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Additive Manufacturing (18ME741)
MODULE – 1
INTRODUCTION TO ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
The term ‘additive manufacturing’ was given by the ASTM F42 committee. AM technology has
changed design, engineering, and manufacturing processes within the aerospace, automotive,
electrical and electronics, consumer industries, biomedical and dental devices and implants. Due to
wide applications, rapid prototyping technology has become a revolutionary fields in manufacturing.
Definition: Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to a process by which digital 3D design
data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material.
OR
Definition: Additive manufacturing (AM) is an additive process of making a three-dimensional
solid object of virtually any shape from a digital model, where materials are applied in successive
layers under computer control.
Generally speaking, additive manufacturing, which is the appropriate name for 3D printing, is a set
of technologies that build 3D objects by adding layer-upon layer of material.
 Additive manufacturing is the process of joining materials to make parts from 3D model data,
usually layer upon layer.
 In cooperation with computer-aided design (CAD) software, this technique allows the
creation of new types of object with exclusive material properties.
 Nowadays, the range of materials expanded way further than plastic or metal. Concrete,
polymers, paper, food substances, biomaterials are about to become more and more popular
and common.
 It is also distinguished from traditional subtractive machining techniques that rely on the
removal of the material by methods such as cutting or milling.
 Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, rapid prototyping or freeform
fabrication, solid free-form fabrication, direct digital manufacturing.
 Additive Manufacturing (AM) is the official term for the technology as per the ASTM and
ISO
Additive Manufacturing and Subtractive Manufacturing:
Fig. A) Subtractive Manufacturing, B) Additive Manufacturing
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 1

Difference between CNC And Additive Manufacturing:

Need for Additive Manufacturing

As additive manufacturing evolves, optimizing designs for the technology is becoming ever-more
important to unlocking the full potential of the technology.
Complex geometries, lightweight components and optimized material distribution are only a few of
the advantages that additive manufacturing offers. However, such design freedom and complexity
come at the cost of rethinking the way in which objects are designed for additive manufacturing.
There are mainly 6 reasons why we need to go for the design for additive manufacturing, they are:
1. Create parts with greater complexity

2. Minimal material waste
3. Simplified assembly
4. Material innovation
5. Cost-effective customization
6. Minimum support structures
AM evolution
 In the 60s Herbert Voelcker had thoughts of the possibilities of using computer aided
machine control to run machines that build parts from CAD geometry.
 In the 70s he developed the mathematics to describe 3D aspects that resulted in the first
algorithms for solid modeling.
 In the 80s Carl Deckard came up with the idea of layer-based manufacturing.
 Additive manufacturing started in the late 80's with Stereolithography.
 Further patents came along in 1986, resulting in three more companies, Helisys (Laminated
Object Manufacture or LOM), Cubital (with Solid Ground Curing, SGC), and DTM with
their SLS process. DTM merging with 3D Systems in 2001.
 In 1989, Scott Crump patented the FDM (Fused deposition modeling) process, forming the
Stratasys Company.
 In 1989 a group from MIT patented the 3D Printing (3DP) process. These processes from
1989 are heavily used today, with FDM variants currently being the most successful.
 Sanders developed ink jet technology process in 1994.
 The Objet Company also used this technique to print photocurable resins in droplet form
in 2001.
 Companies like Stratasys, 3D Systems, and ZCorp have spearheaded the way forward.
 In Europe, the primary company with a world-wide impact in AM is EOS Germany.
continues to make powder bed fusion systems which use lasers to melt polymers, binder-
coated sand, and metals.
 Arcam, Strataconception, and Materialise from Belgium had seen considerable success in
developing software tools to support AM technology.
 In the early 1980s and 1990s, a number of Japanese companies focused on AM technology.
This included startup companies like Autostrade (which no longer appears to be operating).
Large companies like Sony and Kira, who established subsidiaries to build AM technology,
also became involved.
 A particular country of interest in terms of AM technology development is Israel. One of
the earliest AM machines was developed by the Israeli company Cubital. Although one of
the newer companies, Objet (now Stratasys) is successfully using droplet deposition
technology to deposit photocurable resins.

Advantages of AM:
1. Increased design freedom versus conventional casting and machining
2. Light weight structures, made possible either by the use of lattice design or by designing
parts where material is only where it needs to be, without other constraints
3. New functions such as complex internal channels or several parts built in one
4. Speed: one can do complex parts within hours, with limited human resources. The only
machine operator is needed for loading the data and powder material, start the process and
finally for the finishing. During the manufacturing process no operator is needed.
5. Customization: 3D printing processes allow for mass customization, personalize products
according to individual needs and requirements.
6. Sustainable / environmentally friendly: It provides environmental efficiencies in terms of
the manufacturing process by utilizing upto 90% of standard materials, and therefore creating
less waste.
7. No tools needed, unlike other conventional metallurgy processes which require molds and
metal forming or removal tools
8. Short production cycle time: complex parts can be produced layer by layer in a few hours
in additive machines. The total cycle time including post processing usually amounts to a few
days or weeks and it is usually much shorter than conventional metallurgy processes which
often require production cycles of several months. The process is recommended for the
production of parts in small series.
9. No storage cost: since 3D printer can print products as and when needed, and does not cost
more than mass manufacturing, no expense on storage of goods is required.
10. Increase employment opportunities: Widespread use of 3D printing technology will
increase the demand for designers and technicians to operate 3D printers and create blueprints
for products.
The limitations of AM technology

1. Part size: In the case of powder bed technology, the part size is limited to powder bed size,
such as 250x250x250 mm for standard powder bed systems. However, part sizes can be
greater with direct energy deposition (or laser metal deposition) processes. But, due to the low
thickness of powder layers, it can be very slow and costly building high parts or massive parts
2. Production series: the AM processes are generally suitable for unitary or small series and is
not relevant for mass production. But progresses are made to increase machine productivity

and thus the production of larger series. For small sized parts, series up to 25000 parts/year
are already possible.
3. Part design: in the case of powder bed technology, removable support structures are needed
when the overhang angle is below 45°. Other design considerations to be taken into account
can be seen in chapter 4 about design guidelines.
4. Material choice: though many alloys are available, non weldable metals cannot be processed
by additive manufacturing and difficult-to-weld alloys require specific approaches.
5. Material properties: parts made by additive manufacturing tend to show anisotropy in the Z
axis (construction direction).
6. Besides, though densities of 99.9% can be reached, there can be some residual internal
porosities. Mechanical properties are usually superior to cast parts but in general inferior to
wrought parts.
Generic AM Process Chain:

There are 9 basic steps in additive manufacturing process chain as follows:
1. Conceptualization:
 In any product design process the first step is to imagine and conceptualize the function
and appearance of the product.
 This can take the form of textual descriptions, sketches, to 3-dimensional computer
models.
 Values of product geometry, material, and properties are to be preliminarily discussed at
the step to bring out customer satisfactory product into the market.
2. Computer Aided Design (CAD) Models:
 In general, the AM process chains start with 3D CAD modeling.

