Science 3rd PT

POINTERS:
1. Human Feedback Mechanism
2. Nervous System
3. Endocrine System
4. Male and Female Reproductive Systems
5. Menstrual Cycle
6. Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
a. DNA Replication, Transcription, Translation
7. Evolution

Lesson 10: The Human Feedback Mechanism

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism
● Homeostasis - a condition in which a living body is maintained in a steady state
● Feedback Mechanism - a physiological regulatory system in a living body that allows it
to return to its normal state also known as homeostasis.
○ It is important because this allows the body to work properly while functionally
interacting and adjusting to external and internal changes.
○ Occurs in a loop that maintains homeostasis
■ This is activated because of a change in our environment which triggers
our body to react.
● Ex.
○ When the outside temperature is low, our body maintains
the ideal temperature by shivering (which increases body
heat in response to the low temperature).
○ When the outside temperature is high, our body maintains
the ideal temperature by sweating.
○ Classifications
■ Positive
■ Negative

Components in Maintaining Homoeostasis

1. Receptor/Sensor - receives information and sends it to the control center.
 2. Control Center/Evaluator - processes the information from the receptor and stimulates
the effector.
3. Effector - carries out stimulatory (positive feedback) or inhibitory (negative feedback)
effects according to the command from the control center.

Positive and Negative Feedback Mechanism

● Positive Feedback Mechanism
○ When an output of the body system is amplified
○ Brings the body further outside of the range of homeostasis
○ Ex. Childbirth
■ The brain stimulates the pituitary to produce oxytocin which is
responsible for the contraction of the uterine muscles which causes the
fetal movement to the cervix. This process is continued until the baby is
born.
● Negative
○ When output is inhibited
○ Brings the body back toward the homeostatic or normal range
○ Ex.
■ Regulation of blood glucose level
● If the blood glucose level rises, the pancreas releases insulin into
the bloodstream. The insulin signals cells to take up the excess
glucose until the normal range is achieved. If the blood glucose
level falls beyond normal, the pancreas releases the hormone
glucagon. This hormone commands cells to break down glycogen
to glucose which will compensate for the low glucose in the blood.
■ Temperature regulation
 ● When the body temperature increases beyond normal, the brain
signals the skin to release heat in the form of sweat.
● Setpoint - physiological optimum value for a certain variable
○ Ex. The setpoint for human body temperature is 37 °C.
Note: This is not always the case, our body can fluctuate around this
setpoint as long as it's not too extreme, not too low, or high .
● Normal Range - acceptable range of values of fluctuation
○ Ex. Normal range of body temperature for an adult is about 36.5 to 37.5 °C.

The Nervous System

● Processes the information from various stimuli through the Peripheral Nervous System,
which will then be processed by the Central Nervous System, specifically the brain.
● The main mechanism by which the body regulates its processes and functions.
● This is further assisted by the endocrine system.
● TWO MAIN SUBDIVISIONS
○ Central (CNS)
■ Parts
● Spinal Cord
○ A tube of nerves that serves as a pathway of impulses to
and from your brain.
○ Safeguarded by the spinal column
● Brain
○ The main command system of the body.
○ Three Main Parts
■ Cerebrum - largest part of the brain
● Composed of the left and right
hemispheres
● Performs important sensory functions
○ Ex. interpreting touch, vision, and
hearing.
● Performs higher functions
○ Ex. speech, reasoning, emotions,
learning, and fine control movement.
■ Cerebellum - located under the cerebrum
● Coordinates muscle movements and
maintains posture and balance.
■ Brainstem - serves as the relay center that
connects the brain to the spinal cord
● Performs many automatic functions
○ Ex. breathing, heart rate, body
temperature, wake and sleep cycles,
and digestion
 ○ Peripheral (PNS)
■ Consists of networks of nerves that arise from the brain and spinal cord
● All of these nerves are connected and end at the muscles and
organs of the body
■ Cranial nerves - nerves from the brain
■ Spinal nerves - nerves from the spinal cord
■ Nerve - made up of bunches of neurons or nerve cells performing
specific functions
● Nerve cells/Neurons - transmits information from one body part
to another
○ Classified according to the direction of the message or
impulse a neuron carried; they are;
■ Sensory neurons - carry impulses from the sense
organs to the CNS
■ Motor neurons - carry impulses from the CNS to
the muscles
■ Associative neurons/Interneurons - are in the CNS;
process information from the sensory neuron;
relay directives to motor neurons

Note: We receive stimuli or information from the internal or external environment through the
PNS by way of sensory neurons.
● This information is then processed by the CNS.
● The central nervous system analyzes the implications of the stimuli and decides on
what feedback to do to maintain the equilibrium of the body.

