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LOAD CHARACTERISTICS

EPM412

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CONTENTS
Relationship between the Load and Loss Factors

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

 Maximum Diversified Demand

 Examples

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 Assume that the primary feeder shown in Figure is

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connected to a variable load.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 The load factor is:

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 The loss factor is:

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where
 PLS,av is the average power loss
 PLS,max is the maximum power loss
 PLS,2 is the peak loss at peak load

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS

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 From Figure:

where
 PLS,1 is the off-peak loss at off-peak load
 t is the peak-load duration
 T − t is the off-peak-load duration

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 The copper losses are the function of the associated loads.

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Therefore, the off-peak and peak loads can be expressed,
respectively, as

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 Case 1: Off-peak load is zero. Here,

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 since P1 = 0. Therefore,

 That is, the load factor is equal to the loss factor, and they
are equal to the t/T constant.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 Case 2: Very short-lasting peak. Here,

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 That is, the value of the loss factor approaches the value of
the load factor squared.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 Case 3: Load is steady. Here,

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 That is, the difference between the peak load and the off-
peak load is negligible. For example, if the customer’s load
is a petrochemical plant, this would be the case.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 That is, the value of the loss factor approaches the value of

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the load factor . Therefore, in general, the value of the loss
factor is

 Therefore, the loss factor cannot be determined directly

from the load factor.
 The reason is that the loss factor is determined from losses
as a function of time, which, in turn, are proportional to the
time function of the square load.
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 Example1

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 Assume that the annual peak-load input to a primary
feeder is 2000 kW. A computer program that calculates
voltage drops and I2R losses shows that the total copper
loss at the time of peak load is I2R = 100 kW. The total
annual energy supplied to the sending end of the feeder is
5.61 × 106 kWh.

 a. determine the annual loss factor.

 b. Calculate the total annual copper loss energy and its
value at $0.06/kWh.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 Solution

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 a. The annual loss factor is

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 Solution

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 b. The annual loss factor is

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 Example2: Assume that a DT supplies three primary

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feeders. The annual maximum demands and corresponding
power factor per feeder are listed in the following table,

 Assume a diversity factor of 1.15 among the three feeders

for both real power (P) and reactive power (Q).

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 a. Calculate the annual maximum demand on the

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substation transformer in kilowatts and in kVAs.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 a. Calculate the annual maximum demand on the

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substation transformer in kilowatts and in kVAs.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 b. Find the load diversity in kilowatts.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 c. Select a suitable substation transformer size if zero load

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growth is expected and if a 25% short-time overloads on
the distribution substation transformers is allowed . sizes
available are :

1. 2500/3125 kVA self-cooled/forced-air-cooled

2. 3750/4687 kVA self-cooled/forced-air-cooled
3. 5000/6250 kVA self-cooled/forced-air-cooled
4. 7500/9375 kVA self-cooled/forced-air-cooled

 It is appropriate to choose the transformer with the

3750/4687-kVA rating since with the 25% short-time
overload, it has a capacity of
4687 × 1.25 = 5858.8 kVA 20
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 d. Now assume that the load will increase at a constant

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percentage rate per year and will double in 10 years. If the
7500/9375 kVA-rated transformer is installed, in how many
years will it be loaded to forced-air-cooled rating?

 Load growth equation

where
 Pn is the load at the end of the nth year

 P0 is the initial load

 g is the annual growth rate

 n is the number of years

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS
 find the increase (g) per year,

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS
FACTORS

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 Therefore, if the 7500/9375 kVA-rated transformer is
installed, it will be loaded to its fans-on rating in about 7
years.

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MAXIMUM DIVERSIFIED DEMAND

 Estimating Distribution Transformer loads in residential

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areas by the diversified demand method:

1. Determine the total number of appliances by multiplying

the total number of customers by the per-unit saturation.

2. Read the corresponding diversified demand per customer

from the curve for the given number of appliances.

3. Determine the maximum demand, multiplying the demand

found in step 2 by the total number of appliances.

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MAXIMUM DIVERSIFIED DEMAND

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A, clothes dryer;
C, water heater
D, range; 25
E, lighting
MAXIMUM DIVERSIFIED DEMAND

 Example: Assume a typical DT that serves six

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residential loads. Suppose that there are a total
of 150 DTs and 900 residences supplied by this
primary feeder. assume that a typical residence
contains a clothes dryer, a range, a refrigerator,
and some lighting and miscellaneous appliances.
Determine the following:

 a. The maximum diversified demand on the DT.

 b. The maximum diversified demand on the
entire feeder.

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MAXIMUM DIVERSIFIED DEMAND

 when the number of loads is six, the average

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maximum diversified demands per customer are:

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MAXIMUM DIVERSIFIED DEMAND

 when the number of loads is 900 (note that, due

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to the given curve characteristics, the answers
would be the same as the ones for the number of
loads of 100), then the average maximum
diversified demands per customer are

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MAXIMUM DIVERSIFIED DEMAND

 Hence,

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 This discrepancy is due to the application of the
appliance diversities. 29
MAXIMUM DIVERSIFIED DEMAND(CEDC)

 Hence,

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 This discrepancy is due to the application of the
appliance diversities. 30