 In terms of process chain, the first enabler of AM technologies is 3D digital Computer-
Aided Design (CAD) models where the conceptualized product exist in a “computer”
space.
 The values of conceptualized product - geometry, material, and properties are stored in
digital form and are readily retrievable.
 The process of producing a 3D CAD model from an idea in the designer’s mind can take
on many forms, but all requires CAD software programs.
 There are a large number of CAD programs with different modeling principles,
capabilities, accessibilities, and cost.
 Some examples includes Autodesk Inventor, Solidworks, Creo, NX, etc
 Once a 3D CAD model is produced, the steps in the AM process chain can take place.
 Issues may rise in the AM process chain and may call for design changes and revisions.
 It is often an iterative process where changes to the CAD model and design are made to
reflect feedback from each steps of the process chain.
 For instance, Specific to the metal powder bed technology, critical feedback can come
from geometry and property an-isotropy on parts due to build orientation, distortion of
part or features due to thermal history of build, issues in generating and removal of support
structures, etc.

3. Conversion to Stereolithography (STL) Format:
 Almost all AM technology available today uses the STereoLithography (STL) file format
to convert CAD model into AM machine acceptable format.
 The STL format of a 3D CAD model captures all surfaces of the 3D model by means of
stitching triangles of various sizes on its surfaces.
 The spatial locations of the vertices of each triangle and the vectors normal to each
triangle, when combined, these features allow AM pre-process programs to determine the
spatial locations of surfaces of the part in a build envelope, and on which side of the
surface is the interior of the part.
 Although the STL format has limitations that only geometry information is stored in
these files while all other information that a CAD model can contain is eliminated.
 Information such as unit, color, material, etc. can play critical role in the functionality of
the built part is lost through the file translation process.
 So, the “AMF” format was developed specifically to address these issues and
limitations, and is now the ASTM/ISO standard format.
 Currently, actual use of the information stored in the AMF file is still limited due to the
capabilities of current AM systems and the state of current technology development.
Fig. An example part in STL format
4. Transfer to AM Machine:
 Once a correct STL file is available, a series of steps is required to generate then information
an AM system needs to start the build process.
 STL file is first imported into a software that allows repairing and manipulating of the file, as
well as the generation of support, and the slicing of the part and support models. .
 In general these steps start with repairing any errors within the STL file.
 Typical errors can be gaps between surface triangle facets, inverted normal where the “wrong
side” of a triangle facet is identified as the interior of the part.
 For the SLA process, the unit area is related to the laser spot size and its intensity distribution
as well as absorption of monomer, and the strategies of filling the enclose area in one layer is
the path in which the laser would raster the resin surface.
 There are a number of software programs that allows these tasks to be carried out, Magics,
for example by Materialize is one such software program that is capable of integrating all
CAD model preparation steps into one program and generating data files directly accepted by
powder bed machine systems.
5. STL File Manipulation:

 Once imported, the dimensions can be modified if needed. Once the model is in desired
dimensions, a series of steps is carried out to correct possible errors in the model file.
 Once the errors have been repaired, a proper orientation of the 3D model with respect to the
build platform/envelope is then decided.
 The process then progresses to slicing the 3D model defined by the STL as well the support
structure into a given number of layers of a desired height each representing a slice of the
part and support models.
 The sliced data are then transferred into the AM system machine for build preparation and
the start of the building process.
 Within each slice the cross-sectional geometry is kept constant.
6. Machine Set Up:
 Following software preparation steps in the AM process chain, machine preparation is the
next step before a build a can start.
 Machine preparation can roughly be divided into two groups of tasks: machine hardware
setup, and process control.
 Hardware setup entails cleaning of build chamber from previous build, loading of powder
material, a routine check of all critical build settings and process controls such as gas
pressure, flow rate, oxygen sensors, etc.
 The tasks in the process control task group allow an AM system to accept and process the
build files, start the build, interrupt the build at any given time if desired or required, and
preparing the machine for finished part extraction, and unloading of material.
 This first task is usually importing and positioning of build parts in the area defined by
the build plate.
 Once the physical locations of parts are decided upon, it is followed by a series of steps of
defining the (1) build process parameters, (2) material parameters, and (3) Part parameters.
 The build process parameter controls machine level parameter that is applied to the entire
build. Examples of these parameters include gas injection processes, material recoater
motions, and ventilation processes, etc.
 Material parameters typically control powder dosing behaviors and chamber environment
control through inert gas.
 Inert gases such as nitrogen or argon are typically used in AM system to control the build
chamber environment and maintain low oxygen concentration.
 Typically the oxygen concentration is maintained below 1–2%. Above threshold values,
AM systems will shut down the build process.
 A quality index can be extracted from the results of monitoring to provide an indication of
part quality. Another type of in-process feedback tool available to some of the current
systems is related to the powder re-coating process.
 The tool typically takes an optical image reflectivity information within the optical image
to determine where a full coating on a competed layer is achieved.
7. Build:
 Once the slice information is generated, it is transferred into the interface program that
runs on AM systems.

 At this point the surface data that are originally in the STL file has been processed and
machine specific information to allow placement of the material unit into the desired
location in a controlled manner to construct the physical model layer by layer.
 Once the machine hardware setup is complete, the AM system is ready to accept the
build files (slices generated from previous step) and start the build.
 The interface program serves as the interface between information of the build and
machine controls that carry out the actual build process.
 Also to AM processes, the first way is to generate the support structures during CAD
modeling and design the support to be features of the geometry of the part.
 Alternatively, the support structures can be generated in the STL preprocess software
program.
 For example, since the support structure is only used during the build process and is
removed during post-process, the amount of material that goes into it needs to be
minimized.
 However, since the primary function of the support is to conduct heat and provide
mechanical anchor, a minimum amount of cross-sectional area in the support is needed
for it to be functional.
 Once the first layer is cured the platform is lowered by distance equal to the thickness
of a layer.
 Then the laser beam scans the next cross section. The cycle is repeated till the topmost
layer of the object is generated.
8. Removal and Clean Up:

 Removal of finished part from the build plate typically involves the use of cutting tools
such as band saws, or wire EDM for higher fidelity and flexibility.
 The unpacking process typically involves raising the platform in the build chamber and
removing loose powder at the same time.
 The loose powder from one process can be re-used and has to go through a series of
sieving steps to remove contaminates and unwanted particulates..
 The unpacking process typically involves raising the platform in the build chamber and
removing loose powder at the same time.
 Subsequently the generated object is removed from the vat and ultrasonic cleaning
removes excess material from crevices and openings.
 An alcohol bath is used to clean any unused polymer. The process of post curing is
carried out by applying intense long wave UV radiation to solidify an uncured liquid
trapped in the honeycomb like structures.