The Endocrine System

● A system of glands that assists the
nervous system in feedback
mechanisms
● Simulates the effector with the help of
hormones
● Hormones - chemical messengers that
can regulate and control many
biological processes in response to a
feedback mechanism
○ Secreted by different glands of
the endocrine system
○ Travel in the bloodstream to
tissues or organs
○ They can affect many different
processes like growth and
development, and metabolism
 ● Consists of various ductless glands that secrete hormones through the walls of the
blood vessels directly into the blood
○ These hormones send signals to cells and tissues to tell them what to do.
● Parts

Gland Location Hormone and Functions

Pineal Body Middle of the brain Melatonin – regulates the daily

sleep-wake cycle

Hypothalamus The lower central Oxytocin and vasopressin - these

area of the brain hormones are transported to the
pituitary for temporary storage

Contraction of mammary gland

and uterine wall

Pituitary Gland The lower central Known and the master gland
area of the brain Releases several hormones that
influence many other glands

Thyroid The base of the neck Thyroxine and triiodothyronine –

work together to regulate the
body’s mental and physical growth

Thymus Upper chest behind Thymosin - stimulates the

the breastbone production of T cells, which are
(sternum) important to the immune system.

Pancreas Behind the stomach Insulin – lowers blood sugar

Glucagon – raises blood sugar

Adrenal gland One on top of each Adrenaline - triggers the body’s

kidney fight-or-flight response.

Ovaries Left and right side of Estrogen - regulate the

the uterus in the development and function of the
lower abdomen uterus.
Progesterone - helps to prepare
the body for pregnancy.

Testicle Inside the scrotum Testosterone - involved in male

secondary sex characteristics
(facial hair, deep voice, etc.).

Lesson 11: The Male Reproductive System

● Human sexual production - starts with the production of gametes and fertilization
eventually leading to the development of a human embryo
The External Male Reproductive Organs

● Penis - external organ of the male reproductive system

○ Functions
■ Sexual Intercourse - during the stimulation, the penis undergoes erection
and ejaculation.
● The release of sperm is vital to the fertilization process leading
to human development
■ Micturition - expulsion of urine from the body.
○ Structure
■ Root - fixed part of the penis; contains three erectile tissues
■ Body - middle part; composed of three cylinders of erectile tissues
■ Glans - tip; contains the opening of the urethra known as the urethral
orifice
Note: The erectile tissues are vital for erection. During sexual arousal, these are filled with
blood causing the penis to be erect then allowing it to penetrate the female reproductive
system.

● Scrotum - a fibromuscular sac below the penis

○ Contains three paired structures
■ Testis
■ Epididymis
■ Spermatic cord
○ Dartos muscle - one of the muscle fibers of the scrotum; found immediately
underneath the skin
■ This sheet of smooth muscles wrinkle the scrotal skin to regulate
temperature.

The Internal Male Reproductive Organs

● Male reproductive tract - roots from
the paired testes extend to a series of
tubes passing through various glands

● Testis (p. testes)/Testicle - important

sites for sperm and testosterone
production while the epididymis serves
as the sperm's temporary storage.
○ Seminiferous tubules - coiled
tubes where spermatogenesis
occurs
● Epididymis - collects sperm from the
testes.
○ The sperm is being prepared here for maturity and acquiring the ability to move
through the female reproductive system and fulfill fertilization.
● Vas deferens - a firm tube connected to the epididymis which transports the sperm.
● Three glands - the sperm passes through these during transport.
○ They add a secretion to the traveling sperm, all vital to its survival.
● Urethra - a passage for semen; extends from the urinary bladder and serves as a
passage for urine.
○ The sperm moves out of the body through the urethra located along the penis.
Spermatogenesis
● It is the production of sperm.

1. At the onset of puberty

● Spermatogonia starts to
develop and proliferate
through mitosis.
2. A primary spermatocyte is
transformed into two secondary
spermatocytes during meiosis I -
these cells then in turn are
converted into (1N or n) spermatids
during meiosis II
3. The spermatids would then change
shape (the nucleus condenses, the
acrosome appears, and the tail
begins to grow) transforming into
mature sperm cells.

