Histology and Organology

Histology - science that deals with the microscopic anatomy of tissues of plants and animals

Tissues
- groups of cells with a common structure and function (latin word “weave”)
- combine to form organs

4 types of tissues
I. Epithelial tissue
○ This is composed of tightly packed cells with very little intercellular
○ Skin; makes up the glands
○ Cells are riveted together by tight junctions.
○ Covers the outer surface and inner lining of the body. It is the principal tissue of
glands
○ Functions as barrier protecting against mechanical injury, invasive
microorganisms, and fluid loss.
○ Characteristics:
1. Shape ranges from squamous (flattened), cuboidal, columnar types which
are arranged in either single (simple pseudostratified) or in 2/multiple
layers (stratified).
2. Presence of basement membrane and apical surface.
3. Basement membrane: dense mat of extracellular matrix.
4. Presence of specializations on its apical surface such as cilia and
microvilli.
5. Extremely coherent intercellular adhesions.
○ Types of Epithelial Tissue
1. Simple Squamous (flat like floor tiles)
a) Single layer of cells lying upon a basement membrane
b) The cells are very thin and rectangular in shape and are arranged
closely together to form a sheet.
c) Thin and leaky, makes it easier to exchange materials within the
parts of the body through diffusion.
2. Simple Cuboidal
a) Simple = one layer
b) Box-like with more or less equal height and width.
c) Found in the lining of each circular thyroid follicle or kidney tubules
specialized for secretion.
d) Found in many glands, including the thyroid and salivary glands.
3. Simple Columnar (like bricks)
a) Relatively large cytoplasmic volume, often located where secretion
or the active absorption of substances is an important function.
b) Under LPO identify finger-like projections on the inner surface of
the intestine. These are called villi.
 c) Focus on one villus under HPO and examine the surface layer of
tall and slender epithelial cells with darkly stained nuclei more or
less at the same level, near the bases of the cells.
d) This secretes digestive juices and absorb nutrients
e) Among tall columnar cells are “pitcher like” mucus glands called
goblet ce;;s (creates a protective mucus layer to lubricate the
surface and keep it moist).
4. Stratified squamous
a) Has two or more layers of epithelial cells, specifically named
based on the shape of the cells at the surface
b) Regenerates rapidly by cell division near the basement membrane
c) Commonly found in surfaces subject to abrasion such as the outer
skin and linings of the esophagus, anus and vagina.
5. Transitional epithelium
a) Changes shape in response to stretching (usually appears
cuboidal when relaxed and squamous when stretched)
b) Lines the urinary bladder
c) Empty bladder has layer of round superficial cells while deeper
layers have cuboidal to columnar shaped cells
d) Filled bladder has an epithelium with large squamous superficial
cells overlying several layers of cuboidal cells.
6. Ciliated pseudostratified columnar
a) Presence of cilia on apical surface and false stratification.
b) Cells are all in contact with the basement membrane but not all of
them reach the surface.
c) Vary in shape ( some have broad bases while others are tall with
wide parts towards the surface and arrow parts towards the
basement membrane)
d) Nuclei found on the wider part of both cell shapes giving a false
impression of stratification.