 Once the loose powder is removed from the finished part, the build is ready for post-
process.
9. Post Processing of Part:

 It can require anything from no post process to several additional steps of processing
to change the surface, dimensions, and/or material properties of the built Part.
 The minimum required processing is removal of built part from build plate and the
removal of support structures from the built part.
 Removal of support structures can be as simple as manually breaking the supports
from the surface of the part, but it can also be a process that utilizes CNC tools to not
only remove the support, but also to achieve desired surface finish and/or dimension
tolerance.
 If the supports were to be removed from the part, warpage in the part will occur.
 A thermal annealing process can be used to relieve the thermal stresses in the part
before it is removed from the build plate, to prevent part warpage upon removal from
the build plate.
 Hot Isostatic Pressing, HIP, is a process where a component is subjected to elevate
temperature and isostatic pressure in a pressure vessel.
Fig. SEM images of SLM parts showing unique surface features unlike any other current
manufacturing processes

10. Application:
 Following post-processing, parts are ready for use.

 Although parts may be made from similar materials to those available from other
manufacturing processes (like molding and casting), parts may not behave according
to standard material specifications.
 Some AM processes create parts with small voids or bubbles trapped inside them,
which could be the source for part failure under mechanical stress.
 Some processes may cause the material to degrade during build or for materials not to
bond, link, or crystallize in an optimum way.
Fig. Schematic view of AM process chain

Other Related Technologies

1. Reverse engineering technology
2. Computer aided engineering (CAE):

3D CAD model + Engineering analysis software packages
3. Haptic-based CAD
Reverse engineering technology

• Reverse engineering, is nothing but back engineering, is a process in which software, machines,
aircraft, architectural structures and other products are deconstructed to extract design information
from them.
• Often, reverse engineering involves deconstructing individual components of larger products. The
reverse engineering process enables you to determine how a part was designed so that you can
recreate it. Companies often use this approach when purchasing a replacement part from an original
equipment manufacturer (OEM) is not an option.
• The reverse engineering process is named as such because it involves working backward through
the original design process.
• However, you often have limited knowledge about the engineering methods that went into creating
the product.
• Therefore, the challenge is to gain a working knowledge of the original design by disassembling
the product piece-by-piece or layer-by-layer.
Reverse Engineering Process

1. Digitizing the parts
This step uses a reverse engineering device to collect raw geometry of the object. The data is usually
in the form of coordinate points of the object relative to a local coordinate system.
2. Building CAD models
This step converts the raw point data obtained from step 1 into a usable format.
Development of Additive Manufacturing Technology

The invention of additive manufacturing (AM) has made technology development interdisciplinary
by drawing various fields of knowledge from science and engineering into one technology domain
to achieve optimum practical results. In the last three decades, the industrial production environment
has changed from no tooling, assembly lines, or supply chains into the classic riotous technology of
three-dimensional (3D) printing. The real power of 3D printing lies in the ability to derive new
opportunities, products, and services that will change the effectiveness of the products developed in

a more significant way. AM plays a crucial role in the emerging Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0)
for development products in the defense, aerospace, marine, automobile, and other essential
mechanical engineering industries for advanced multifunctional and multimaterial systems.
AM, or 3D printing, can completely revolutionize the modern manufacturing industry with a
considerable cost reduction. AM technology can fabricate highly customized 3D objects where both
shape and composition can be tailored along with the material.
Here, we try to educate readers on AM’s advantages over traditional methods in saving time and cost.
Compared to previous IR technologies, advancements in computing functions and less mass storage
costs in AM for IR 4.0 have made extensive data processing of many data less complicated and
effortless for modern 3D computer-aided design models with comparatively less time frame.
Introduction
Additive Manufacturing (AM) technology came about as a result of developments in a variety of
different technology sectors. Like with many manufacturing technologies, improvements in
computing power and reduction in mass storage costs paved the way for processing the large amounts
of data typical of modern 3D Computer-Aided Design (CAD) models within reasonable time frames.
Nowadays, we have become quite accustomed to having powerful computers and other complex
automated machines around us and sometimes it may be difficult for us to imagine how the pioneers
struggled to develop the first AM machines.
Computers
Like many other technologies, AM came about as a result of the invention of the computer. However,
there was little indication that the first computers built in the 1940s (like the Zuse Z3 , ENIAC and
EDSAC computers) would change lives in the way that they so obviously have. Inventions like the
thermionic valve, transistor, and microchip made it possible for computers to become faster, smaller,
and cheaper with greater functionality. This development has been so quick that even Bill Gates of
Microsoft was caught off-guard when he thought in 1981 that 640 kb of memory would be sufficient
for any Windows-based computer. In 1989, he admitted his error when addressing the University of
Waterloo Computer Science Club . Similarly in 1977, Ken Olsen of Digital Electronics Corp. (DEC)
stated that there would never be any reason for people to have computers in their homes when he
addressed the World Future Society in Boston . That remarkable misjudgment may have caused Olsen
to lose his job not long afterwards.
One key to the development of computers as serviceable tools lies in their ability to perform tasks in
real-time. In the early days, serious computational tasks took many hours or even days to prepare,
run, and complete. This served as a limitation to everyday computer use and it is only since it was
shown that tasks can complete in real-time that computers have been accepted as everyday items
rather than just for academics or big business. This has included the ability to display results not just
numerically but graphically as well. For this we owe a debt of thanks at least in part to the gaming
industry, which has pioneered many developments in graphics technology with the aim to display
more detailed and more “realistic” images to enhance the gaming experience.