Note: Sequence in Spermatogenesis

● Spermatogonia → Primary
spermatocytes → Secondary
spermatocytes → Spermatids → Sperm
cells

The Pathway of Sperm

● During sexual arousal, the penis becomes erect giving it the ability to penetrate the
female reproductive system and deliver sperm.
 ● Ejaculation - process of release of semen from the penis.
○ This is an involuntary function regulated by the nervous system.
○ It occurs during orgasm, the peak of sexual arousal.
○ During ejaculation - a series of muscle contractions pushes the sperm from the
vas deferens passing through the glands to receive secretion;

1. First, the seminal vesicles produce thick, yellow, alkaline secretion rich in
fructose (sugar) that nourishes the sperm.
2. Secondly, the sperm will receive prostatic fluid from the prostate gland.
● This fluid includes enzymes, zinc, and citric acid.
● One more important component is the prostate-specific antigen
(PSA) which makes the semen thinner and more fluid for mobility.
3. Lastly, the Cowper’s glands or bulbourethral glands produce a mucus
secretion containing glycoproteins.
● This substance serves as a lubricant that neutralizes the urine
along the urethra.
● The sperm cell together with all these secretions is known as
seminal fluid, shortly semen.

● The muscle at the entrance of the gallbladder contracts to prevent the mixing of urine
with semen.
● Final stage of this process
○ The semen is expelled out of the penis through the urethra and out of the
urethral orifice.

Note: Sequence for the Sperm’s Pathway

● Testis → Epididymis → Vas deferens → Seminal vesicles → Prostate glands → Cowper’s glands →
Urethra → Urethral Orifice
Anatomy of a Sperm Cell

● Sperm cell/Spermatozoon (p. spermatozoa) - the sole male reproductive cell (gamete) of
most animals
○ It is produced in the testes.
○ All sperms are haploid.
■ It contains half of the usual human chromosomes (23).
○ It can approximately travel at 30 inches per hour.
○ The male body constantly produces it.
■ Per milliliter of semen = Around 20-300 million sperm cells
○ Parts
■ Head - oval; contains the nucleus.
● The nucleus contains genetic information.
● Its tip has an acrosome.
○ This secretes the hyaluronidase enzyme that helps the
sperm penetrate an egg cell.
■ Middle Piece/Midpiece - contains the mitochondria.
● The mitochondria provides the sperm its energy, allowing it to
move and swim once inside the female reproductive system.
■ Tail/Flagellum (p. flagella) - contains the axial filaments of the sperm.
● Allows the sperm to move or swim fast enough.

OTHER SPERM FACTS:

● The body produces an average of around 20–300 million sperm cells per milliliter of
semen.
● On average, it takes a male around 74 days to produce new sperm from start to finish.
● It takes 50-60 days for semen to develop in the testicles and another 14 days to fully
mature in the epididymis .
● If a male does not ejaculate sperm, the body eventually breaks down and reabsorbs
them.
Male Reproductive System Problems
● Impotence
○ problem with getting/keeping erection
○ Possibly caused by a problem with the brain, hormones, emotions, nerves, blood
vessels, and muscles which are involved in male sexual arousal.
● Infertility
○ inability to achieve a pregnancy due to low sperm production, blockages, and
unhealthy sperm production.
○ It can be rooted from infection, poor diet, physical and mental stress, exposure
to radiation, and vices like drugs, smoking, and alcohol.
● Prostate disease
○ benign prostate enlargement and prostate cancer
○ Prostate cancer: the DOH said that prostate is the fifth leading cancer site and
third leading cause of cancer deaths among Filipino males
■ The cause is still unknown.
■ It could be detected by Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) or by a Digital
Rectal Exam (DRE).
● Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
○ bacterial/viral infections acquired through sexual contact
○ Ex. HIV, AIDS, Chlamydia, etc.

Note: These problems may be prevented by having proper hygiene, a healthy lifestyle, less
stress, and regular check-up.

Female Reproductive System (Lesson 12)

● More complex compared to the Male Reproductive System (MRS)
○ The FRS plays a very important role in human sexual reproduction
● This is where fertilization takes place and where a baby develops.
● ROLES
○ Fertilization - union of a sperm and egg cell
■ Occurs in the fallopian tube.
○ Pregnancy
○ Childbirth
● Breasts - pair of milk-producing organs found in females.