II. Connective tissue

○ Comprises a diverse group of tissues that connect, bind and pack body parts
together
○ Generally made up of a sparse population of cells and an extracellular matrix
composed of protein fibers embedded in a uniform foundation that may be liquid,
jellylike or solid.
○ 3 Fibers
1. Collagenous fibers
a) Made up of collagen
b) Non Elastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise
2. Elastic fibers
a) Long threads made of protein called elastin
 b) Provide a rubbery quality that complements the nonelastic
strength of collagenous fibers
3. Reticular fibers
a) Very thin and branched
b) Composed of collagen and continuous with collagenous fibers,
form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent
tissues.
○ Connective tissues with special properties:
1. Loose connective tissue/ Areolar tissue
a) Binds epithelia to underlying tissues and functions as packing
material, holding organs in place.
b) Has all three fibers
c) Almost all types of cells are found in this tissue but the most
numerous and easy to find cells are the spindle shaped fibroblast
(identifiable with their large ovoid nuclei)
d) Fibroblasts - secrete the protein ingredients of the extracellular
fibers
e) Areolar tissues bind the skin to the muscles.
2. Adipose tissue (body fat)
a) Found beneath the dermis of the skin and may also be found
around the other organs of the body.
b) Stores fat in adipose cells distributed throughout its matrix
(adipocytes)
c) Cells have a thin ring of cytoplasm surrounding a very large
vacuole.space left by the dissolved lipid droplets.
d) Nuclei are flattened and often seen at the sides or periphery of the
cell.
3. Blood
a) This specialized tissue is composed of blood cells and a fluid
matrix, the plasma (water, salts and protein)
b) It is considered a connective tissue, because it consists of blood
cells surrounded by a nonliving fluid matrix called blood plasma
c) Erythrocytes - RBC (carries oxygen)
d) Leukocytes - WBC (defense against viruses and bacteria)
(1) Neutrophils (nucleus has 3 or more lobes/segments)
(2) Eosinophils (bilobed nucleus)
(3) Basophils ( U or J-shaped nucleus)
e) Thrombocytes - platelets (blood clotting)
○ Supportive Connective Tissue
1. Elastic Cartilage
a) Has numerous fine elastic fibers on its matrix
b) Lacunae with chondrocytes appear more closely packed -
producing the materials for the extracellular matrix.
 c) Found in external ear, epiglottis, larynx, and in walls of auditory
tube
2. Fibrocartilage
a) irregular , dense bundles of collagen fibers
b) Lacunae with chondrocytes appear in rows because of parallel
arrangement of collagen bundles
3. Bone
a) The hard calcified matrix deposited with inorganic salts makes it a
supporting connective tissue
b) Osteocytes (progenitor:osteoblast) occupy lacunae with several
canaliculi (interconnecting small canals) radiating from it.
c) Osteoblasts deposit matrix of collagen, calcium, magnesium and
phosphate ions
d) Lacunae are filled with tissue fluid. Unlike cartilage, the bone is
rich in blood vessels and nerves.
e) Haversian system
(1) the canals and the surrounding lamellae.
(2) spaces between Haversian systems contain interstitial
lamellae.
(3) The Haversian canals surround blood vessels and nerve
fibers throughout the bone and communicate with
osteocytes.

III. Muscle tissue

○ Main function is to contract and relax to provide movement,
○ 3 types
1. Skeletal muscle
a) Voluntary and striated
b) Primarily found attached to the bone to provide movements and
locomotion
c) Long, cylindrical and muscle fibers, each containing 2 or more
nuclei located near the plasma membrane
d) Fibers also show alternating light and dark bands or striations
(skeletal and heart muscles)
2. Smooth muscle
a) Involuntary and lacks striations
b) Cells of this tissue are spindle shaped or fusiform with a central
nucleus
3. Cardiac muscle
a) Involuntary and striated
b) Cross striations are also observed on long and branching fibers
c) Fiber may have 1 or 2 centrally located nucleus
d) Darkly stained transverse lines that cross the cardiac fibers at
irregular intervals (intercalated disks)
 IV. Nervous tissue
○ Functions: reception of stimuli; conduction of impulses in the body
○ Main components are the nerve cells or neurons and the supporting cells called
neuroglia
1. Cell body
a) Spherical or ovoid nucleus is large with a conspicuous nucleolus
2. Dendrites
a) Short and numerous branching processes radiating from the cell
body
3. Axon
a) Single, thin, long process from the cell body cord and brain

Organology
● Organs are aggregates of tissues performing a specific function
● Organology - study of organs

HIERARCHY OF LIFE
ATOMS
MOLECULES
CELLS
TISSUES
ORGANS
ORGAN SYSTEM
ORGANISM
POPULATION
COMMUNITY
ECOSYSTEM
BIOSPHERE

Frog Skin
● Two distinct layers
○ Epidermis
■ Made of stratified epithelium
■ Stratum corneum - outermost layer of the epidermis composed of dead
flattened cells
■ Stratum germinativum - layers of cuboidal to columnar cells
○ Dermis (inner layer)
■ Stratum spongiosum/stratum laxum - loosely arranged connective tissue
fibers and abundant blood vessels; melanophores - black pigment cells
are seen
■ Stratum compactum - layers - inner layer consisting of white fibrous
connective tissue running parallel to the surface of the skin
Frog stomach and small intestine
● Stomach shows folds in the inner wall which projects into the cavity/lumen of the organs
(rugae)
● Intestine exhibits thinner folds called villi
● Tunica mucosa - layers thrown into folds onto the lumen
○ Simple columnar epithelium - in the small intestine, goblet cells may be seen
among the columnar cells, almost in the stomach.
○ Lamina propria - connective tissue layer containing glands and blood vessels
○ Muscularis mucosa - thin layer of stomach muscle
● Submucosa - layer beneath the mucosa is made of connective tissues containing
glands, blood vessels and nerves.
● Tunica muscularis - thick layer of circular and longitudinal smooth muscles
● Serosa - outermost layer of loose connective tissue covered by a layer of mesothelium

