Module 1 - Traffic Operations Analysis

Professional Traffic Operations Engineer
Certification Program Refresher Course
Student Supplement
Module 1
Traffic Operations Analysis
© 2022 - Institute of Transportation Engineers

1627 Eye Street, NW, Suite 550 | Washington, DC 20006
Introduction to Refresher Course
This Refresher Course provides an overview of topics, key references and independent study materials by
topic for practicing engineers who intend to take the PTOE certification examination. The suite of modules
includes six (6) webinar recordings on traffic operations analysis, operational effects of geometric designs,
traffic safety, traffic control devices, traffic engineering studies, and social, environmental, and
institutional issues, each accompanied by a student supplement.
This 2022 version of the course and student supplement is an update and expansion to a July 2016 course
managed by Robert K. Seyfried, P.E., PTOE. Contributors to that course were:
• Robert K. Seyfried, P.E., PTOE; President, R. K. Seyfried and Associates, Inc.; Evanston, IL
• Jerome Hall, Ph.D., P.E., Professor Emeritus, Civil Engineering, University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque, NM
• Pat Noyes, Principal, Pat Noyes and Associates, Boulder, CO
• Eric T. Donnell, Ph.D., P.E., Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA
• John M. Mason, Jr., Ph.D., P.E., Associate Dean of Graduate Studies, Research, and Outreach and
Professor of Civil Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA
• Martin E. Lipinski, Ph.D., P.E., PTOE, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Memphis; Memphis, TN
This 2022 version was updated by:
• Peter J. Yauch, P.E., PTOE, RSP2i, Vice President, Iteris, Inc., Tampa, FL
Much appreciation is given to Stephen J. Manhart, P.E., PTOE, PTP, RSP1, Project Manager for Traffic
Engineering, Michael Baker International, Minneapolis, MN, for his review of the 2022 student
supplements on behalf of the Transportation Professional Certification Board.
ii
Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Traffic Flow Concepts .................................................................................................................................... 1
Volume and Demand ................................................................................................................................ 1
Speed ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Density and Headway ............................................................................................................................... 3
Capacity......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Factors in Capacity Analyses ..................................................................................................................... 4
Interrupted Flow Operations ........................................................................................................................ 5
Intersection Types..................................................................................................................................... 5
Roadway Capacity ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Types Of Intersection Control And Hierarchy ........................................................................................... 5
Intersection Capacity ................................................................................................................................ 7
Access Management ................................................................................................................................. 9
Traffic Calming ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Considerations For All Users ................................................................................................................... 10
Uninterrupted Flow / Freeway Operations ................................................................................................ 11
Interchange Configurations (System, Service) ........................................................................................ 11
Capacity................................................................................................................................................... 11
Basic Freeway Sections ....................................................................................................................... 12
Ramps – Merging and Diverging ............................................................................................................. 13
Weaving Sections .................................................................................................................................... 14
Recurring And Non-Recurring Events ..................................................................................................... 14
Road User Characteristics And Accommodations....................................................................................... 15
Bicycle Use Considerations ..................................................................................................................... 16
Pedestrian Considerations ...................................................................................................................... 16
Micro-Mobility Considerations ............................................................................................................... 17
Considerations For People With Disabilities ........................................................................................... 17
Transit ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
Vehicle Characteristics ............................................................................................................................ 18
Driver Characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 18
Travel Demand Management ..................................................................................................................... 18
Site Specific TDM Strategies ................................................................................................................... 19
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Area-wide TDM Strategies ...................................................................................................................... 20
Effective Education And Awareness Strategies ...................................................................................... 20
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)..................................................................................................... 20
Ramp Metering ....................................................................................................................................... 20
Adaptive Traffic Signal Control ............................................................................................................... 21
Traffic Incident Management ................................................................................................................. 21
Managed Lanes ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Truck Restrictions.................................................................................................................................... 22
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 24
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Module 1 - Traffic Operations Analysis

Introduction
In 1949, Burton W. Marsh1 described Traffic Operations as “…planning for and controlling the movements
of vehicles and groups of vehicles over streets and highways for the purpose of attaining maximum
efficiency and safety”. Over the years, that definition has evolved; traffic operations now addresses the
needs of all road users, including pedestrians and bicyclists.
Related to traffic operations is the term Transportation Systems Management and Operations (TSMO or
TSM&O). The Federal Highway Administration describes TSMO as “…a
set of strategies that focus on operational improvements that can
maintain and even restore the performance of the existing
transportation system before extra capacity is needed”. TSMO looks
at performance from a systems perspective, not just one strategy,
project, or corridor. This means that these strategies are coordinated
with others across multiple jurisdictions, agencies, and modes, and
views the surface transportation network as a unified whole, making the various transportation modes
and facilities work together and ultimately perform better.
Considerations within Traffic Operations and TSMO include Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS);
arterial, freeway, and corridor management; urban goods movement; emergency and incident
management; transit; bicycles and pedestrians; and road user safety.
Traffic Operations Analysis therefore provides the engineering-oriented basis for Traffic Operations and
TSMO. It includes the theory of traffic flow, the study and evaluation of various strategies and designs,
and the understanding of the needs of modern surface transportation.
Traffic Flow Concepts

Basic to all traffic operations analyses are four key concepts related
to traffic flow:
Volume and Demand

Flow rate is defined as the number of vehicles (or pedestrians or other
units) that pass a point on a transportation facility per unit of time.
When the time unit is one hour or more, the flow rate is referred to as
volume. When the time period is less than one hour, the equivalent
hourly flow rate can be determined by multiplying the rate of flow by
the number of time intervals in an hour. For example, if 500 vehicles
1
Burton W. Marsh was the second president of the Institute of Traffic Engineers (now ITE). Mr. Marsh served as the first full-time
city traffic engineer in the United States in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania from 1924 to 1930. He was city traffic engineer for
Philadelphia from 1930 to 1933. In 1933 he started a 31-year career as the Director of Traffic Engineering and Safety of the
American Automobile Association at their national headquarters in Washington, DC. He then became the Executive Director of
the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety for 1964 through 1966.
Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

Traffic Operations Analysis 1-1 Student Supplement
were observed in a 15-minute interval, the equivalent hourly flow rate is 2,000 vehicles per hour (vph).
Traffic demand is the number of vehicles (or pedestrians or other units) desiring to pass that point during
the time period. Later in this module is a discussion of capacity. If the facility has sufficient capacity, the
flow rate will equal the demand, i.e., the demand is being fully served. However, if the demand exceeds
the capacity of the facility, not all will be served. The flow rate reflects only those being served.
The relationship between the hourly volume and the maximum rate of flow within the hour is defined as
the Peak Hour Factor (PHF). For 15-minute periods (a commonly used
period):
Speed
Speed is defined as the distance traveled per unit of time. There are
two methods for calculating average or mean speeds:
• Time Mean Speed (TMS). Time mean speed is defined as the
average speed of all vehicles passing a point over a specified
time period.
• Space Mean Speed (SMS). Space mean speed is defined as the
average speed of all vehicles occupying a given section of
roadway over a specific time period.
For a given set of observations over a specified distance:
Where:
TMS = time mean speed (ft/sec or mph [m/sec or km/h])
SMS = space mean speed (ft/sec or mph [m/sec or km/h])
d = distance traveled (ft or mi [m or km])
n = number of vehicles observed
ti = travel time for the ith vehicle (sec or hr)
The reciprocal of speed is travel time - the time required to travel a segment of a given length. Travel time
is a measure frequently used by traffic engineers to assess the performance of the transportation system.
A related measure is running time - the total time when the vehicle is in motion while traversing a segment
of a given length.