AM takes full advantage of many of the important features of computer technology, both directly (in
the AM machines themselves) and indirectly (within the supporting technology), including:
Processing power: Part data files can be very large and require a reasonable amount of processing
power to manipulate while setting up the machine and when slicing the data before building. Earlier
machines would have had difficulty handling large CAD data files.
Graphics capability: AM machine operation does not require a big graphics engine except to see the
file while positioning within the virtual machine space. However, all machines benefit from a good
graphical user interface (GUI) that can make the machine easier to set up, operate, and maintain.
Machine control: AM technology requires precise positioning of equipment in a similar way to a

Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) machining center, or even a high-end photocopy machine or
laser printer. Such equipment requires controllers that take information from sensors for determining
status and actuators for positioning and other output functions. Computation is generally required in
order to determine the control requirements. Conducting these control tasks even in real-time does
not normally require significant amounts of processing power by today’s standards. Dedicated
functions like positioning of motors, lenses, etc. would normally require individual controller
modules. A computer would be used to oversee the communication to and from these controllers and
pass data related to the part build function.
Networking: Nearly every computer these days has a method for communicating with other
computers around the world. Files for building would normally be designed on another computer to
that running the AM machine. Earlier systems would have required the files to be loaded from disk
or tape. Nowadays almost all files will be sent using an Ethernet connection, often via the Internet.
Integration: As is indicated by the variety of functions, the computer forms a central component that
ties different processes together. The purpose of the computer would be to communicate with other
parts of the system, to process data, and to send that data from one part of the system to the other.
Figure shows how the above mentioned technologies are integrated to form an AM machine.

Fig. General integration of an AM machine
Earlier computer-based design environments required physically large mainframe and mini
computers. Workstations that generally ran the graphics and input/output functions were connected
to these computers. The computer then ran the complex calculations for manipulating the models.
This was a costly solution based around the fact that the processor and memory components were
very expensive elements. With the reduction in the cost of these components, Personal Computers
(PCs) became viable solutions. Earlier PCs were not powerful enough to replace the complex
functions that workstation-based computers could perform, but the speedy development PCs soon
overcame all but the most computationally expensive requirements.
Without computers there would be no capability to display 3D graphic images. Without 3D graphics,
there would be no Computer-Aided Design. Without this ability to represent objects digitally in 3D,
we would have a limited desire to use machines to fabricate anything but the simplest shapes. It is
safe to say, therefore, that without the computers we have today, we would not have seen Additive
Manufacturing develop.

Computer-Aided Design Technology
Today, every engineering student must learn how to use computers for many of their tasks,
including the development of new designs. CAD technologies are available for assisting in the
design of large buildings and of nano-scale microprocessors. CAD technology holds within it the
knowledge associated with a particular type of product, including geometric, electrical, thermal,
dynamic, and static behavior. CAD systems may contain rules associated with such behaviors that
allow the user to focus on design and functionality without worrying too much whether a product
can or cannot work. CAD also allows the user to focus on small features of a large product,
maintaining data integrity and ordering it to understand how subsystems integrate with the
remainder.
Additive Manufacturing technology primarily makes use of the output from mechanical
engineering, 3D Solid Modeling CAD software. It is important to understand that this is only a
branch of a much larger set of CAD systems and, therefore, not all CAD systems will produce
output suitable for layer-based AM technology. Currently, AM technology focuses on reproducing
geometric form; and so the better CAD systems to use are those that produce such forms in the
most precise and effective way.
Early CAD systems were extremely limited by the display technology. The first display systems
had little or no capacity to produce anything other than alphanumeric text output. Some early
computers had specialized graphic output devices that displayed graphics separate from the text
commands used to drive them. Even so, the geometric forms were shown primarily in a vector
form, displaying wire-frame output. As well as the heavy demand on the computing power required
to display the graphics for such systems, this was because most displays were monochrome, making
it very difficult to show 3D geometric forms on screen without lighting and shading effects.
CAD would not have developed so quickly if it were not for the demands set by Computer-Aided
Manufacture (CAM). CAM represents a channel for converting the virtual images developed in
CAD into the physical products that we use in our everyday lives. It is doubtful that without the
demands associated with this conversion from virtual to real that CAD would have developed so
far or so quickly. This, in turn, was fuelled and driven by the developments in associated
technologies, like processor, memory, and display technologies. CAM systems produce the code
for numerically controlled (NC) machinery, essentially combining coordinate data with commands
to select and actuate the cutting tools. Early NC technologies would take CAM data relating to the
location of machined features, like holes, slots, pockets, etc. These features would then be
fabricated by machining from a stock material. As NC machines proved their value in their precise,
automated functionality, so the sophistication of the features increased. This has now extended to
the ability to machine highly complex, freeform surfaces. However, there are two key limitations
to all NC machining:
 Almost every part must be made in stages, often requiring multiple passes for material
removal and setups
 All machining is performed from an approach direction (sometimes referred to as 2.5D
rather than fully 3D manufacture). This requires that the stock material be held in a
particular orientation and that not all the material can be accessible at any one stage in the
process.
NC machining, therefore, only requires surface modeling software. All early CAM systems were
based on surface modeling CAD. AM technology was the first automated computer-aided

manufacturing process that truly required 3D solid modeling CAD. It was necessary to have a fully
enclosed surface to generate the driving coordinates for AM. This can be achieved using surface
modeling systems, but because surfaces are described by boundary curves it is often difficult to
precisely and seamlessly connect these together. Even if the gaps are imperceptible, the resulting
models may be difficult to build using AM. At the very least, any inaccuracies in the 3D model
would be passed on to the AM part that was constructed. Early AM applications often displayed
difficulties because of associated problems with surface modeling software.
Since it is important for AM systems to have accurate models that are fully enclosed, the preference
is for solid modeling CAD. Solid modeling CAD ensures that all models made have a volume and,
therefore, by definition are fully enclosed surfaces. While surface modeling can be used in part
construction, we can not always be sure that the final model is faithfully represented as a solid.
Such models are generally necessary for Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) tools like Finite
Element Analysis (FEA), but are also very important for other CAM processes.
Most CAD systems can now quite readily run on PCs. This is generally a result of the improvements
in computer technology mentioned earlier, but is also a result in improvements in the way CAD
data is presented, manipulated, and stored. Most CAD systems these days utilize Non-Uniform
Rational Basis-Splines, or NURBS [6]. NURBS are an excellent way of precisely defining the
curves and surfaces that correspond to the outer shell of a CAD model. Since model definitions can
include free form surfaces as well as simple geometric shapes, the representation must
accommodate this and splines are complex enough to represent such shapes without making the
files too large and unwieldy. They are also easy to manipulate to modify the resulting shape.
CAD technology has rapidly improved along the following lines:

 Realism: With lighting and shading effects, ray tracing and other photorealistic imaging
techniques, it is becoming possible to generate images of the CAD models that are difficult
to distinguish from actual photographs. In some ways, this reduces the requirements on AM
models for visualization purposes.
 Usability and user interface: Early CAD software required the input of text-based
instructions through a dialog box. Development of Windows-based graphical user interfaces
(GUIs) has led to graphics-based dialogs and even direct manipulation of models within
virtual 3D environments. Instructions are issued through the use of drop-down menu
systems and context-related commands. To suit different user preferences and styles, it is
often possible to execute the same instruction in different ways. Keyboards are still
necessary for input of specific measurements, but the usability of CAD systems has
improved dramatically. There is still some way to go to make CAD systems available to
those without engineering knowledge or without training, however.
 Engineering content: Since CAD is almost an essential part of a modern engineer’s training,
it is vital that the software includes as much engineering content as possible. With solid
modeling CAD it is possible to calculate the volumes and masses of models, investigate fits
and clearances according to tolerance variations, and to export files with mesh data for
Finite Element Analysis. FEA is often even possible without having to leave the CAD
system.
 Speed: As mentioned previously, the use of NURBS assists in optimizing CAD data
manipulation. CAD systems are constantly being optimized in various ways, mainly by
exploiting the hardware developments of computers.
 Accuracy: If high tolerances are expected for a design then it is important that calculations
are precise. High precision can make heavy demands on processing time and memory.