Blood vessels
● Artery and the veins
● Tunica intima - internal layer which include lining epithelium of the vessel and a layer of
elastic tissue in wavy appearance
● Tunica media - intermediate layer made of smooth muscle, collagenous and elastic
fibers and connective tissue
● Tunica externa/adventitia - external layer with external elastic membrane, collagenous
and elastic fibers, blood vessels and loose connective tissue.

Spinal Cord
● Central canal - small cavity at the center
● Ependymal cells - columnar cells surrounding the canal
● Gray matter - outer to the central canal (H) consists of nerve cells, neuroglia, naked
fibers and blood vessels
● White matter - lightly stained portion outer to the gray matter composed of nerve fibers
● Pia mater - the sheath of connective tissue adhering to the cord
● Dura mater - outer to the pia mater which is in contact with braincase (not seen)

Animal Development
I. Phylogenetic Development
A. Evolutionary history of the species
II. Ontogenetic Development
A. Entire life history of an organism
B. Animal embryology - study of a specific stage on the ontogenetic development of
an animal embryo.
III. Embryo
A. Developing young from a fertilized egg to a form that is structurally similar to, but
does not yet precisely resemble , the adult.
Development: the process of change occurring in a developing embryo is a dynamic and
continuous one.

Major stages of development

1. Zygote
2. Cleavage
3. Blastulation
4. Gastrulation
5. Neurulation
6. Organogenesis

Segmented or unfertilized egg

● Spherical with well defined nucleus.
● Cytoplasm - has granular appearance filled with yolky material which is
concentrated in one area of the egg
● Vegetable pole - the area where the yolky material is concentrated
● Animal pole - area opposite the vegetal pole
● Telolecithal type - type of egg based on yolk distribution.

Fertilization
● Involved the union of the sperm and egg nuclei
● Restores the chromosome number or diploid number of organism
● Embryo is called zygote
● In animals, this can occur externally or internally.

Cleavage
● This is the process of transforming the single celled zygote into a multicellular
entity.
● Involves a series of mitotic divisions which transforms the zygote into several
cleavage cells or blastomeres.
● The no. of blastomeres determines whether it is in the early or late stage of
cleavage.
● Subsequent cell divisions lead to a geometric increase in the number of
blastomeres
● In the latter stages, cleavage occurs asynchronously.
● The ball of cells that is formed as a result of this series of cell division is called
morula.
● Micromeres - blastomeres that are smaller and situated at animal pole
● Macromeres - larger and situated at the vegetal pole
● Rate of cell division is hampered by the presence of the yolk
 ● Blastomeres at the vegetal pole are larger because of a slower rate of cell
divisions during the latter stage of cleavage.

Blastulation
● Is the process that involves an internal secretion of fluid by the blastomeres of
the morula.
● Results in the formation of a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel or segmentation
cavity.
● Embryo is known as the blastula
● The formation of the cavity is the emergence of distinctly two populations of cells.
● The layer of cells immediately surrounding the blastocoel forms the endoderm
while the outer layer of cells forms the ectoderm
● Embryo is didermic

Gastrulation
● The stage that involves major cell movements and rearrangements to form the
body plan characteristic of a species.
● These phenomena are collectively referred to as “morphogenetic movements:
● Laying out the primitive gut called gastrocoel or archenteron.
● An opening leading to the gastrocoel called blastopore is formed in the earlier
part of the gastrula stage
● The blastopore is the future anal or cloacal opening in deuterostomes
(echinoderms [starfish] and vertebrates).
● In protostomes such as nematodes, mollusks and arthropods, the blastopore
becomes the mouth.
● Establishment of the 3 germ layers namely ectoderm,mesoderm and endoderm.
They serve as the foundation for the organ systems.