Density and Headway

Density is defined as the number of vehicles in a given length of
roadway or a lane. It is usually expressed in terms of veh/mi (veh/km).
The reciprocal of density is headway. Headway is defined as the time
between successive vehicles passing a point. Headway, and another
measure, spacing, which is the distance between successive vehicles
passing a point, are microscopic measures of flow as they apply to pairs
of vehicles in the traffic stream.
The basic equation for uninterrupted flow is:
v=SxD
where:
v = flow (veh/hr)
S = space mean speed (mph [km/h]), and
D = density (veh/mi [veh/km])
The figure in the slide illustrates the relationships among each pair of
these three variables. The following key points are identified:
vm = maximum flow or capacity
Sf = free flow speed when flows approach zero
Scap = optimum speed under maximum flow conditions
Dj = jam density when both flow and speed approach zero, and
Dcap = optimum density under maximum flow conditions
Capacity
One of the key focus points of traffic operations has historically been
the determination of the capacity of a transportation facility. As with
traffic operations in general, the early emphasis was on vehicle traffic;
the first edition of the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), published in
1950, looked solely at quantifying roadway capacity. However,
communicating capacity issues to non-technical decision makers
proved difficult, and the next edition of the HCM (in 1965) introduced
the concept of Level of Service, which applied letter grades (A through F) to roadways based on how well
they handled the traffic demands.
The HCM has continued to evolve over the years to keep pace with the needs of its users and society, as
the focus of surface transportation planning and operations has moved from designing and constructing
highways to managing complex transportation systems that serve a variety of users and travel modes.
The processes in the HCM now look at four key areas:
• Quantity of travel, the magnitude of use of a transportation facility or service
• Quality of travel, users’ perceptions of travel on a transportation facility or service with respect
to their expectations

• Accessibility, the ease with which travelers can engage in

desired activities
• Capacity, the ability of a transportation facility or service to
meet the quantity of travel demanded of it.
The Highway Capacity Manual, Sixth Edition: A Guide for Multimodal
Mobility Analysis (2016) is the official publication for use in engineering
exams (Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) and Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) exams. The
Highway Capacity Manual, Seventh Edition: A Guide for Multimodal Mobility Analysis (2022) has recently
been released as of the development of this document. Students preparing for the PTOE examination are
strongly encouraged to review the current HCM for the current processes and procedures used in capacity
analyses.
Factors in Capacity Analyses
A key factor in the determination of vehicular capacity is the type of roadway, categorized as
Uninterrupted Flow facilities or Interrupted Flow facilities:
• Uninterrupted Flow - Vehicles are not interrupted by external
factors such as traffic signals, Stop or Yield signs, or frequent
driveway access points. Uninterrupted flow occurs on
freeways and rural highways with long segments between
controlled intersections.
• Interrupted Flow. Vehicle flow on interrupted flow facilities is influenced by external factors such
as traffic signals, Stop or Yield signs, or frequent uncontrolled intersections or high-volume
driveways. Interrupted flow occurs on urban streets.
These are discussed separately in later sections of this module.
Other factors that can impact capacity include:
• Lane widths – narrower lanes typically reduce capacity due to
interactions with vehicles in adjacent lanes
• Number and use of lanes – the number of lanes along a facility
and their usage (as a through lane or turn lane) has a direct
relationship to capacity
• Proximity of obstructions along the edge of the roadway – roadways with minimal setbacks to
obstructions such as utility poles, trees, and parking lanes will have lower capacity
• Terrain – hills and curves that require lower operating speeds will reduce capacity
• Type of area – rural, suburban, and urban facilities will have differing capacities
• Vehicle mix – the percentage of heavy trucks and buses will impact capacity
• Driver familiarity – roadways used primarily by commuters (regular users) will generally have
higher capacity than those used by infrequent users not familiar with the corridor

Interrupted Flow Operations

This section looks primarily at operations on roadways with
interrupted flow – streets and highways that are subject to external
factors such as traffic signals, Stop or Yield signs, or frequent
uncontrolled intersections or high-volume driveways.
Intersection Types
An intersection, as defined by the AASHTO Green Book, is “…the general area where two or more highways
join or cross, including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movements within the area.”
The most common forms of at-grade intersections include the three-leg intersection (often referred to as
a T-intersection), the four-leg (or “+” intersection), and multi-leg intersections. These can be uncontrolled
or controlled with differing levels of control, including two-way STOP; multi-way STOP; and signalization.
Roundabouts are a specialized form of intersection design in which all traffic entering the circulating
roadway operates under YIELD control. Designing the size of the central island and the deflection of
entering vehicle paths is critical to controlling the speeds of vehicles as they enter and pass through the
intersection. Roundabouts have proven extremely effective in reducing right-angle and left-turn
intersection crashes.
Roadway Capacity
Capacity is the maximum sustainable hourly flow rate at which persons or vehicles reasonably can be
expected to traverse a point or a uniform section of a lane or roadway during a given time period under
prevailing roadway, environmental, traffic, and control conditions. On interrupted flow facilities, the
capacity is based on the capacity of the intersections along the corridor – with differing approaches taken
for signalized intersections, approaches controlled by Stop or Yield
signs, and the frequency of uncontrolled intersections or high-volume
driveways.
Types Of Intersection Control And Hierarchy

At-grade intersections are some of the most complex locations within
the transportation system. In urban areas, safety and congestion
problems tend to be concentrated at intersections.
There are three levels of traffic control that can be provided at intersections:
• Uncontrolled where basic rules of the road apply
• STOP or YIELD control; STOP control can be either two-way or multi-way control, YIELD control
includes roundabouts
• Signal control.
The selection of the appropriate level of control to use is determined by an analysis of many factors,
including traffic volumes, roadway functional classification, crash history, roadway geometry, and
available sight distances. Uncontrolled intersection control is used where traffic volumes are low and
adequate sight distances are available for drivers to see vehicles on conflicting approaches. Adequate
sight triangles must be available to all approaching motorists.