The External Anatomy of the FRS

 ● Vulva - external part of the FRS.
○ STRUCTURE
■ Vestibule - main entrance to the vagina.
■ Bartholin’s glands - vestibule glands that are around the Vestibule.
● Produce fluid that keeps the area from drying.
○ More fluid is produced during sexual arousal which
provides lubrication.
■ Urethra - passage of urine out of the body.
● Unlike males, this is exclusively for micturition (expulsion of urine
from the body).
■ Labia Minora and Majora - smaller and larger lips.
● Surround the entrance of the vagina.
■ Mons Pubis - pubic area

The Internal Anatomy of the FRS

● Designed to house and nourish a baby into development until childbirth.
● Produces hormones essential to the development of the female body.
● Ovaries - main gonads of the female body.
○ Females have two ovaries found at each end of the paired fallopian tube.
○ Where egg development takes place.
○ TWO IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
■ Hormone production
■ Release of egg cells
○ These release TWO GROUPS OF HORMONES
■ Estrogen - regulate the development and function of the uterus.
● This (specifically estradiol) is essential in breast growth and
development of hips.
■ Progesterone
Note: BOTH hormones are necessary in preparing the body for
pregnancy and menstruation.
■ MOST COMMON ROLES
● They influence the development of female sex traits especially at
the onset of puberty.
● They also:
○ Regulate menstrual cycle.
○ Stimulate pregnancy, childbirth, and lactation.
○ Contribute to the healthy development of the bones,
heart, liver, brain, and other tissues.
○ Influence mood, sleep, and sex drive.

● Fallopian Tubes - two thin tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus.
○ Passageways that conduct the eggs from the ovaries toward the uterus.
 ○ Site of fertilization.
○ Its walls are ciliated (hair-like
projection).
■ It assists the egg cell in its
travel toward the uterus.
○ Composed of SUBSECTIONS
■ Infundibulum - funnel
shaped.
● Main opening of the
tube from the
ovaries.
● Surrounded by
fimbriae (s. fimbria) -
finger like ciliated
projections.
○ They
capture the
ovum (egg cell) once released from the ovary.
■ Ampulla
■ Isthmus
■ Interstitial

● Uterus/Womb - where the development of an embryo into a fetus takes place.

○ The same size as a pear (approx. 7.6 cm long) for non-pregnant women.
○ This can greatly expand to accommodate the developing fetus during
pregnancy.
● Cervix and Vagina
○ Cervix - narrow structure at the lower end of the uterus which leads to the
vagina.
■ Produces cervical mucus which inhibits the sperm to enter the uterus
when a person is not fertile or pregnant.
● This mucus also stops bacteria from entering the uterus keeping
the vagina healthy.
○ Vagina/Birth Canal - directly below the cervix.
■ A flexible tubular structure.
■ Allows the discharge of fluids (Ex. menstrual blood) out of the body.
■ The entrance of semen into the body, making fertilization possible.
■ During childbirth, this is the birth canal through which the baby passes.

● Clitoris - counterpart of the penis in males.

○ Not part of the internal anatomy*
○ Pea-sized organ.
○ Filled with nerve endings making the organ very sensitive, especially during
sexual arousal.
 ○ It is mostly internal but a small portion of it is visible externally which sits above
the urethra.

Oogenesis - The Production of Egg Cell

● Exclusive gametogenesis in females.
● The process that leads to the development of the ovum.
● The counterpart of spermatogenesis in males.
● Starts prenatal/fetal development until puberty.

● PRENATAL
○ The ovaries of the females already develop egg cells even still in the womb.
○ During the fifth week of pregnancy, a large number of immature germ cells,
oogonia (s. oogonium), are formed by mitosis.
■ The oogonia will continuously divide mitotically increasing their number.
○ After mitosis, the oogonia will enter meiosis and will then develop into a primary
oocyte.
○ These are arrested at the first stage of meiosis I until puberty.
● PUBERTY
○ Back to the halted development of the primary oocytes.
■ Each month, the hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), will trigger
the continuation of the primary oocyte’s development.
■ These cells will complete the first meiotic division and form two cells of
unequal size.
● One of these cells will form into a secondary oocyte while the
smaller one forms a polar body which would eventually
degenerate.
● The secondary oocyte begins the second meiotic division but is
arrested in metaphase II.
○ The second oocyte is then released from the ovary to the fallopian tube
(ovulation).
■ The second oocyte would only complete the second meiotic division once
entered by a sperm.
 ■ After the completion of the second meiotic division, the cell develops into
a mature ovum and other polar body (which would eventually die again).
■ Finally, the nuclei of the ovum and sperm would fuse completing
fertilization.

Note: At birth, the ovaries contain around 2 million primary oocytes.

● Egg cell production is definite.
○ No newer primary oocytes are produced after birth.
● Along with the development of the female body, these primary oocytes grow and die.
● By the time a female reaches puberty, only about 300,000 to 500,000 is left in the ovaries.
○ This number further decreases due to apoptosis (naturally programmed cell
death).
○ Only around 300 to 500 primary oocytes mature and be released throughout a
woman’s lifetime.