Neurulation
● CNS of vertebrates develops from a dorsally situated ectodermal thickening
called neural plate.
● Embryo is referred to as the neurula in this stage
● Neural folds - dorsal and formed by the ectodermal cells
● Neural groove - depression bounded by neural fold
● Neural tube stage
○ Neural folds meet at the center and move inward to form a neural tube
○ Neural tube serves as a precursor of the brain and the spinal cord
○ Notochord - round structure immediately below the neural tube; serves as
the main axial support of vertebrate embryos
 ○ Archenteron - cavity immediately below the notochord; lining of primitive
gut is endoderm.
○ Mesoderm - mass of cells lateral to the notochord; divided into segments
or somites
■ Epimere - most dorsal somite at level of the notochord
■ Mesomere - middle portion of the mesoderm which is the origin of
the urogenital system
■ Hypomere - ventral most portion of the mesoderm
■ Subdivided into inner splanchnic layer and outer somatic
■ Cavity is formed between these two layers which is future coelom
or body cavity of the animal

Toad External Anatomy

- Frogs have medicinal value
- Has importance in the environment; can be predators/prey
- Plays important role in culture and traditions of many countries
- Frogs are bilaterally symmetrical (2mirrored portions)

ORDER ANURA: FROG VS. TOAD

Northern Leopard Frog Cane Toad

Rana pipiens Bufo marinus/Rhinella marina

● Smooth, slimy and moist skin ● Dry, thick, bumpy skin

● Long strong hind legs for leaping ● Shorter hind legs more suitable for
● Big bulging eyes due to being in walking
water most of the time ● More subtle eyes
● Parotid gland

Epidermis Outer Layer

- Made up of stratified epithelium with thin dead squamous cells that are
consistently removed when the toad sheds skin.
Inner Layer
- Living cuboidal to columnar cells that continuously divide to replace the shed off
layer of the skin
Melanophores
- Black pigment containing cells found at the junction of the dermis and epidermis.

Terms to know:
1. Dorsal - the back or the upper surface of an organism
 2. Ventral - stomach or lower surface of an area
3. Anterior - head end
4. Posteriori - tail end

3 Planes of the toad body

- Frontal - into dorsal and ventral sections
- Sagittal (longitudinal) - into right and left sections
- Transverse (cross) - into anterior and posterior sections
With reference to location relative to the center of the body:
- Medial : near the middle
- Lateral : to the sides
- Proximal : part of a structure that is nearer to the origin
- Distal : part farther from the origin

MAIN REGIONS
I. AXIAL Regions - structural
A. Head
1. Snout
a) Blunt apex found on the tip of the head
2. Mouth
a) Function: feeding
b) Tongue: has the ability to catch its prey with stickiness
3. External nares
a) Paired opening at snout connected to internal nares
b) Function : breathing
4. Eyes
a) Upper eyelid: thicker, does not move
b) Lower eyelid: Thinner, moves
c) Nictitating membrane: Thin, transparent,protects eyeballs
d) Function: sight, used to push down food when closing their
eyes
5. Browspot
a) Circular spot between the eyes, displays where part of the
skull development took place.
6. Tympanic membrane
a) Serves as the frog's ear, protecting the inner ear from the
outer environment.
7. Parotoid gland
a) Behind tympanic membrane
b) Large aggregate of poisonous gland
 B. Trunk
1. Anus
a) Cloaca; serves as an exit cavity for the excretory,urinary,
reproductive system.
2. Hump
a) Pelvis is elongated and higher at the spine which causes the
sacral hump
II. APPENDICULAR Region - Movement
A. Forelimbs
1. Used to raise or support the body when the frog is at rest.
a) Upper arms (brachium)
b) Lower arm (antebrachium)
c) Manus - 5 digits

B. Hindlimbs
1. Well adapted for jumping and swimming
a) Thigh (upper leg)
b) Shank/Crus (Lower leg)
c) Pes(Long foot - divided into tarsus (long ankle), metatarsus
(instep) and 5 fully-webbed toes or digits
d) Prehallux - appears as a rudiment of a toe

● Frogs croak to find a mate or to defend their territory.

Male Female

● The skin on the ventral side of the
head near the angles of the jaw
has a distinct dark pigmentation
due to concentration of pigments.
● Sexually mature male toads.frogs
are generally smaller than the
females
● Thumb pads are swollen and used
during aplexus or false copulation.
This is called a nuptial pad and it
helps the male cling on to the back
of the female during amplexus.
● The pigments are diffused, no
distinct dark pigmentation at this
area
● Sexually mature female toads or
frogs are relatively bigger than the
males
● Thumb pads of the inner finger are
not swollen.
 The Skeletal System
Functions:
➢ Serves as support or framework for the softer parts of the body
➢ Provides a firm surface for the attachment of muscles used in movement and
locomotion
➢ Supplies calcium to the blood
➢ Important site in the formation of blood cells.