YIELD or two-way STOP-controlled intersections are used when the

right-of-way is assigned to vehicles on the major street and minor
street traffic must stop or yield before proceeding through the
intersection. According to the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices (MUTCD), YIELD signs are warranted:
• On the approaches to a through street or highway where
conditions are such that a full stop is not always required
• At the second crossroad of a divided highway where the median width at the intersection is 30 ft
(9 m) or greater. In this case, a STOP or YIELD sign may be installed at the entrance to the first
roadway of a divided highway, and a YIELD sign may be installed at the entrance to the second
roadway
• For a channelized turn lane that is separated from the adjacent travel lanes by an island, even if
the adjacent lanes at the intersection are controlled by a highway traffic control signal or by a
STOP sign
• At an intersection where a special problem exists and where engineering judgment indicates the
problem to be susceptible to correction by use of the YIELD sign
• Facing the entering roadway for a merge-type movement if engineering judgment indicates that
control is needed because acceleration geometry and/or sight distance is not adequate for
merging traffic operation
According to the MUTCD, STOP control on the minor approach(es)
should be considered if engineering judgment indicates that a stop is
always required because of one or more of the following conditions:
• The vehicular traffic volumes on the through street or highway
exceed 6,000 vehicles per day
• A restricted view exists that requires road users to stop to
adequately observe conflicting traffic on the through street or highway, and/or Street entering a
through highway or street
• Crash records indicate that three or more crashes that are susceptible to correction by the
installation of a STOP sign have been reported within a 12-month period, or that five or more such
crashes have been reported within a 2-year period. Such crashes include right-angle collisions
involving road users on the minor-street approach failing to yield the right-of-way to traffic on the
through street or highway
The sight distance required for minor-street STOP control is based on
gap acceptance characteristics of drivers. The required sight triangles
are shown in the figure. AASHTO design policy assumes that the
driver’s eye is located a minimum of 14.5 ft (4.4 m) from the near edge
of traveled lane of the major street. The length of the sight triangle
along the major street (ISD) depends on the speed of traffic on the
major street and the time gap (tg) that drivers on the minor street will
accept, calculated as:
ISD = 1.47V x tg (U.S. units)

ISD = 0.278V x tg (metric units)

where:
ISD = intersection sight distance along the major street (ft or m)
V = speed of traffic on major street (mph or km/h)
tg = time gap (sec)
The recommended time gap is 7.5 seconds for passenger cars making left turns onto a two- lane major
roadway with level grades. If any of these conditions change, the time gap must be adjusted.
Multi-way STOP control may be used as a safety measure in limited situations. All-way STOP control should
not be used as a means of controlling speed by requiring vehicles to stop. Multi-way STOP signs should be
used when volumes on the intersecting roadways are about equal. The
MUTCD states the following conditions may warrant a multi- way STOP
sign installation:
A. Where traffic signals are justified, the multi-way STOP is an
interim measure that can be installed quickly to control traffic
while arrangements are being made for the installation of the
traffic control signal
B. Five or more reported crashes in a 12-mo. period that are susceptible to correction by a multi-
way STOP installation. Such crashes include right-turn and left-turn collisions as well as right-angle
collisions.
C. Minimum volumes:
1) The vehicular volume entering the intersection from the major street approaches (total
of both approaches) averages at least 300 vehicles per hour for any eight hours of an
average day, and
2) The combined vehicular, pedestrian, and bicycle volume entering the intersection from
the minor street approaches (total of both approaches) averages at least 200 units per
hour for the same eight hours, with an average delay to minor street vehicular traffic of
at least 30 seconds per vehicle during the highest hour, but
3) If the 85th percentile approach speed of the major street traffic exceeds 40 mph (65
km/h), the minimum vehicular volume warrants are 70 percent of the values provided in
items 1 and 2.
D. Where no single criterion is satisfied, but where Criteria B, C.1,
and C.2 are all satisfied to 80 percent of the minimum values.
Criterion C.3 is excluded from this condition.
Roundabouts are circular intersections in which all traffic enters under
a Yield condition.
Intersection Capacity
For two-way stop control, the HCM uses a procedure primarily based on an established hierarchy of
intersection movements and a gap acceptance model. The major components of the gap acceptance
model include the critical gap and follow-up time; the critical gap is the minimum time interval in the

major street traffic stream that allows intersection entry for one minor
street vehicle, and the follow-up time is the time between the
departure of one vehicle from the minor street and the departure of
the next vehicle using the same major street gap under a condition of
continuous queuing on the minor street. For all-way stop control, the
HCM procedure is based on determining the capacity of each approach
separately.
The capacity analysis procedure for vehicle traffic at signalized intersections involves several steps:
• Determine the lane group flow rates - Lane groups are the
basic analysis units. For each intersection approach, exclusive
left or right-turn lanes are designated as lane groups. Any
shared lane is designated as a separate lane group. Any lanes
that are not exclusive turn lanes or shared lanes are combined
into one lane group. Approach traffic movements are assigned
to each lane group.
• Determine the Adjusted Saturation Flow Rate - The adjusted
saturation flow rate is calculated for each lane group, starting
with an “base” saturation flow rate, and adjusting for
geometric and traffic conditions.
• Determine Proportion of Traffic Arriving on Green - Control
delay and queue size is highly dependent on the proportion of
vehicles that arrive during the green and red signal indications.
The estimated proportion arriving on green is calculated based
on the proportion of time the signal is green for a lane group
and the quality of signal system progression.
• Determine Capacity - The capacity of each lane group is
calculated as:
𝑐𝑐 = 𝑁𝑁 × 𝑠𝑠 × (g/𝐶𝐶)
where:
c = capacity of the lane group (veh/h)
N = number of lanes in the lane group
s = adjusted saturation flow rate (veh/h/ln)
g = effective green time for lane group (sec)
C = cycle length (sec)
• Determine Delay - Control delay for a lane group is calculated
as a basis to determine level of service. Control delay is the
delay attributable to the traffic control device at the
intersection. This includes initial deceleration delay, queue
move-up time, stopped delay, and final acceleration delay.
Control delay is calculated as:

𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑑𝑑2 + 𝑑𝑑3

Where:
d = control delay (sec/veh)
d1 = uniform delay component assuming uniform vehicle arrivals
d2 = incremental delay component to account for the effect of random arrivals and over-
saturation queues
d3 = initial queue delay to account for over-saturated
queues that may have existed before the analysis
period.
• Determine Level of Service - Level of service is based on
average control delay per vehicle, and can be expressed for
each lane group, each approach, and the intersection as a
whole.
Calculation procedures for signalized intersection capacity analysis are
very complex and difficult to perform “by hand.” A number of software
packages, such as the Highway Capacity Software (HCS), are to aid
in the computations.
Separate capacity analysis procedures are contained in the HCM for
pedestrian and bicycle users at signalized intersections.
Students preparing for the PTOE examination are strongly encouraged to review the current HCM for the
current processes and procedures used in capacity analyses.
Access Management
As noted previously, a factor of roadway capacity is the number of
intersecting roadways, including uncontrolled intersections and high-
volume driveways. Access Management is the proactive management
of vehicular access points to land parcels adjacent to roadways. Good
access management promotes safe and efficient use of the
transportation network and encompasses a set of techniques that
agencies can use to control access to highways, major arterials, and
other roadways. These techniques include:
• Access Spacing: increasing the distance between traffic signals improves the flow of traffic on
major arterials, reduces congestion, and improves air quality for heavily traveled corridors
• Driveway Spacing: Fewer driveways spaced further apart
allows for more orderly merging of traffic and presents fewer
challenges to drivers
• Safe Turning Lanes: dedicated left- and right-turn, indirect
left-turns and U-turns, and roundabouts keep through-traffic
flowing
• Median Treatments: two-way left-turn lanes (TWLTL) and non-traversable raised medians are
examples of some of the most effective means to regulate access and reduce crashes

• Right-of-Way Management: as it pertains to right-of-way reservation for future widenings, good

sight distance, access location, and other access-related issues
Traffic Calming
ITE defines traffic calming as “…the combination of measures that
reduce the negative effects of motor vehicle use, alter driver behavior,
and improve conditions for non-motorized street users”.
Traffic calming consists of physical design and other measures put in
place on existing roads to reduce vehicle speeds and improve safety
for pedestrians and cyclists. For example, vertical deflections (speed
humps, speed tables, and raised intersections), horizontal shifts, and
roadway narrowing are intended to reduce speed and enhance the
street environment for non-motorists.
Closures that obstruct traffic movements in one or more directions,
such as median barriers, are intended to reduce cut-through traffic.
Traffic calming measures can be implemented at an intersection,
street, neighborhood, or area-wide level.
“Road diets” are another approach to traffic calming. Road diets
involve a reduction in the width or number of vehicular travel lanes
and reallocate that space for other uses such as bicycle lanes,
pedestrian crossing islands, left turn lanes, or parking. Safety and
operational benefits for vehicles and pedestrians include:
• decreasing vehicle travel lanes for pedestrians to cross,
• providing room for a pedestrian crossing median,
• improving safety for bicyclists when bicycle lanes are added,
• providing an opportunity for on-street parking (which also
serves as a buffer between pedestrians and vehicles),
• reducing rear-end and side-swipe crashes,
• improving speed limit compliance, and
• decreasing crash severity when crashes do occur.
Implementation of traffic calming measures can reduce traffic speed,
reduce motor-vehicle collisions, and improve safety for pedestrians
and cyclists. These measures can also increase pedestrian and bicycling
activity.
Considerations For All Users
Much of this section on interruptible flow facilities has centered on
motor vehicles. However, it is important to ensure that considerations
are made for all road users, including those who walk, bike, drive, ride
transit, and travel by other modes. All road users should have the opportunity to travel efficiently and
safely, regardless of how they travel.

Capacity and quality of service evaluations are available for

pedestrians and bicycles, transit users, and freight. The HCM is
continuing to evolve toward these road users and should be utilized
for these determinations.
Uninterrupted Flow / Freeway Operations

Freeways are the backbone of most urban transportation systems. Built to the highest design standards
and carrying the heaviest volumes of all roadway types, urban
freeways connect an area’s major traffic generators. Rural freeways
provide connections between cities in a region or across the country.
High volumes of truck traffic, composed of both long distance and local
movements, are often present on freeways. Traffic flow on freeways is
considered “uninterrupted flow” and the levels of service that exist are
based on relationships between speed, flow rate, and density of flow.
Interchange Configurations (System, Service)
Interchanges can be divided into two broad categories: system interchanges and service interchanges.
System interchanges connect two controlled access highways or freeways and have no at-grade
intersections at ramp terminals. Service interchanges connect a higher
functional class roadway to a lower functional class roadway and may
have at- grade intersections at ramp terminals.
Both the directional and full cloverleaf interchanges are examples of
systems interchanges. They provide for continuous traffic flows at
relatively high speeds. The diamond, partial cloverleaf, and single-
point urban (SPUI) interchanges are examples of service interchanges
because some movements at these interchanges have to pass through an at-grade intersection.
Capacity
In the HCM, freeway capacity is defined as the maximum hourly rate
at which vehicles can reasonably traverse a point or uniform section of
freeway during a given period of time under prevailing roadway, traffic
flow, and control conditions. Levels of service (LOS) are used to define
operational conditions by quantitative measures such as speed, travel
time, and driver perceptions of comfort and freedom to maneuver in
a traffic stream. Six levels of service are specified - LOS A through LOS
F - with LOS A representing the best operating conditions and LOS F
the worst.
For capacity analysis purposes, freeways are divided into three parts:
• Basic Freeway Sections which are outside the influence of
ramps and weaving sections,
• Weaving Areas where two or more traffic streams cross along
the length of the freeway, and

• Ramp Junctions where on or off ramps join the freeway.

Basic Freeway Sections
Base conditions for uninterrupted flow include:
• 12 ft (3.6 m) traffic lanes
• Six ft (1.8 m) minimum lateral clearance between the right
edge of traveled way and the nearest obstacles on the
roadside
• All traffic is made up of passenger cars
• The driving population is predominantly commuter-type drivers (regular or frequent freeway
users)
• Level terrain with geometric conditions that would allow free flow speeds of 70 mph (110 km/h)
• Interchange density of 2 mi (3.2 km) or greater
• Five or more lanes in one direction (urban freeways only)
Under base conditions, freeway capacity is generally considered to be 2,250 to 2,400 passenger cars per
hour per lane (pcphpl). The capacity of a particular freeway segment is adjusted from this base capacity
to reflect the effect of characteristics that are different than the assumed base conditions.
The HCM determines the level of service on a freeway based on the density of traffic flow. The density
(vehicles per lane-mile) of a traffic stream is a gauge of congestion. Density is more sensitive than speed
to changes in the traffic flow; it therefore is used as the primary
descriptor of the quality of traffic operations in level of service analysis
for freeway segments.
Flow rates for capacity and service volumes on freeways are
determined by modifying the service volumes under base conditions
by factors, which consider the effects of roadway geometry, driver
population, heavy vehicles, and the variation of flow within the hour.
The equation used to calculate the equivalent flow rate in pcphpl is:
Where:
Vp = 15-min. equivalent passenger car flow rate (pcphpl)
V = hourly volume (vph)
PHF = peak hour factor
N = number of lanes,
fHV = heavy vehicle factor, and
fp = driver population factor.