 Complexity: All of the above characteristics can lead to extremely complex systems. It is a
challenge to software vendors to incorporate these features without making them unwieldy
and unworkable.
Many CAD software vendors are focusing on producing highly integrated design environments that
allow designers to work as teams and to share designs across different platforms and for different
departments. Industrial designers must work with sales and marketing, engineering designers,
analysts, manufacturing engineers, and many other branches of an organization to bring a design
to fruition as a product. Such branches may even be in different regions of the world and may be
part of the same organization or acting as subcontractors. The Internet must therefore also be
integrated with these software systems, with appropriate measures for fast and accurate
transmission and protection of intellectual property.
It is quite possible to directly manipulate the CAD file to generate the slice data that will drive an
AM machine, and this is commonly referred to as direct slicing . However, this would mean every
CAD system must have a direct slicing algorithm that would have to be compatible with all the
different types of AM technology. Alternatively, each AM system vendor would have to write a
routine for every CAD system. Both of these approaches are impractical. The solution is to use a
generic format that is specific to the technology. This generic format was developed by 3D Systems,
USA, who was the first company to commercialize AM technology and called the file format “STL”
after their stereolithography technology (an example of which is shown in Fig..
Fig: A CAD model on the left converted into STL format on the right
The STL file format was made public domain to allow all CAD vendors to access it easily and
hopefully integrate it into their systems. This strategy has been successful and STL is now a
standard output for nearly all solid modeling CAD systems and has also been adopted by AM
system vendors [8]. STL uses triangles to describe the surfaces to be built. Each triangle is
described as three points and a facet normal vector indicating the outward side of the triangle, in a
manner similar to the following:
facet normal −4.470293E−02 7.003503E−01 −7.123981E-01
outer loop
vertex −2.812284E+00 2.298693E+01 0.000000E+00
vertex −2.812284E+00 2.296699E+01 −1.960784E−02
vertex −3.124760E+00 2.296699E+01 0.000000E+00
endloop
endfacet
The demands on CAD technology in the future are set to change with respect to AM. As we move
toward more and more functionality in the parts produced by AM, we must understand that the
CAD system must include rules associated with AM. To date, the focus has been on the external
geometry. In the future, we may need to know rules associated with how the AM systems function
so that the output can be optimized

Other Associated Technologies
Aside from computer technology there are a number of other technologies that have developed along
with AM that are worthy of note here since they have served to contribute to further improvement of
AM systems.
Lasers
Many of the earliest AM systems were based on laser technology. The reasons are that lasers provide
a high intensity and highly collimated beam of energy that can be moved very quickly in a controlled
manner with the use of directional mirrors. Since AM requires the material in each layer to be
solidified or joined in a selective manner, lasers are ideal candidates for use, provided the laser energy
is compatible with the material transformation mechanisms. There are two kinds of laser processing
used in AM; curing and heating. With photopolymer resins the requirement is for laser energy of a
specific frequency that will cause the liquid resin to solidify, or “cure.” Usually this laser is in the
ultraviolet range but other frequencies can be used. For heating, the requirement is for the laser to
carry sufficient thermal energy to cut through a layer of solid material, to cause powder to melt, or to
cause sheets of material to fuse. For powder processes, for example, the key is to melt the material in
a controlled fashion without creating too great a build-up of heat; so that when the laser energy is
removed, the molten material rapidly solidifies again. For cutting, the intention is to separate a region
of material from another in the form of laser cutting. Earlier AM machines used tube lasers to provide
the required energy but many manufacturers have more recently switched to solid-state technology,
which provides greater efficiency, lifetime, and reliability.
Printing Technologies
Ink-jet or droplet printing technology has rapidly developed in recent years. Improvements in
resolution and reduction in costs has meant that high-resolution printing, often with multiple colors,
is available as part of our everyday lives. Such improvement in resolution has also been supported
by improvement in material handling capacity and reliability. Initially, colored inks were low
viscosity and fed into the print heads at ambient temperatures. Now it is possible to generate much
higher pressures within the droplet formation chamber so that materials with much higher viscosity
and even molten materials can be printed. This means that droplet deposition can now be used to
print photocurable and molten resins as well as binders for powder systems. Since print heads are
relatively compact devices with all the droplet control technology highly integrated into these heads
(like the one shown in Fig. 2.3), it is possible to produce low-cost, high-resolution, high-throughput
AM technology. In the same way that other AM technologies have applied the mass-produced laser
technology, other technologies have piggy-backed upon the larger printing industry.

Fig. Printer technology used on an AM machine (photo courtesy of Objet)
Programmable Logic Controllers

The input CAD models for AM are large data files generated using standard computer technology.
Once they are on the AM machine, however, these files are reduced to a series of process stages that
require sensor input and signalling of actuators. This is process and machine control that often is best
carried out using microcontroller systems rather than microprocessor systems. Industrial
microcontroller systems form the basis of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), which are used
to reliably control industrial processes. Designing and building industrial machinery, like AM
machines, is much easier using building blocks based around modern PLCs for coordinating and
controlling the various steps in the machine process.
Materials
Earlier AM technologies were built around materials that were already available and that had been
developed to suit other processes. However, the AM processes are somewhat unique and these
original materials were far from ideal for these new applications. For example, the early photocurable
resins resulted in models that were brittle and that warped easily. Powders used in laser melting
processes degraded quickly within the machine and many of the materials used resulted in parts that
were quite weak. As we came to understand the technology better, materials were developed
specifically to suit AM processes. Materials have been tuned to suit more closely the operating
parameters of the different processes and to provide better output parts. As a result, parts are now
much more accurate, stronger, and longer lasting and it is even possible to process metals with some
AM technologies. In turn, these new materials have resulted in the processes being tuned to produce
higher temperature materials, smaller feature sizes, and faster throughput.
Computer Numerically Controlled Machining
One of the reasons AM technology was originally developed was because CNC technology was not
able to produce satisfactory output within the required time frames. CNC machining was slow,
cumbersome, and difficult to operate. AM technology on the other hand was quite easy to set up with
quick results, but had poor accuracy and limited material capability. As improvements in AM
technologies came about, vendors of CNC machining technology realized that there was now growing
competition. CNC machining has dramatically improved, just as AM technologies have matured. It
could be argued that high-speed CNC would have developed anyway, but some have argued that the