Two types of skeleton

1. Exoskeleton - consists of the hardened bony or horny structures that develop in
the skin and provides external protection to the animal (poorly developed in
frogs)
○ Chitinous - arthropods, arachnids, crustaceans; chitin can be found in
fungi and various plants.
○ Calcium carbonate - hard shell; mollusks
2. Endoskeleton - consists almost entirely of bone and cartilage (skeleton of frog)

➔ Tendon - connective tissue that serves as attachment of muscles to bones.

◆ Aponeurosis - broad, flat and sheet like tendon.

Bone Histology
1. Compact Bone - dense layer from the outside of the bone
a. Lacunae - tiny spaces in the matrix due to the deposition of calcium salts
b. Osteocytes - bone cells trapped in lacunae
c. Haversian canals - series of microscopic tubes with blood vessels and
nerves
d. Lamellae - Concentric rings of bone
e. Canaliculi - passageways for materials to move between cells.
2. Spongy Bone (cancellous bone) - sponge like meshwork consisting of trabecular.
The spaces are continuous and occupied by marrow and blood vessels.
a. Marrow is where the blood cells are made.
b. Trabeculae
i. series of branching, overlapping plates of matrix.
ii. Spaces function in storage and pockets to hold blood-forming cells
(hemopoietic tissue) of the bone marrow.

Divisions of the endoskeleton according to position in the body

I. Axial endoskeleton - composed of all endoskeletal structures located at the
center or axis of the body.
A. Skull
 1. Flattened dorsoventrally
2. Wider posteriorly and narrowly anterior
3. Encloses the brain and the sense organs
4. Includes the cranium or braincase and the visceral skeleton
(jaws,hyoid,apparatus and bones of the ears)
5. DORSAL VIEW
a) Occipital condyles - pair of prominent bones projecting from
exoccipital
b) Pre Maxilla - paired, short, teeth baring bones that form the
anterior most edge of the upper jaw
c) Maxillae - paired curved teeth bearing bones, forming margin
of the jaw; longest bones of the upper jaw
d) Quadratojugal - short bones that make up the posterior of
the upper jaw that do not bear teeth
e) Squamosals - shaped in the form of of a hammer and serves
a brace between the cranium and the posterior portion of the
jaw
6. VENTRAL VIEW
a) Vomers - 2 flat wing shaped bones in the roof of the mouth
just posterior to the pre maxillae, ventral surface of each
bears the vomerine teeth.
b) Palatines - slender, rod-like bones on the lower side of the
cranium posterior to the vomers; extend laterally from near
the median line to the maxillae
c) Parasphenoid - single bone that forms the floor of the
cranium; cartilages form the sides of the cranium.
d) Pterygoid - 3-layered bone that serves as braces located
beneath the squamosal
B. Visceral skeleton
1. The endoskeletal structure derived from the gill arches and in the
frog
a) Upper and lower jaw
b) Hyoid apparatus
c) The cartilages that support the ventral wall of the larynx or
voice box
C. Vertebral column and ribs
1. The first vertebrae or atlas - specialized for articulation with the
skull by means of 2 large facets or depressions which receive the
occipital condyles of the skull
 2. Transverse processes - represent fused rubs, support the
attachments of muscles
3. Urostyle - continued beyond the sacral region, represents several
fused tail or caudal vertebrae; conspicuous dorsal keel and a
hollow canal best seen from the anterior end into which the spinal
cord continues.
D. Sternum
II. Appendicular endoskeleton - consists of all endoskeleton structures located
laterally or in the region of the extremities or appendages
A. Pectoral girdle
1. Consists of a series of bones and cartilages which encircle the
body and provide support for the forelimbs
2. In the toad, this is firmly attached to the sternum or the breastbone
3. Superscaupla - dorsally broad, flattened cartilage
4. Scapula- ventral to suprascapular
5. Glenoid fossa - cup-shapes depression postero-lateral to scapula
that receive head of upper arm bone
6. Epicoracoid - midventral region of girdle
7. Fenestra - lateral to epicoracoid
8. Clavicle - slender bone anterior to fenestra
9. Coracoid - broader bone found posterior to the fenestra
B. Pelvic GIrdle
1. Supports the hindlimbs
2. Has 2 identical halves, one called innominate bone
C. Anterior limbs (forelimbs)
1. HUmerus - bones of the upper arm
2. Radio ulna - represents the fusion of 2 bones radius and ulna) of
most land vertebrates; proximal end of the radio-ulna is extended
into a process, known as the olecranon, which reaches around the
distal end of the humerus and serves for the attachment of muscles
3. Carpals - bones of the wrist
4. Metacarpals - bones of the hand proper
5. Phalanges - smaller bones of the fingers or digits
D. Posterior limbs (hindlimbs)
1. Femur - bone of the thigh
2. Tibiofubula - represents the fusion of 2 bones, tibia and fibula of
most land vertebrates
3. Tarsals - ankle bones, correspond to the carpals of the wrist; long
proximal tarsals (tibiale/astragalus and fibulare/calcaneus) and 4
additional distal tarsal bones
 4. Metatarsals - consists of 5 long bones of the sole and one small
bone (calcar)
5. Phalanges - smaller bones of digits