The free flow speed is the speed of passenger cars measured under
low to moderate flow rates (up to 1,300 pcphpl). Free flow speeds can
be determined in two ways:
• By field measurement of speeds on a freeway section
determined by a spot speed study.
• By estimating free flow speeds based on physical
characteristics.
The equation used to estimate free flow speed is:
Where:
FFS = estimated free flow speed (mph or km/h)
fLW = adjustment for lane width
fLC = adjustment for right shoulder lateral clearance
TRD = total ramp density (ramps/mi or ramps/km)
The adjustment factors for given physical conditions (e .g., 11 ft lanes) are found in the HCM.
Based on the free-flow speed and adjusted traffic flow rate on the
freeway, the average travel speed of traffic can be determined from
the curves shown in the figure. Then the density of traffic flow is
calculated using the relationship between speed, flow, and density:
Level of service for basic freeway segments is determined based on

density of traffic flow. Capacities for weaving sections are related to
average speeds and the density of traffic in the weaving section, and
capacities at ramp junctions are based on the density in the ramp
area of influence.
Ramps – Merging and Diverging

Ramp junctions are points where traffic merges or diverges from a freeway. Ramps diverging from a
freeway are seldom points of congestion unless traffic is backed up onto the freeway because of an
incident on the ramp or congestion where the ramp intersects a street
or roadway. However, the actions of vehicles maneuvering from
through lanes to the ramp causes turbulence in the traffic stream.
At on-ramp locations where vehicles are entering the traffic stream,
drivers seek gaps to merge with the freeway flow. The major
operational effects occur in lanes 1 and 2, those adjacent to the merge.

The level of service at ramp junctions is determined by the density (pc/mi/lane or pc/km/lane) within the
merge or diverge area of influence. Factors affecting the operations at ramp junctions include:
• Peak hour flow rates (pcph) on the freeway and on the ramps
• Length of the acceleration or deceleration lanes at the ramps
• Geometric conditions such as single lane or multilane ramps, lane additions or lane drops, ramp
geometry, and the presence of nearby upstream or downstream ramps
• Free flow speeds of freeway and ramp traffic
The complete procedures are described in the HCM.
Weaving Sections
The second element to consider in evaluating freeway operations is weaving. Weaving involves lane
change maneuvers. Three types of weaving sections are defined:
• Type A where each weaving vehicle makes only one lane
change to perform the weave.
• Type B where one weaving maneuver can be made without
a lane change and the other maneuver requires at most one
lane change.
• Type C where one weaving maneuver can be made without a lane change, but the other
maneuver requires two or more lane changes.
The level of service in a weaving area is determined by the average running speeds and density of all
vehicles in the weaving section. The complete calculation procedures for evaluating weaving sections are
contained in the HCM.
Recurring And Non-Recurring Events
Most critical operational problems on urban freeways are related to
congestion. When the traffic demand exceeds the capacity of the
roadway, traffic flow becomes unstable. Congestion can be of two
types: recurring and nonrecurring. When congestion occurs
repeatedly at certain locations during certain times of the day
recurring congestion exists. Traffic incidents are non-recurring events
that impact normal roadway operations. They include any event that
impacts the normal flow of traffic. They can be as commonplace as a flat tire or spilled loads, or can have
long-term impacts, as in the case of a natural disaster or terrorist attack. Other incidents that also
contribute to operational problems include maintenance operations, freeway reconstruction, and
enforcement activities.
Whether congestion is a result of recurring or non-recurring causes,
once the freeway “breaks down,” the effect of the congestion may
persist long after the capacity constraint is removed, or the demand
flow rate is reduced. Under base conditions, freeway capacity is 2,250
to 2,400 pcphpl. However, once a stop-start condition develops, the
rate at which vehicles can depart from a standing queue is reduced.
This queue departure rate is highly variable, from as low as 1,800
pcphpl to as high as 2,400 pcphpl.

The figure illustrates an example of a “input-output analysis” of a

three-lane freeway segment operating with a demand flow rate of
6,325 vph during a peak hour, 5,400 vph during the hour after the
peak, and 3,900 vph thereafter. What will occur if an incident blocks
one lane for 15 minutes at the beginning of the peak hour? For
illustration purposes, it is assumed that the formation of a standing
queue reduces the lane capacity to 1,800 vphpl. The following
operational effects should be anticipated:
• When blockage occurs, capacity immediately drops from
7,200 vph to 4,800 vph or lower, which quickly creates stop-
and-go queues due to the 6,325 vph demand. This further
deteriorates capacity to 3,600 vph (assuming a drop to 1,800
vphpl with two lanes open). Thus, during the first 15 minutes,
6,325/4 =1,581 vehicles arrive, and only 3,600/4 = 900 vehicles
are processed, and a queue of 681 vehicles is formed behind
the blockage.
• After the blockage is removed, capacity improves to 1,800 x 3
= 5,400 vph because standing queues still exist. Full capacity
cannot be regained until all queues are dissipated. Thus, in the
ensuing 45 minutes, 6,325 x 3/4 = 4,744 vehicles arrive, and
5,400 x 3/4 = 4,050 vehicles are processed. The queue
continues to build to 625 + 4,744 – 4,050 = 1,375 vehicles.
• During the second hour, 5,400 vehicles arrive and exactly
5,400 vehicles are processed. The queue is stable, but it does
not dissipate.
• Thereafter, the queue will dissipate, as 3,900 vph arrive and
5,400 vph may be processed. The 1,375 queued vehicles
dissipate in 1,375/(5,400-3,900) = 0.92 hours, and full capacity
is restored some 2.92 hours after the occurrence of a 15-
minute blockage. The queue length (assuming three lanes and
40 feet per vehicle) reached (1,375/3)x40 = 18,333 feet, or
more than 3 miles at its peak, which lasted for one full hour.
The total area between the input and output curves equals the
total veh-hr of delay experienced by traffic due to this
blockage.
Road User Characteristics And Accommodations

The objective of traffic engineering is to “provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, efficient, convenient,
and environmentally compatible movement of people, goods, and services.” As a result, the traffic
engineer must consider all potential modes of transportation, including personal automobiles, trucks,
public transit, bicycles, and pedestrian travel. All modes should interact cooperatively and seamlessly in
an integrated transportation system. When planning improvements for one mode of transportation, the
potential impacts on other modes must be duly considered.

