1.

Using examples, explain the mechanics of Punctuated Equilibrium.  How does this

model differ from Gradualism? 

According to the punctuated equilibrium evaluation model, evolution mainly happens

through brief bursts of intensive speciation, followed by protracted periods of stasis or
equilibrium. The Papua New Guinean kingfisher study demonstrated the significant influence
of reproductive isolation on speciation. Three different subspecies can be found on the
continent. Here, the ecology can be dramatically different, ranging from monsoon forests
with prolonged dry seasons to humid, lush rain forests. These subspecies are essentially
indistinguishable from one another and can interbreed. Nonetheless, even in environments
that are similar to the nearest area of the mainland, on islands several hundred kilometres
distant, the kingfishers are noticeably different. On these smaller islands than on the
mainland, more species have been discovered. The notion of punctuated equilibrium is
supported by these data. Phyletic gradualism contrasts with punctuated equilibrium. Both of
these opposing theories of evolution make assumptions regarding the rate at which new
species develop. Gradualism emphasises the gradual emergence of new traits in interbreeding
subspecies that eventually result in the creation of a new species from earlier ones.

2. Using specific examples of each, explain the mechanisms of gene flow, genetic drift,
and the founder effect.

Genetic drift - It is a random evolutionary alteration in the population's allelic frequencies.

Example: A family with children who have either brown or blue eyes. Brown eyes are the
dominant allele, thus even though there is a 50% possibility of having blue eyes, all the
children may end up having brown eyes by chance in subsequent generations.

Gene flow - Gene flow is the transfer of genes from one population to another during
fertilisation, modifying the genetic makeup of the population that receives the genes. Bees,
for instance, introduce gene flow when they spread pollen from one plant to another.

Founder effect - The founder effect occurs when physical or geographic barriers cause a new
population to settle in a new area. Many species can only be found on a specific island. The
founder effect is the cause of this. Take the case of two birds of the same species travelling to
an island. The variety on the island will be caused by their alleles.

3. What are some of the major primate anatomical characteristics and how are they
explained via both the arboreal hypothesis and the visual predation hypothesis?
The major anatomical features of primates are large and complex brain, forward-facing eyes
that allows depth perception, eye sockets with a ring or cup of bone, grasping hands with long
fingers to curl around objects, opposable thumbs and/or big toes (able to touch the other
digits on the same hand or foot), Meissner's Corpuscles, a well-developed collarbone
(clavicle) and two nipples (but sometimes more) on the chest (in females, these supply milk
to the young.

According to the arboreal theory, many of the characteristics of monkeys evolved to facilitate
movement through trees. For instance, primates' grabbing hands and feet are ideally suited for
holding onto various-sized tree branches, and our flexible joints are useful for reorienting the
extremities in a variety of ways. According to Cartmill's visual predation hypothesis,
monkeys' distinctive set of features is an adaptation for spotting insect prey and using the
hands (or feet) to guide insects into their mouths. His theory emphasises how important
vision is in detecting and capturing prey.

4. Describe the relationship between sickle cell anemia, natural selection and malaria. 
What does this relationship inform us about the interaction of genes, culture and the
environment?

A mutation in the Hb gene, which results in sickle cell disease, gave rise to the HbS gene.
The oxygen-transporting molecule in human blood is called haemoglobin. The haemoglobin
gene exists in two copies in each individual (Hb gene). The defective haemoglobin protein
results from the inheritance of two mutant copies of the haemoglobin gene, which causes the
red blood cells to lose oxygen and twist into a sickle shape during times of high activity.
Sickle cell gene is especially prevalent in areas of Africa hard-hit by malaria. In some
regions, as much as 40 percent of the population carries at least one HbS gene. It turns out
that, in these areas, HbS carriers have been naturally selected, because the trait confers some
resistance to malaria. Their red blood cells, containing some abnormal hemoglobin, tend to
sickle when they are infected by the malaria parasite. Those infected cells flow through the
spleen, which culls them out because of their sickle shape -- and the parasite is eliminated
along with them. The mutation and interaction of genes lead to featuring the traits but
sometime it is beneficial and sometime it may lead to the cause of death.
5. Chimpanzees exhibit a range of proto-cultural behaviour, from cooperative hunting
to fashioning tools.  Using examples from the chimpanzee film, make a case for
chimpanzee culture.  What can we learn from our close cousins concerning the
evolution of particular aspects of human behaviour?

The transmission of cultures from one generation to the next is only observed in a small
number of species, excluding humans. One such animal that displays a wide range of
cultural and tool use behaviours are chimpanzees. Jane Goodall, a primatologist and
anthropologist, discovered indications of termite fishing in wild chimpanzees over 60
years ago. That was the first instance of non-human creatures using tools that had ever
been documented. By breaking a twig off of a tree, removing its leaves, and then pushing
it into a nest to collect ants to eat—ants are a significant source of protein—chimpanzees
engage in termite fishing. In this new study, the researchers discovered that chimpanzees
living in various communities have evolved somewhat varied strategies for fishing for
termites—a manifestation of cultural variation. Researchers found 38 different factors that
can differ between chimpanzee groups, including the flexibility of the stick, the posture
chimps adopted while fishing, and whether they used one or both hands when manipulating
the stick. This is similar to how people adapt their tools—chopsticks are used differently
across Asia, for example. This event teaches us that chimpanzees were a crucial connection in
the evolution of human behaviour between chimpanzees and humans.