perceived threat from AM technology caused CNC machining vendors to rethink how their machines
were made. The development of hybrid prototyping technologies, such as Space Puzzle Molding that
use both high-speed machining and additive techniques for making large, complex and durable molds
and components, as shown in Fig. illustrate how the two can be used interchangeably to take
advantage of the benefits of both technologies. For geometries that can be machined using a single
set-up orientation, CNC machining is often the fastest, most cost-effective method. For parts with
complex geometries or parts which require a large proportion of the overall material volume to be
machined away as scrap, AM can be used to more quickly and economically produce the part than
when using CNC.
Fig. Space Puzzle Molding, where molds are constructed in segments for fast and easy fabrication
and assembly (photo courtesy of Protoform, Germany)
The use of layers
A key enabling principle of AM part manufacture is the use of layers as finite 2D cross-sections of
the 3D model. Almost every AM technology builds parts using layers of material added together; and
certainly all commercial systems work that way, primarily due to the simplification of building 3D
objects. Using 2D representations to represent cross-sections of a more complex 3D feature has been
used in many applications outside AM. The most obvious example of this is how cartographers use
a line of constant height to represent hills and other geographical reliefs. These contour lines, or iso-
heights, can be used as plates that can be stacked to form representations of geographical regions.
The gaps between these 2D cross-sections cannot be precisely represented and are therefore
approximated, or interpolated, in the form of continuity curves connecting these layers. Such
techniques can also be used to provide a 3D representation of other physical properties, like isobars
or isotherms on weather maps.
Architects have also used such methods to represent landscapes of actual or planned areas, like that
used by an architect firm in Fig. . The concept is particularly logical to manufacturers of buildings
who also use an additive approach, albeit not using layers. Consider how the pyramids in Egypt and
in South America were created. Notwithstanding how they were fabricated, it’s clear that they were

created using a layered approach, adding material as they.
Fig. An architectural landscape model, illustrating the use of layers (photo courtesy of LiD)
Classification of AM Processes

There are numerous ways to classify AM technologies.

A popular approach is to classify.
 According to baseline technology, like whether the process uses lasers, printer technology,
extrusion technology, etc.
 Another approach is to collect processes together according to the type of raw material
input. The problem with these classification methods is that some processes get lumped
together in what seems to be odd combinations (like Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) being
grouped together with 3D Printing) or that some processes that may appear to produce
similar results end up being separated (like Stereolithography and material jetting with
photopolymers). It is probably inappropriate, therefore, to use a single classification
approach.
 An excellent and comprehensive classification method is described by Pham, which uses a
two- dimensional classification method as shown in Fig.
Fig. Classification of AM Processes
1. Liquid Polymer Systems

 In this process, a liquid photopolymer is selectively cured by light-activated polymerization to
create a 3D part.
 It is based on curing and hardening of photopolymers on exposure to the ultraviolet radiation.
 Main types of this technology are Stereolithography (SLA), Digital Light Processing
(DLP) and Continuous Digital Light Processing.

 Only Plastic can be printed using these technologies. Liquid polymers appear to be a popular
material.
 The first commercial system was the 3D Systems Stereolithography process based on liquid
photopolymers.
 Using this material and a 1D channel or 2_1D channel scanning method, the best option is
to use a laser like in the Stereolithography process.
 One unique feature is the ability to vary the material properties within a single part.
 Parts can for example have soft-feel, rubber-like features combined with more solid resins
to achieve a result similar to an overmolding effect.
Stereolithography (SLA or SL) Systems:
 Stereolithography (SL), developed by 3D Systems, Inc., was the first and is most widely used
process of rapid prototyping, so, in the past the two terms were used synonymously.
 This is a liquid-based process that consists in the curing or solidification of a photosensitive
polymer when an ultraviolet laser makes contact with the resin.
 The process starts with a model in a CAD software and then it is translated to a STL file in
which the pieces are “cut in slices” containing the information for each layer.
 The thickness of each layer as well as the resolution depend on the equipment used.
 A platform is built to anchor the piece and supporting the overhanging structures.
 Then the UV laser is applied to the resin solidifying specific locations of each layer.
 When the layer is finished the platform is lowered and finally when the process is done the
excess is drained and can be reused
 A newer version of this process has been developed with a higher resolution and is called
microstereolithography.
 This process that has a layer thickness of less than 10 μm can be achieved.
 The basic principle of this process is the photopolymerization, which is the process where a
liquid monomer or a polymer converts into a solidified polymer by applying ultraviolet light
which acts as a catalyst for the reactions; this process is also called ultraviolet curing.
 It is also possible to have powders suspended in the liquid like ceramics.
 There are errors induced to the final piece from the process of stereolithography.One is
overcuring, which occurs to overhang parts because there is no fusing with a bottom layer.
 Another is the scanned line shape, which is introduced by the scanning process. Because the
resin is a high-viscosity liquid the layer thickness is variable and this introduces an error in
the border position control.
 Another error caused could be if the part needed to have a surface finished process that is
normally done by hand .
 All these errors are minimized in equipments of high quality. There is the possibility of using
different materials while building a piece; this process is called multiple material
stereolithography.
 In order to print with different materials all the resin has to be drained and filled with the new
material when the process reach the layer where the change is going to take place.
 This must occur even if the first material is going to be used again because is only possible to
print consecutive layers. resin. In the software a scheduling process has to be specified.