Muscular system
➔ Skeletal muscles and skeleton are often considered together as a functional unit
that permits movement
➔ Muscles are attached to the bones by a connective tissue called tendon
➔ Skeletal muscle often have two points of attachment,
◆ Fixed point = anatomical origin
◆ Movable point = insertion
◆ Between portion = belly of the muscle
◆ Muscles could have more than one origin; these are called heads.
◆ Muscles can have several insertions called slips
➔ Locating the anatomical origin and insertion can facilitate identification of a
muscle
➔ Shape, size, direction of muscle fibers and action of muscle can be clues for
identification.

Terminology for action of muscle

1. Flexor - move jointed parts towards each other
2. Extensor - move jointed parts away from each other
3. Adductor - move a part towards the main axis of the body
4. Abductor - move a part away from the main axis of the body
5. Rotation
a. Lateral - going away
b. Medial - moving towards center
6. Pronation - radius rotates over ulna
7. Supination - radius and ulna are parallel
8. Dorsiflexion - upwards flex of the foot
9. Plantar flexion - planted foot on a flat surface
10. Inversion - inwards flex of foot
11. Eversion - outwards flex of the foot
12. Levator - raises a part
13. Depressor - lowers a part
14. Protaction - extrusion

Dorsal Muscles of the Head and Trunk

➢ Longissimus dorsi - mass of muscle lying alongside the mid dorsal line and
tapering posteriorly
 ➢ Iliolumbaris - muscle lateral to the longissimus dorsi; lateral or horizontal
skeletogenous septum separates the iliolumbaris from the lateral external oblique
➢ Coccygeo - iliacus - pair of large v-shaped muscles situated between the ilia of
the pelvic girdle.

Dorsal Muscles of the Thigh and Shank

➢ Triceps femoris - largest, three headed muscle that covers the lateral surface of
the thigh
➢ Gluteus - small but thick muscle found between the two heads of the triceps
femoris
➢ Biceps femoris or iliofibularis - slender muscle posterior to the triceps femoris
➢ Semimembranosus - large muscle found next to the biceps femoris
➢ Gastrocnemius - large muscle situated at the back of the shank
➢ Peroneus - muscle of the shank immediately anterior to the gastrocnemius and
partly covered by it
➢ Tibialis anticus - most anterior muscle of the shank

Ventral Muscles of Head and Trunk

➢ Mylohyoid - lateral to median raphe (median longitudinal connective tissue on the
ventral side of the lower jaw), thin broad, transversely -oriented fibers
➢ Sternoradialis - thick median pair of muscled partly covered by the posterior rim
of the mylohyoid
➢ Cutaneous pectoralis - most ventral, thin, pocket-like superficial muscle
➢ Pectoralis - deflect ventrally the cutaneous pectoralis and locate a group of fan
shaped muscles found posterior to the sternoradialis; divisible in three parts:
anterior, middle and posterior pectoralis
➢ Rectus abdominis - lateral to linea alba (thin connective tissue running at the
mid-ventral portion of the abdomen); longitudinal muscle
➢ External oblique - sheet like muscle lateral to rectus abdominis, direction of
muscle fibers ran obliquely (slanting)

Ventral muscles of the thigh and shank

➢ Sartorius - flat strap-like muscle running obliquely along the ventral side of the
thigh
➢ Adductor Longus - slender muscle that can be seen by cutting the belly of the
Sartorius
➢ Adductor Magnus - thick muscle near the groin area seen as a triangle when the
sartorius is in place; muscle immediately posterior to the adductor longus
➢ Gracilis major - large muscle with oblique fibers situated posterior to the adductor
magnus