Bicycle Use Considerations

Bicycles are an important element of the transportation system for both utilitarian as well as recreational
trips. The viability of bicycling as a mode of transportation is greatly enhanced by providing connectivity
of convenient bicycling routes. Further, because bicycles are powered
by human muscle, facilities intended for bicycle use should minimize
energy losses as a result of speed changes due to traffic control
devices.
In many cases, bicycles can safely and comfortably share roads with
motor vehicle traffic. Improvements that can considerably enhance
the safety of a street or highway for bicycle usage include:
• Paved shoulders
• Wider outside traffic lanes (14-foot [4.2 m]) minimum width) if no shoulder exists
• Bicycle lanes
• Bicycle-safe drainage grates
• Maintaining a smooth, clean riding surface
Providing a secure parking facility at the bicyclist’s destination is also an important factor in determining
the viability of bicycle use for a particular trip.
Pedestrian Considerations
Walking is the most basic mode of transportation and is a fundamental part of the transportation system.
Safety is a key consideration in the planning, design, and operation of pedestrian facilities. Accessibility
and usability are also key considerations for pedestrian facilities which
should accommodate pedestrians of all abilities including children,
adults, the elderly, and those with disabilities.
Pedestrian issues that should be addressed during project planning,
design, and implementation include:
• Vehicle speed management through design measures and
traffic calming techniques
• Pedestrian sidewalk access along the length of a corridor
• Measures to buffer pedestrians from high-speed or high-volume motor vehicle traffic
• Crossing measures to ensure frequent and safe opportunities for pedestrians to cross motor
vehicle traffic flows
• Visual quality and aesthetic treatments that encourage walking.
Federal regulations provide that when new pedestrian facilities (or projects that alter existing facilities)
are planned, those facilities must be designed and constructed to be accessible to and usable by people
with disabilities.
The viability of walking is greatly affected by land-use patterns. Segregated land uses increase the distance
between trip origins and destinations, while mixed use developments generally shorten distances and
encourage walking. Similarly, good planning and design can encourage walking by providing good
pedestrian circulation and minimizing conflicts with motor vehicles. Poor planning and design can send
the message that motor vehicles are the preferred mode and pedestrians are not invited.
• Promoting flexible or mixed-use zoning and the minimization of commercial strip zoning.

• Promoting a unified parking and circulation plan for new developments.

Micro-Mobility Considerations
The Federal Highway Administration broadly defines micro-mobility as any small, low-speed, human- or
electric-powered transportation device, including bicycles, scooters, electric-assist bicycles, electric
scooters (e-scooters), and other small, lightweight, wheeled
conveyances. Other definitions of micro-mobility focus primarily on
powered micro-mobility devices and characterize these devices as
partially or fully motorized, low speed (typically less than 30 miles [48
kilometers] per hour), and small size (typically less than 500 pounds
[230 kilograms] and less than 3 feet [1 meter] wide).
Micro-mobility vehicles have proliferated in both large cities and small
towns, utilizing existing right-of-way and transportation infrastructure that was not explicitly designed
with these vehicles in mind. Micro-mobility has provided a far more efficient way of traveling short
distances than vehicles and has transformed how people move around cities and suburban areas. The
launch of micro-mobility has exposed significant new challenges, including safety and regulation, which
must be addressed as part of any traffic operations analysis.
Considerations For People With Disabilities
Roadways are not designed for one type of vehicle, and a one size fits all approach to accommodating
pedestrians does not work either. Pedestrians have varying abilities.
One in every five people in the United States has a disability, and one
third of our population does not drive. These numbers alone reveal the
diversity we have in this country and the need for a variety of
transportation choices. A large segment of the disabled population
cannot leave home and travel to their destination independently.
Many people with disabilities have low vision or are blind. Accessibility
is a paramount safety issue to individuals with vision disabilities.
Transit
Public transit may take the form of transit services in mixed traffic on city streets and freeways (e.g., bus
systems and some light-rail systems), transit on exclusive right-of-way
(e.g., some light-rail systems, rapid transit, commuter rail systems, and
automated guideway systems), and paratransit services (e.g., service
that may deviate from fixed-route, fixed-schedule operations, contract
services, and demand-responsive services). In some areas, public
transit services may also include ferry boats.
In order to expedite public transit services, a number of priority treatments are possible on streets and
freeways:
• Exclusive or semi-exclusive transit lane
• Priority right-of-way past bottlenecks such as toll booths or ramp metering
• Express transit lane, roadway, or ramp
• Contra-flow exclusive transit lane on one-way streets
• Special transit streets/malls
• Traffic signal preemption or priority service
• Exemption from turn prohibitions

• Park-and-ride or kiss-and-ride facilities in outlying areas

Vehicle Characteristics
There is not a standard vehicle used on our roadways, but rather a large variety of automobiles, pick-ups,
and SUVs, single unit and tractor-trailer trucks, buses, motorcycles,
and more. Each has its own operating characteristics; variations in
acceleration and deceleration, lengths of vehicle, speeds, turning radii,
stopping distances, height of driver eye, and more. All these must be
considered in traffic operations analyses.
Of particular interest is the large vehicles used in moving freight.
Freight is moved to, within, and through urban areas, in trucks,
railroads, airplanes, ships, and barges. The economic viability of businesses, cities, regions, and the
country depends on efficient freight movement. With “just-in-time” inventory management, timely
freight movement is critical to manufacturers, offices, and other businesses. Freight movements must be
considered in many traffic engineering analyses and design decisions,
including:
• Selection of design vehicle for roadway improvements
• Vehicle weight and size restrictions and lane-use restrictions
• Designation of loading zones
• Design of access to intermodal facilities
• Truck speed limits
• Service and loading access and design for land developments
• Parking
• Increased braking distances at different speeds.
Driver Characteristics
Similarly, driver characteristics cover a wide range of capabilities and
mindsets. Young inexperienced drivers, regular commuters, business
drivers, infrequent drivers, and older drivers are all using our roadway
facilities. Some of these can be aggressive drivers while others can be
timid or unsure of their capabilities. Too many are impaired. Analyses
must also consider the wide range of driver characteristics.
Travel Demand Management

The traditional approach to dealing with traffic congestion or operational problems in the transportation
system has focused on measures to increase the capacity of the system by building new facilities,
improving existing facilities, and/or optimizing the efficiency of existing facilities. Transportation demand
management focuses on travel demand (the traveler) rather than
transportation supply (the travel facilities).
Transportation (or Travel) Demand Management (TDM) is any action
or set of actions aimed at influencing people’s travel behavior in such
a way that alternative mobility options are presented and/or traffic
congestion is reduced. TDM strategies can be site specific or area-wide
in scope.