Summary of Oogenesis (Note: DO NOT solely rely on this!!)

● PRENATAL
○ Mitosis - oogonium replicates.
○ 1st Meiotic - Oocytes to Primary oocytes, arrested at meiosis I.
■ Primary oocytes are arrested at the first stage of meiosis I until
puberty.
● PUBERTY
○ Completing the 1st Meiotic - Primary to secondary oocytes.
○ 2nd Meiotic - Secondary oocytes enters but arrested at metaphase II
○ Completing 2nd Meiotic - Secondary oocytes will only fully mature during
fertilization.

Egg Cell facts

● It is the biggest cell and is visible without a microscope.
● Most women release an egg cell every cycle through ovulation.
● After ovulation, an egg cell has only 12-24 hours before it deteriorates and dies.

Key Statistic for Cancer in Females

● Cervical and Ovarian cancers are among the top 5 leading sites of cancer in the
Philippines.
○ According to the 2020 WHO report, they are ranked 4th and 5th respectively
among Filipino women.

● Ovarian Cancer
○ Group of diseases often originating from the ovaries or other areas of the
fallopian tube.
○ LOWERING THE RISK
■ Using birth control pills
 ■ Having tubal ligation
■ Having given birth
■ Breastfeeding
○ SYMPTOMS
■ Vaginal Bleeding
■ Pain in the pelvic area
■ Bloating
■ Change in bathroom habits
○ Detection is still the best weapon against this type of cancer.
■ Treatment works best at an early stage.
○ Unfortunately, there is no simple and reliable way to screen for this cancer in
women who do not have any symptoms.
○ WHAT CAN YOU DO INSTEAD?
■ Pay attention to your body.
■ If you notice any changes that are not normal, it is always best to talk to
an expert.
● Cervical Cancer
○ All women are at risk.
○ Occurs most often in women over age 30.
○ Certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV) is the main cause.
○ LOWERING THE RISK
■ Get vaccinated (HPV Vaccine) - most recommended to preteens aged 11
to 12 years old.
■ Regular screening - Pap smear and HPV testing
○ OTHER RECOMMENDATIONS
■ Do not smoke.
■ Practice safe sex.
■ Sexual fidelity.

Pregnancy and Human Development (Lesson 13)

● Pregnancy lasts for 9 months
○ Less than 9 months = premature baby (not yet fully developed)
○ Exceeding 9 months, even for a day = death to the baby and mother because
poison will be produced inside the body of the mom.
○ Placenta - develops inside the uterus during pregnancy.
■ Only develops if the fetus is present.
■ Oxygen tank and nutrients provider of a growing baby.
■ Removes waste products from the baby’s blood.
○ Umbilical cord - transfers nutrients from the mother to the baby.
○ The average gestation is 280 days, around 40 weeks, or just over 9 months from
the first day of the woman’s last menstrual period.
○ Zygote – fertilized egg /egg already combined with a sperm
○ Embryo - a developing human up to eight weeks after fertilization.
○ Fetus – a developing human after eight weeks from fertilization. (Source:
 ○ Gestation – the period between conception and birth during which the baby
grows and develops inside the womb.

● Ovarian cycle - series of changes the ovary undergoes.

○ includes the follicular and luteal stages.
○ involves the release of eggs.
● Uterine cycle - series of changes in the uterine lining (endometrium) in preparation for
pregnancy.

Note: Both cycles…

● Take about 28 days
● Are periodic (may schedule kung when uulit)
● Happen at the same time

The Menstrual Cycle

● Preparation of the female body for possible pregnancy.
● During each menstrual cycle, the egg in the ovaries develops and is released from it. At
the same time, the uterine wall thickens up in preparation for a possible pregnancy. If
pregnancy does not occur, the uterine lining sheds which is expelled out of the body as
menstrual flow.
● From puberty (starts from 8 to 13 yrs old) to menopause (starts from 45-55 yrs old).
● Hormone-driven (involves the nervous and endocrine system).
● Periodic cycle of changes in the activities of the ovaries and endometrium (uterine
lining).
● vital for human development
● Lasts for about 28-32 days. If it exceeds 32 days, that is considered as an irregular
menstrual cycle.
● 300-500 cycles per lifetime.