Advantages of SLA
 Good user support
 Good Accuracy
 Accurate surface finish
 The different SLA machines have build volumes ranges from small to large to suit the needs
of different users.
Disadvantages of SLA
 Requires support structures: Structures that have overhangs and undercuts must have supports
that are designed and fabricated together with the main structure.
 Requires Post Processing: It involves removal of supports and other unwanted materials
which is tedious, time-consuming and can damage the model.
 Requires post-curing: It needed to cure the object completely and ensure the integrity of the
structure.
Applications of SLA
 Patterns for investment casting, sand casting and moulding.
 Tools for fixture, tooling design and production tooling.
2. Discrete Particle Systems
 Particles of material are selectively fused together using a thermal energy source such as a
laser. Once a layer is fused, a new one is created by spreading powder over the top of the
object.
 Unfused material is used to support the object being produced.
 Discrete particles are normally powders that are generally graded into a relatively uniform
particle size and shape and narrow size distribution.
 The finer the particles the better, but there will be problems if the dimensions get too small
in terms of controlling the distribution and dispersion.
 Again, the conventional 1D channel approach is to use a laser, this time to produce thermal
energy in a controlled manner and, therefore, raise the temperature sufficiently to melt the
powder.
 Polymer powders must therefore exhibit thermoplastic behavior so that they can be melted
and re-melted to permit bonding of one layer to another.
 The two main polymer-based systems commercially available are the SLS technology
marketed by 3D Systems and the EOSint processes developed by the German company
EOS

 Droplet printing technology is used to print a binder, or glue, onto a powder bed.
 The glue sticks the powder particles together to form a 3D structure. This basic technique
has been developed for different applications dependent on the type of powder and binder
combination.
 The most successful approaches use low-cost, starch- and plaster-based powders with
inexpensive glues,
 Alternatively, if the binder were to contain an amount of drug, 3DP can be used to create
controlled delivery-rate drugs like in the process.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Process

SLS involves the use of a high power laser (for example, a carbon dioxide laser) to fuse small
particles of plastic, metal, ceramic, or glass powders into a mass that has a desired three-dimensional
shape.
Working principle:
 CAD data files are converted to STL files format are transferred to the vanguard systems
where they are sliced.
 A thin layer of heat fusible powder is deposited on the part building chamber and Layer
thickness is of bout nearly 0.1 mm thick;.
 The part building takes place inside an enclosed chamber filled with nitrogen gas to minimize
oxidation and degradation of the powdered material;
 The powder in the building platform is maintained at an elevated temperature just below the
melting point and/or glass transition temperature of the powdered material;
 Infrared heaters are used to maintain an elevated temperature around the part being formed;
 A focused CO2 laser beam is moved on the bed in such a way that it thermally fuses the
material to form the slice cross-section;
 Surrounding powders remain loose and serve as support for subsequent layers.
 When the cross section is completely drawn an additional layer of powder is deposited with
a roller mechanism on the top of previously scanned layer.This prepares the next layer of
scanning.
 This is repeated until each layer fuses to the layer below until the part is completed.
 SLS parts may then require some post processing or secondary finishing such as
sanding,lacquering and painting, depending upon the application.

Fig. Selective Laser Sintering
Materials
Commercially-available materials used in SLS are:
 polyamides (PA),
 polystyrenes (PS),
 thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), and
 polyaryletherketones (PAEK).
 Polycarbonate (PC)
Advantages:
 Parts possess high strength and stiffness
 Good chemical resistance
 Various finishing possibilities (e.g., metallization, stove enameling, vibratory grinding, tub
coloring, bonding, powder, coating, flocking)
 Complex parts with interior components can be built without trapping the material inside and
altering the surface from support removal.
 Fastest additive manufacturing process for printing functional, durable, prototypes or end user
parts
 Wide variety of materials with characteristics of strength, durability, and functionality
 Due to the reliable mechanical properties, parts can often substitute typical injection molding
plastics.
Disadvantages:
 Parts have porous surfaces; these can be sealed by several different post-processing methods such
as cyanoacrylate coatings or by hot isostatic pressing.

3. Molten Material Systems

 Molten material systems are characterized by a pre-heating chamber that raises the material
temperature to melting point so that it can flow through a delivery system.
 Material jetting creates objects in a similar method to a two-dimensional ink jet printer. Material is
jetted onto a build surface or platform, where it solidifies, and the model is built layer by layer.
 The material is deposited from a nozzle which moves horizontally across the build
platform. Machines vary in complexity and in their methods of controlling the deposition of material.
 The material layers are then cured or hardened using ultraviolet (UV) light.
 As material must be deposited in drops, the number of materials available to use is limited.
 The most well-known method for doing this is the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM).
 This competition has driven the price of these machines down to such a level that individual
buyers can afford to have their own machines at home.
 A single jet piezoelectric deposition head lays down wax material. Another head lays down a
second wax material with a lower melting temperature that is used for support structures.
 The droplets from these print heads are very small so the resulting parts are fine in detail.
 To further maintain the part precision, a planar cutting process is used to level each layer once
the printing has been completed.
 Supports are removed by inserting the complete part into a temperature-controlled bath that melts
the support material away, leaving the part material intact.
 The use of wax along with the precision of Solidscape machines makes this approach ideal for
precision casting app lications like jewelry, medical devices, and dental castings.
 The Thermojet approach, however, is not widely used because wax materials are difficult and
fragile when handled.
Fusion Deposition Modelling (FDM) Process
Step 1: The Preparation

 A geometrical model of conceptual design is created on CAD software which uses STL
formatted files.
 It can then imported into the workstation where it is processed.
 The CAD file is sliced into horizontal layers after the part is oriented for the optimum build
position.
 The necessary support structures are automatically detected and generated.
 The slice thickness vary between 0.172 mm to 0.356 mm depending on needs of the models.
Step 2: The Build
 The nozzle is heated to melt the plastic filament and is mounted to a mechanical stage which
can move in both horizontal directions.
 As the nozzles is moved over the table in the required geometry, it deposits a thin bed of
extruded plastic to form each layer and create a two-dimensional cross section of the model.
 The plastic hardens immediately after being squirted from the nozzle and bonds to the layer
below.
 The platform then descends where the next layer is extruded upon the previous layer, this
continued until the model is completed.
 The temperature of the system is maintained just below the melting point of the plastic.
Step 3: Post-processing
 Once all the layer is drawn and the model is complete, the model is then removed from the
platform and the support structures are removed from the part

