as energy is changed and some is lost in
overcoming the friction of the pipe walls

69
Factors Affecting Pressure Loss
Pressure loss h is
 directly proportional to
Length hαl
Specific Gravity hαs
Friction hαζ
Square of the quantity flowing h α Q2
 inversely proportional to the
Fifth power of the Diameter h α 1/d5
Q2  s  l
By collecting the factors together (ignoring friction): h
d5
h d5 h d5
Or Q and the Poles Formula is Q  0.0071 
sl sl 70
Effect of Reducing Pipe Diameters

diameter &
circumference
reduced by ½ ,
area reduced
to ¼

71
Flow of Gas in Pipes

1 : Valve E OFF

2 : Valve E ON

3 : Quantity of Gas Flow

pressure loss
pressure loss is doubled
4 : An obstruction in
the pipe between A & B,
diameter pressure loss
72
Gas Volume Flow through Orifice

Volume/Flow Rate
 proportional to A or D2
 proportional to √P
 proportional to √(1/s)

73
 Coefficient of Discharge Cd
 Injector orifice size should be correct for gas rate of particular burner
 Cd varies with shape of injector orifice & depends mainly on angle of
approach & orifice length. As angle of approach decreases from 90o,
value of Cd increases until the angle is about 30o. After that it decreases
 As length of injector channel increases, value of Cd increases until the
length is about 1.5 to 2 times the orifice diameter
 The actual value of Cdo is usually between 0.85 and 0.95
a: Angle of approach
b: Injector channel
c: Injector orifice

b/c 0.58 3.5 0.8 1.0 1

a 45o 55o 33o 40o 90o

Cd 0.81 0.84 0.93 0.94 0.65

74
Gas Conversion for Appliances
2
V = 0.036 D Cd (P/S)
Power for the Appliance or Thermal Load ɸ
= VxH 2
= 0.036 D2 Cd (P/S) x H
= 0.036 D Cd W  P
where H = Low CV of gas (MJ/m3)
W = Wobbe Number = H/ S
For same ɸ 2 2
0.036 D1 Cd W1  P1 = 0.036 D2 Cd W2  P2
D2/D1 = (W1/W2)1/2 (P1/P2) ¼

For example, ratio of nozzle diameter of NG to TG is 1: (51.6/24) 1/2 or

around 1:1.5 for same inlet pressure
(W: TG - 24; NG - 51.6) 75
EXAMPLE
A town gas burner requires heat input of 18 MJ per hour,
calculate the diameter of orifice. The information is list below:
• Cd : the ‘coefficient of discharge’ is 0.85
• S : the specific gravity of gas is 0.52
• P : the pressure behind the injector is 15 mbar
3
• Calorific Valve of town gas is 17.27 MJ/m
2
Using Formula V = 0.036 D Cd (P/S)

18/17.27m3/hr = 0.036 D2 (0.85) (15/0.52)

D2 = 6.34 mm
D = 2.51 mm
Therefore, the diameter of orifice is 2.51 mm
76
 77

EXAMPLE
What is the gas rating of an outer ring burner with injector dia 3.3 mm?

2
V = 0.036 D Cd (P/S)
Gas volume flow rate (m3/h), V
D is the diameter of the orifice (mm)
Cd is a coefficient relating to the design of the hole (0.65)
P is the gauge pressure behind the injector at 15 mbar (or 6” w.g) ,and
S is specific gravity of town gas at 0.52
= 0.036 x 3.32 x 0.65 x √(15 / 0.52) = 1.37m3/hr

Gas Rating (kW), q:

q = V x c.v.
c.v. is the calorific value of town gas (17.27MJ/m3)
= 1.37m3/hr x 17.27MJ/m3 x 1000kJ/MJ x 1hr/3600s
= 6.6 kW 77
 Control of Pressure – Pressure Regulator
A pressure regulator is a device to reduce high pressure to a more usable
lower pressure – for delivering a stable & reliable pressure

Too high P: Overpressure of downstream

components leading to equipment
failure & gas leakage
Too low P: Flame out leading to gas leakage

Types of Regulator
• Diaphragm type
• Axial flow valve

78
 Principle of Pressure Regulator
 Measuring or Sensing Element (a diaphragm) - impulse line transmitted
from downstream
 Loading Element (a spring) – controls opening of valve with impulse
signal
 Restricting Element (a valve seat/plug &
a sharp edged orifice) – valve opening allows
a controlled amount of gas flow

• Normally adopt fall to open design

• P2 = f (L, D, P1, d, M)
P2 = controlled outlet pressure
L = loading force
D = effective diaphragm diameter
P1 = inlet pressure
d = effective valve diameter
M = magnifying effect
79
Principle of Pressure Regulator
• Effective diaphragm area (A) = D / 4
2

• Effective valve area (a) = d / 4

2

• Direct force acting on the diaphragm

L  P2 A or P2  L / A

• Total forces acting

L  P2 a  P1a  P2 A  P2  ( L  P1a ) / A  a
If A  a, then P2  L / A  P1a / A
where P1a / A is called the Offset Effect
 Offset (or Droop) is a decrease in outlet pressure from the set value
 The Higher the inlet pressure, the greater the offset effect
 Larger diaphragm (a higher cost) and small orifice as practical as
possible
80
 Regulator Droop
• When the regulator is required to pass more gas, the nozzle
plug must be opened more to allow more flow
• Hooke’s Law – spring exerts less force as it extends
• The downstream pressure must decrease further, so that the
spring can push further down to open up the nozzle more
• The net effect is a decrease of downstream pressure from
the desired setting when gas flow increases
• This is a common problem with all regulators - “Droop” or
“Offset”

81
Regulator Droop – Effective Diaphragm Area

• Another contributor to droop effect

• As regulator opens, diaphragm
extends, effective area increases. A
lower outlet pressure is now enough
to generate the same force to
overcome spring pressure
• More pronounced in higher pressure
regulators & with greater demand
variations Decreased Increased
diaphragm Spring compressed diaphragm
Spring expanded area area
Increased
Decreased
compressive force
compressive force

Roll-out type
diaphragm is
usually adopted
to minimize the
effect

Regulator opened Regulator fully closed 82

82
 Solution to Offset Effect
Double Valves or Compensated Valves design
 Forces acting on the valves can be compensated by
each other
 Suitable for larger types of regulators

83
 Auxiliary Pilot Control
• Response of regulator can be quickened by amplifying the change in
outlet pressure to provide accelerated opening & closing of main valve
• Achieved by auxiliary pilot control
 constant gain
 better lock-up action
 adjustability to the required outlet pressure

Pout A2  Pcontrol A1  L  Pcontrol A2

Pcontrol  ( L  Pout A2 ) / (A1  A2

Gain = Change in output / change in input

= P
control / Pout

d Pcontrol - A2
  constant
d Pout A1  A2
84