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle (F.O.L.M)

● The thick level of the uterine lining should always be maintained during the menstrual
cycle.
○ The uterus is expecting a zygote to be implanted in it.
● The uterine lining should be thick for the zygote to cling on it.
○ If the lining is thin, the zygote will die.
● Hormones - chemical units released to a blood stream which triggers and simulates
changes in the body.

○ Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

■ Day 1-6
■ Stimulates the production of follicles
■ Not needed anymore when the egg cell is about to go out of the ovary
■ From pituitary gland
○ Estrogen
■ triggers the thickening of the uterine lining
 ■ Level lowers down during day 17-18
■ From ovaries
○ Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
■ Day 14
■ Triggers ovulation
■ Increase of LH triggers release of egg cell
■ Level lowers down on day 20 because egg cell is released
■ From pituitary gland
○ Progesterone
■ Also maintains the thickening of the lining
■ From ovaries
○ HCG
■ Helps maintain the pregnancy

1. Follicular phase (day 1-13)

● Follicles in the ovaries develop and uterine lining starts to thicken.
● Follicle - small sac of fluid in the ovaries that contains a developing/immature
egg.
○ Females produce 5-20 follicles per cycle/per month but only one of the
follicles will release a mature egg cell.
● Production of follicles trigger production of Estrogen and Progesterone.
● Longest step in the Ovarian cycle.
● SUMMARY OF PHASE
○ Production of Follicle) → Rise in Estrogen and Progesterone → Rise in LH
Level
2. Ovulation phase (day 14)
● Release of a mature egg cell from the ovary.
● Rise in LH level.
● This window period is the only time a female is fertile.
● For 24 hours, the egg cell waits for the sperm cell at the fallopian tube.
○ Fertilized egg cell = pregnancy (naka enter si sperm cell to meet egg cell)
○ Unfertilized egg cell = menstruation (entry denied si sperm cell so di sila
nagkita ni egg cell)
3. Luteal phase (day 15-28)
● Maintenance of the uterine lining in preparation for possible pregnancy.
● After ovulation, the empty follicle would transform into a structure called
“corpus luteum”.
● Corpus luteum
○ Location: inside the ovary
○ Triggers production of Progesterone so that the thick uterine lining is still
maintained.
○ While the egg cell is traveling in the fallopian tube, yung pinangalingan
nyang follicle sa ovary na empty na ngayon because wala na nga si egg
cell sa loob niya, will transform into Corpus luteum.
○ Basically, while the egg cell is waiting in the fallopian tube, the corpus
luteum triggers the production of Progesterone. This happens because
the uterine lining should be thick just in case may dumating na sperm cell.
● If pregnancy occurs (egg cell is fertilized) = production of Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin (hCG) which helps to maintain the corpus luteum.
○ hCG is the one detected by pregnancy test kits
○ Fertilized egg cell -> body produce hCG -> if hCG is present, Corpus
luteum will be maintained -> if corpus luteum is present and maintained,
the high level of Estrogen and Progesterone will also be maintained -
>uterine lining won’t shred off (Domino effect)
● If Pregnancy DOESN’T occur = corpus luteum will regress (die)
○ Estrogen and progesterone levels will decrease.
○ This leads to the thinning and shedding of the uterine lining.
● Premenstrual syndrome symptoms
○ bloating
○ breast swelling, pain, or tenderness
○ mood changes
○ headache
○ weight gain
○ changes in sexual desire
○ food cravings
○ trouble sleeping
4. Menstrual phase (day 1-5)
● Shredding of the uterine lining which is expelled out of the body as menstrual
fluid.
○ Menstrual flow is a combination of blood, mucus, and uterine tissue.
 ● Reason for cramps and dysmenorrhea.
● The uterine lining is thin again.

Calendar Method
● Natural family planning method (without birth control)
● Helps parents predict their fertile days by tracking the length of their menstrual cycle
over several months.
● Only applicable to those with a regular menstrual cycle
● Infertile days
○ No presence of egg cell because it just died or the uterine wall is still shredding
○ No/low chance of getting pregnant
○ Day 1-7 ( during menstruation)
○ Day 20-32 (close to menstruation)
● Fertile days
○ Day 8-10 and day 17-19 (semi fertile)
○ Day 11-16 (most fertile)

Teenage Pregnancy
● In the Philippines, there are 180, 916 recorded live births from ages 10-19 during 2019.
● 495 live birth
● Negative impacts:
○ STD and other poor health outcomes
○ Leading causes of death among girls ages 15-19, globally
■ A teenage body is not yet capable of bearing a child.
○ less -likely to finish higher education