Site Specific TDM Strategies

The majority of TDM strategies have been implemented at the site-specific level. The three principal types
of TDM tools used at the site level are:
• Alternative Modes of Transportation
o Ridesharing - The successful implementation of
rideshare programs requires matching potential
riders. Benefits include enhanced air quality, reduced
commuting costs, reduced fuel consumption, and
reduced congestion.
o Carpooling - The use of employees’ vehicles to carry multiple passengers. Users may
share expenses. Provides level of convenience closest to the private auto. Employers
typically provide incentives, such as reduced parking fees.
o Vanpooling - Vanpools may be company-sponsored, third-party, or owner- operated.
Vans are typically 8 to 15 passengers and are most often subsidized by employers
contributing to fixed costs.
o Buspools - Buspools are usually subscription bus services subsidized by employers that
carry higher volumes of passengers to a single or multiple destinations.
o Non-motorized transportation - The two principal forms of non-motorized transportation
are bicycling and walking. The use of these modes may increase with the growth in large
scale multi-use developments or in campus-type settings that contain residential, retail,
and employment opportunities. They can be used as the primary trip mode, as feeders
from other modes such as public transportation, and in circulation systems. Benefits
include reduced infrastructure costs, travel costs, congestion reduction, and emissions
reduction. Bicycle-sharing programs and other methods of encouraging walking and
bicycle use can be very effective.
• Alternative Work Hours. The objective of alternative work hour programs is to reduce the amount
of travel during the peak commuting hours. Benefits may include reduced congestion and
commuting travel time and lower infrastructure costs by eliminating the need for more roadway
facilities. Alternative work-hour programs include:
o Flextime - Flextime allows employees to select their own work schedules within company
guidelines.
o Staggered Hours - With staggered work hours, groups of employees are assigned to begin
and end work at different times.
o Compressed Work Week - With this program, employees work four, 10-hour.days instead
of the normal eight-hour day, five-day work week.
• Telecommuting - The advances in telecommunications and computer networking, as proven
during the recent pandemic, allow many professions to conduct business from home or a satellite
office. Not only can people perform work-related tasks at home, but they can also shop, bank,
and perform other functions from home or from a satellite location without requiring an
automobile trip.
The success of TDM programs requires support services. These may include:

• Financial incentives such as transportation allowances or

subsidies.
• Assistance programs like rideshare matching, marketing, and
parking management.
• Flexible work schedules such as flextime and staggered work
hours.
• Award programs to participants.
• Other services such as child-care or auto services.
Area-wide TDM Strategies
Area-wide TDM strategies can include the use of site-specific
techniques on a regional basis, i.e., rideshare. Other, more
comprehensive strategies are:
• Growth management through urban design or legislation.
• Congestion pricing, charging more for travel during peak
commuting periods.
• Parking management.
• Auto restricted zones.
• Legislation to promote trip reduction.
Effective Education And Awareness Strategies
Getting the public to understand and embrace TDM strategies is basic to TDM success. Key elements of
an effective educational and awareness campaign include:
• Communicating the benefits of not driving alone, including time savings and cost savings
• Multimodal awareness events (bicycle safety classes, transit use information)
• Recognition and awards to businesses and users
• Employer incentive programs.
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) are advanced applications
designed to provide innovative services related to different modes of
transportation and traffic management. Examples include:
Ramp Metering
Ramp metering is designed to reduce the impacts of merging traffic on
mainline freeway flow. Vehicles wanting to enter the freeway are
controlled by a signal that ”meters” the flow, eliminating some of the
peaking characteristics of nearby ramp signals.

Adaptive Traffic Signal Control

Conventional traffic signal systems typically implement timing patterns based on a time-of-day, day-of-
week basis. As such, they do not have the capability to adjust timings (without manual intervention) to
quickly accommodate changes in traffic flow that could be related to
nearby traffic incidents, weather conditions, or special events.
Adaptive traffic signal control systems change signal timing on a real-
time basis based on traffic data received from field detectors. These
data are evaluated, and signal timing patterns updated based on
complex algorithms.
Traffic Incident Management
Traffic incident management (TIM) provides an opportunity to
enhance the operations of existing freeway facilities with minimal
capital investment. It addresses one of the most common sources of
congestion and provides significant return on investment. Traffic
incident management provides a pre- planned, coordinated approach
to detecting and managing the response to incidents as quickly and
safely as possible, and returning the facility to normal operations.
Traffic incidents impact the transportation system by reducing
capacity, increasing congestion-related delay, and reducing safety. In
terms of capacity, it is important to note that the percentage capacity
reduction is much greater than the percent of lanes blocked by an
incident. For example, if one out of two freeway lanes is blocked by a
crash, two-thirds of the roadway capacity is lost. This is due to traffic
from the closed lanes merging into the open lanes, the “gawker
effect,” and the resulting upstream congestion. This may be
aggravated by emergency vehicles moving through traffic or impacting
the remaining lanes for specific operations.
Delay resulting from incidents accounts for 50 percent or more of
congestion in metropolitan areas. In areas that do not experience
recurring or peak-hour delays, such as rural highways, incidents may
account for as much as 100 percent of delay. The impact of residual
delay following an incident is significantly higher than the delay
associated with the incident itself. It has been observed that in
urbanized areas there can be as much as 5 minutes of residual delay
for every 1 minute of incident impact.

Managed Lanes
High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lanes provide preferential treatment
for transit vehicles, vanpools, and/or carpools to encourage the use of
such multi- occupant vehicles and reduce total vehicle- trips on the
transportation system. Such HOV lanes can be provided on both
freeways and arterial streets. The objective is to improve the people
flow along the facility, rather than focusing solely on vehicle flows.
HOV lanes can be designed to operate concurrent with mixed traffic
flow, contraflow, or on a separated roadway. The HOV designation
may require taking an existing mixed traffic lane, narrowing existing
lanes and/or shoulders, or constructing an additional lane on the
roadway. Other HOV treatments include exclusive transit streets,
priority parking and lower parking fees for HOV’s, satellite parking lots
on HOV corridors, HOV bypass lanes on metered freeway entrance
ramps, and transit priority control of traffic signals.
High Occupancy Toll (HOT) Lanes combine HOV and pricing strategies
by allowing single occupancy vehicles to gain access to HOV lanes by
paying a toll. The lanes are “managed” through pricing to maintain free
flow conditions even during the height of rush hours. The appeal of
this concept is that it expands mobility options in congested urban
areas by providing an opportunity for reliable travel times to users
prepared to pay a significant premium for this service. It may also
improve the efficiency of HOV facility utilization.
Reversible and Contra-Flow Lane Control Reversible lanes are used to change the directional capacity of a
freeway in order to accommodate peak direction traffic demands.
These lanes are located in the freeway median, typically constructed
as exclusive lanes physically separated from the rest of the freeway
traffic. Contra-flow lanes use a device such as a movable median
barrier system which in essence, shifts the facility’s centerline location
creating an unbalanced lane configuration. This treatment makes use
of unneeded capacity in the off-peak direction of travel to increase
capacity in the peak direction.
Truck Restrictions
Truck traffic may account for as much as 20 percent or more of all daily vehicle volumes on some urban
freeways, although the percentage of trucks during the peak periods is generally slightly less than the daily
percentage. Large volumes of trucks on a freeway can have a significant effect in causing or exacerbating
a congestion problem. Freeway capacity analysis procedures indicate that a large truck has the equivalent
effect on traffic flow of 1.5 to 2.0 passenger cars on level grades and at normal speeds. However, on even
a modest uphill grade, this equivalency can increase considerably. The speed reduction of trucks on the
grade can cause a shock wave effect of braking by other vehicles in traffic stream. On a freeway operating
at or near capacity, this can precipitate a breakdown with forced-flow conditions. On a freeway where
traffic flow has already deteriorated to breakdown, stop-start condition, the slower acceleration of trucks
will decrease the rate at which traffic can discharge past the bottleneck location.

As a result, some agencies have enacted lane-use restrictions for truck traffic. Typically, trucks are
restricted to use of only the two right-hand lanes of the freeway or prohibited from using the far-left lane.
At least three lanes are normally needed to implement lane restrictions. One study found that this type
of truck restriction resulted in a 20 percent reduction in injury truck crashes. This measure would also be
expected to reduce congestion in the non-truck lanes of the freeway, although it could negatively affect
congestion in the truck lanes, especially where significant weaving or merging movements occur.

REFERENCES
Questions for the certification examination are derived and/or documented from a number of
professional sources. Some of the most frequently cited references are:
Title: Highway Capacity Manual, 7th Edition: A Guide for Multimodal Mobility Analysis
Author(s): Transportation Research Board Inc.
Publisher: TRB, ISBN: 978-0-309-08766-7
ITE Publication Number: LP-674C
Publication Date: 2022
Title: Manual of Transportation Engineering Studies, 2nd Edition

Author(s): Edited by H. Douglas Robertson
Publisher: ITE, ISBN: 978-1-933452-53-1
ITE Publication Number: TB-012A
Title: Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2009 Edition

Author(s): FHWA/ITE/ATSSA/AASHTO
Publisher: FHWA/ITE/ATSSA/AASHTO, ISBN: 978-1-56051-473-2
ITE Publication Number: MUTCD-10
Title: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 7th Edition

Author(s): AASHTO
Publisher: AASHTO, ISBN: 978-1-56051-676-7
Title: Traffic Engineering Handbook, 7th Edition

Author(s): ITE, Brian Wolshon and Anurag Pande
Publisher: Wiley, ISBN: 978-1-118-76230-1
ITE Publication Number: LP-691
Title: Traffic Safety Toolbox: A Primer on Traffic Safety

Author(s): ITE
Publisher: ITE, ISBN: 0-935403-43-4
ITE Publication Number: LP-279A
Title: Transportation Planning Handbook, 4th Edition

Author(s): Edited by Michael D. Meyer
Publisher: ITE, ISBN: 978-1-118-76235-6
Title: Highway Safety Manual

Author(s): AASHTO
Publisher: AASHTO, ISBN: 978-1-56051-477-0

Title: Signal Timing Manual - NCHRP Report 812, Second Edition

Author(s): Tom Urbanik, Alison Tanaka, et al.
Publisher: TRB, National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Website References
Connected Vehicles, https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/eprimer/module13.aspx
Freight and Commercial Vehicle ITS, https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/eprimer/module6.aspx#is
USDOT, ATDM Program Brief: An Introduction to Active Transportation and Demand Management.
http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop12032/fhwahop12032.pdf
In addition to these professional references, a candidate may find it advantageous to review a general
traffic or transportation engineering text. Among the excellent texts currently available, the following
was frequently cited in question documentation:
Title: Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering, 16th Edition (Currently not Available)

Author(s): Homburger, W., et al.
Publisher: University of California
In addition, the following references were included in this module:
A Toolbox for Alleviating Traffic Congestion and Enhancing Mobility, Institute of Transportation Engineers,
Washington, DC, 1997.
FHWA – Traffic Incident Management (TIM) https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/tim
Pat Noyes & Associates, for the Colorado Department of Transportation, Guidelines for Developing Traffic
Incident Management Plans for Work Zones, 2003 https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/15918


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Professional Traffic Operations Engineer

Certification Program Refresher Course

© 2022 - Institute of Transportation Engineers

Module 1 - Traffic Operations Analysis

Traffic Flow Concepts

Volume and Demand

Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

Density and Headway

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• Accessibility, the ease with which travelers can engage in

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Interrupted Flow Operations

Types Of Intersection Control And Hierarchy

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YIELD or two-way STOP-controlled intersections are used when the

ISD = 1.47V x tg (U.S. units)

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ISD = 0.278V x tg (metric units)

Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑑𝑑2 + 𝑑𝑑3

Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

• Right-of-Way Management: as it pertains to right-of-way reservation for future widenings, good

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Capacity and quality of service evaluations are available for

Uninterrupted Flow / Freeway Operations

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• Ramp Junctions where on or off ramps join the freeway.

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Level of service for basic freeway segments is determined based on

Ramps – Merging and Diverging

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Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

The figure illustrates an example of a “input-output analysis” of a

Road User Characteristics And Accommodations

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Bicycle Use Considerations

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• Promoting a unified parking and circulation plan for new developments.

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• Park-and-ride or kiss-and-ride facilities in outlying areas

Travel Demand Management

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Site Specific TDM Strategies

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• Financial incentives such as transportation allowances or

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)

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Adaptive Traffic Signal Control

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Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

Title: Manual of Transportation Engineering Studies, 2nd Edition

Title: Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2009 Edition

Title: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 7th Edition

Title: Traffic Engineering Handbook, 7th Edition

Title: Traffic Safety Toolbox: A Primer on Traffic Safety

Title: Transportation Planning Handbook, 4th Edition

Title: Highway Safety Manual

Module 1 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

Title: Signal Timing Manual - NCHRP Report 812, Second Edition

Freight and Commercial Vehicle ITS, https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/eprimer/module6.aspx#is

Title: Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering, 16th Edition (Currently not Available)