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

● Heredity - mechanism by which characteristics or traits are passed from one
generation to another
● Genes - the functional unit of heredity that are contained in chromosomes that are in
the cell nucleus.
○ Made up of a string of DNA which can either be short as a few base pairs or as
long as many thousands.
● The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
○ DNA → RNA → Protein
○ Is the process by which DNA is translated into functional molecules.
○ Involves the process of DNA replication, transcription, and translation.
○ Proposed by Francis Crick in 1953.
● DNA
○ carries the genetic instructions on all living things
○ The blueprint of life
○ Arranged in a thread-like structure called chromosome which is found in the
nucleus
 ○ Deoxyribonucleic Acid
■ Deoxyribo - Sugar
■ Nucleic Acid - Phosphate + Base
○ Is a polymer that is composed of monomers or a string of linked nucleotides.
■ Monomer : 1 nucleotide; Single structure of DNA
■ Polymer : chain of monomers; More than 1 structure
○ STRUCTURE:
■ Nucleotide - the building block / Structure of DNA
■ Composed of 2 strands of nucleotides coiled in a double helix structure.
○ Note: Observable traits do not directly come from DNA but from RNA that is
translated from DNA, or most commonly from the proteins that are from RNA.
● Nitrogenous base

partnered with… no. of Hydrogen bonds

Adenine (A) Thymine 2

Cytosine ( C ) Guanine 3

Thymine (T) Adenine 2

Guanine (G) Cytosine 3

● Complementary Base Pairing

○ The connection between two strands is via the nitrogenous bases by a weak
hydrogen bond
○ Pairs:
■ Adenine & Thymine
■ Guanine & Cytosine

● The Central Dogma

○ The process under
central dogma involve
DNA Replication and
gene expression
(transcription and
translation)
DNA Replication
● DNA replication is where DNA is replicated into 2 identical strands.
● Ensures that 2 identical cells with the exact genetic information are produced during
cell division
● Aka: unzipping process
● Process:
1. The double-helix strand is uncoiled/unzipped by an enzyme called helicase.
2. A short RNA, called the primer, is then synthesized to identify the starting point
of the new DNA synthesized to identify the starting point of the new DNA
synthesis
3. From the prime, an enzyme called DNA Polymerase will begin replicating a new
DNA strand by matching the bases of the original template
● As a result, the newly produced helix is a combination of an original strand and the
newly synthesized strand.
● Complementary base-pairing ensures that the newly synthesized DNA has the same
sequence as the first one.
● The cell also carries out proofreading to ensure the correctness of the process as DNA
replication.

● GENE EXPRESSION
○ DNA becomes RNA
○ RNA polymerase: identified promoter & unwinds DNA
○ Promoter: starts transcription
○ The process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to direct the
assembly of a protein molecule.
○ In this stage, the cell reads the sequence of the gene in groups of three bases
or codons. Wherein each codon corresponds to one of 20 amino acids used to
build protein.
○ Transcription and Translation

Transcription
● Occurs in the nucleus.
● This process involves making the messenger RNA (mRNA) by using DNA as a template.
● Process:
1. Initiation: An enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene. This
region is known as the promoter and where the DNA would start to unwind to let
the synthesis of complementary mRNA sequence.
2. Elongation: After the DNA unwinds, RNA polymerase will now start to read the
strand and make a complementary mRNA strand.
● The complementary mRNA strand is built using a complementary base
pair wherein the Adenine in the DNA binds with Uracil in the RNA.
○ RNA does not contain T as its base therefore it will be replaced
by Uracil or U
 3. Termination: Once the RNA polymerase crosses as stop (called termination) in
the DNA sequence, it will stop the transcription signaling its completion. The
mRNA would then detach itself from the DNA
● The uncoiled strand will be used as a template for mRNA synthesis

DNA RNA

Double Stranded Single Stranded

Contains: Sugar Deoxyribose Contains: Sugar Ribose

Adenine and Thymine Thymine and Uracil

Translation
● Translation involves the decoding of mRNA to build protein.
● Occurs in the cytoplasm.
● Process:
1. After transcription, the mRNA will leave the nucleus and go to the cytoplasm.
Then it will be delivered to the ribosome where protein synthesis occurs.
2. The ribosome, with tRNA, translates the mRNA sequence into an amino acid.
● tRNA - helps to sequence amino acid
● Amino acid : building block of protein
● Ribosome - important organelle to the process of translation as it serves
as a site for protein synthesis.
● Genetic Code

○ Stop Codons: UAG UGA UAA

■ to help u remember, read it as (Wag uga ooh-ah-ah so like don’t
uga/move the baby kasi iiyak HAHAHAHAHA)
 ○ During translation, the mRNA sequence is read by 3, known as codon, and is
translated into a specific amino acid.
■ There are a total of 64 codons corresponding to 20 amino acids.
○ These relationships between mRNA codons and Amino Acids are known as the
Genetic Code.
○ Amino Acids are the building block of protein
● Protein - is the basic building block of life. Therefore, without it, the cell won’t function
and there would be no life.

Evolution
● Evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations
which relies on the process of natural selection
● Charles Darwin
○ Father of Evolution
○ An English naturalist who developed the theory of biological evolution
○ On the Origin of Species - Darwin’s book where the theory of evolution is
explained.
● Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection.
○ Darwin and a scientific contemporary of his, Alfred Russel Wallace, proposed
that evolution occurs because of a phenomenon called natural selection.
○ Natural selection or survival of the fittest means that organisms that are better
adapted to their environment are best suited to survive and successfully
reproduce.
● Natural Selection paved the path for Evolution:
 ○ Natural Selection (Survival of the Fittest) - mechanism that describes how
favorable traits are transmitted through generations.
■ Organisms with favorable traits to their environment survive and
reproduce at a greater rate than less-well adapted organisms in the
same environment
● Favorable traits - traits where they benefit.
■ HIGHER RATE OF SURVIVAL = HIGHER RATE OF REPRODUCTION
○ Theory of Evolution - describes how organisms evolve over generations through
the inheritance of physical and behavioral traits
● Contextually, only the fittest (the one with the most adaptive trait) will survive and will
be able to reproduce. That trait will then be the basis of evolution, where the less
favorable trait is slowly erased from the species' bloodline.
● Theory of Lamarckism - organisms altered their behavior in response to environmental
change.
○ Ex. Eventually, short-necked Giraffes had no access to food because they
couldn't reach their food source so they had no choice but to adapt. Hence, the
length of our modern-day Giraffes.

TERMS TO REMEMBER
Organism ● An individual form of life that is
capable of growing and reproducing,
and has one or more cells.

Fitness ● The ability to survive and reproduce

in a specific environment

Adaptation ● An inherited characteristic that

increases an organism’s chance of
survival

Favorable Trait ● Traits that are adapted to

environment and will be passed to the
next generation

Variation ● Changes in the DNA of individual

organisms of a species

Phylogeny ● The history of the evolution of a

species or group (Progression of
Evolution)

Two Theories of Evolution

1. Lamarckism (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck)
● Use and disuse of an organ leads to acquiring a change in the feature of that
organ
● Organs which are constantly used, develop; whereas, unused ones become
functionless and get degenerated.
 ● Ex. Giraffes became long-necked to reach trees.
2. Darwinism (Charles Darwin)
● "All species of organisms arise and develop through natural selection of small,
inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and
reproduce"
● 2 KEY CONCEPTS
○ Natural Selection
○ Branching Descent

Note: The two theories’ difference is…

● Lamarck believed that theory of use and disuse happens in the lifetime of an organism,
contrary to Darwin where it happens through generations or evolution through natural
selection (Survival and Inheritance)

Evidence Supporting the Theory of Evolution

● FOSSILS - remains of dead organisms
○ The preserved remains of plants and animals whose bodies were buried in
sediments, such as sand and mud, under ancient seas, lakes, and rivers.
○ With the help of fossils, experts are able to trace the successive evolution of
species.
● COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
○ Homologous Structures: Similar Structure, Different Function
■ Same bone makeup of structures in different organisms
■ These are structures that changed in shape and size among different
species while maintaining the same overall layout pointing to the common
ancestors.
■ Supports the Theory of Evolution
○ Analogous Structures: Different Structure, Similar Function.
● VESTIGIAL ORGANS - structures or organs are those that have lost their use through
evolution.
○ This suggests that an organism changed from using the structure to not using
the structure or using it for a different purpose, which therefore proves
evolution.
○ Ex: Human Appendix
● COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY
○ Embryology - a branch of science that is related to
the formation, growth, and development of embryos.
○ Almost all vertebrates have similarities at their early
developmental stages, some examples are the
presence of tail and slit-like structures.
○ This demonstrates that all vertebrates develop
similarly and have a common ancestor.
 ESM PPT: Head tutor: Denesse Packay , PPT: Shanaiah Simon & Kiara Dela Cruz
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1vBAGddILqVlKLWGeTfVGoswPyaKAuH4k/view?usp=share_link

Source: https://www.nagwa.com/en/explainers/636128124616/

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