Fig. Schematic of FDM Fig. Schematic representation of FDM setup
Fig. Data processing in FDM
Principle:
 The principle of the FDM is based on surface chemistry, thermal energy, and layer
manufacturing technology.
 The material in filament (spool) form is melted in a specially designed head, which extrudes
on the model.
 As it is extruded, it is cooled and thus solidifies to form the model. The model is built layer
by layer, like the other RP systems.
 Parameters which affect performance and functionalities of the system are material
column strength, material flexural modulus, material viscosity, positioning accuracy, road
widths, deposition speed, volumetric flow rate, tip diameter, envelope temperature, and part

geometry.
 Fused Deposition Modeling is an additive manufacturing process that can quickly produce
geometrically complex parts through the melting, depositing, and solidifying of
thermoplastics, layer by layer.
 Due primarily to its many cost -effective applications, Fused Deposition Modeling has
emerged the most popular 3D Printing method since its creation in the 1980s.
Materials:
 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) –
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Polyamide (PA)
 Polystyrene (PS)
 Lignin
 Rubber
The main advantages of using FDM technology are as follows:
(1) Fabrication of functional parts. FDM process is able to fabricate prototypes with materials
that are similar to that of the actual molded product. With ABS, it is able to fabricate fully
functional parts that have 85% of the strength of the actual molded part. This is especially
useful in developing products that require quick prototypes for functional testing.
(2) Minimal wastage. The FDM process build parts directly by extruding semi-liquid melt
onto the model. Thus, only those material needed to build the part and its support are needed,
and material wastages are kept to a minimum. There is also little need for cleaning up the
model after it has been built.
(3) Ease of support removal. With the use of Break Away Support System (BASS) and Water
Works Soluble Support System, support structures generated during the FDM building
process can be easily broken off or simply washed away. This makes it very convenient for
users to get to their prototypes very quickly and there is very little or no post-processing
necessary.
(4) Ease of material change. Build materials, supplied in spool form (or cartridge form in the
case of the Dimension or Prodigy Plus), are easy to handle and can be changed readily when
the materials in the system are running low. This keeps the operation of the machine simple
and the maintenance relatively easy.
The main disadvantages of using FDM technology are as follows:

1) Restricted accuracy. Parts built with the FDM process usually have restricted accuracy due
to the shape of the material used, i.e., the filament form. Typically, the filament used has a
diameter of 1.27 mm and this tends to set a limit on how accurately the part can be built.
2) Slow process. The building process is slow, as the whole cross-sectional area needs to be
filled with building materials. Building speed is restricted by the extrusion rate or the flow
rate of the build material from the extrusion head. As the build material used are plastics and
their viscosities are relatively high, the build process cannot be easily speeded up.
3) Unpredictable shrinkage. As the FDM process extrudes the build material from its extrusion
head and cools them rapidly on deposition, stresses induced by such rapid cooling invariably
are introduced into the model. As such, shrinkages and distortions caused to the model built
are a common occurrence and are usually difficult to predict, though with experience, users
may be able to compensate for these by adjusting the process parameters of the machine.

FDM Applications:
FDM models can be used in the following general applications areas:
1) Models for conceptualization and presentation. Models can be marked, sanded, painted and
drilled and thus can be finished to be almost like the actual product.
2) Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing. The system can produce a fully
functional prototype in ABS. The resulting ABS parts have 85% of the strength of the
actual molded part. Thus, actual testing can be carried out, especially with consumer
products.
3) Patterns and masters for tooling. Models can be used as patterns for investment casting,
sand casting and molding.
4. Solid Sheet Systems:

 This technology used a laser to cut out profiles from sheet paper, supplied from a continuous
roll, which formed the layers of the final part.
 Layers were bonded together using a heat-activated resin that was coated on one surface of the
paper.
 Once all the layers were bonded together the result was very much like a wooden block. A hatch
pattern cut into the excess material allowed the user to separate away waste material and reveal
the part.
 Thin sheets of materials (plastic or metal) are bonded together using a variety of methods (e.g.
glue, ultrasonic welding) in order to form an object.
 A laser or knife is used to cut a border around the desired part and unneeded material is removed.
 One of the earliest AM technologies was the Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) system
from Helisys, USA.
 A similar approach was used by the Japanese company Kira, in their Solid Center machine, and
by the Israeli company Solidimension with their Solido machine.
 The major difference is that both these machines cut out the part profile using a blade similar to
those found in vinyl sign-making machines, driven using a 2D plotter drive.
 Both the Solido and Kira machines have been discontinued for reasons like poor reliability
material wastage and the need for excessive amounts of manual post-processing.
LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING (LOM) Introduction

 Laminated Object Manufacturing is a rapid prototyping technique that produces 3D
models with paper, plastics or composites.
 LOM was developed by Helices Corporation, Torrance, California. LOM is actually more
of a hybrid between subtractive and additive process.
 In that models are built up with layers of cross section of the part. Hence as layers are
been added, the excess material is not required for that cross section is being cut away.
 LOM is one of the fastest RP processes for parts with longer cross sectional areas which
make it ideal producing large parts.

Fig. Laminated Object Manufacturing
 In LOM process the material consists of paper laminated which is quoted with thermoplastic
adhesion and rolled up on spols as shown in figure above.
 A feeder mechanism advances the sheet over the build platform, where a basis made up from
paper and double sided foam tape.
 A heated roller applies pressure to bond the paper to the base.
 CO2 laser traces the outline of the CAD data fed in the computer.
 After the laser cutting is completed the platform moves down and a fresh sheet of laminated
paper is rolled on.
 The process is repeated as needed to build the part.
 LOM process is used in pattern making and toy designing as this process is cheaper and high
volume production can be achieved.
The main advantages of using LOM technology are as follows:
1. Wide variety of materials. In principle, any material in sheet form can be used in the LOM
systems. These include a wide variety of organic and inorganic materials such as paper,
plastics, metals, composites and ceramics.
2. Fast build time. The laser in the LOM process does not scan the entire surface area of
each cross-section, rather it only outlines its periphery. Therefore, parts with thick sections are
produced just as quickly as those with thin sections, making the LOM process especially
advantageous for the production of large and bulky parts.
3. High precision. The feature to feature accuracy that can be achieved with LOM machines
is usually better than 0.127 mm
4. Support structure. There is no need for additional support structure as the part is supported
by its own material that is outside the periphery of the part built. These are not removed
during the LOM process and therefore automatically act as supports for its delicate or
overhang features.
5. Post curing process: Each layer is fully cured resulting that the dimension is very stable with
no shrinkage effect after the process and requires no post curing process.

Disadvantages of using LOM
1. Precise power adjustment. The power of the laser used for cutting the perimeter
(and the crosshatches) of the prototype needs to be precisely controlled so that the laser cuts
only the current layer of lamination and not penetrate into the previously cut layers. Poor
control of the cutting laser beam may cause distortion to the entire prototype.
2. Fabrication of thin walls. The LOM process is not well suited for building parts with
delicate thin walls, especially in the Z-direction.
3. Integrity of prototypes. The part built by the LOM process is essentially held together by
the heat sealed adhesives. The integrity of the part is therefore entirely dependent on the
adhesive strength of the glue used, and as such is limited to this strength. Therefore, parts
built may not be able to withstand the vigorous mechanical loading that the functional
prototypes may require.
4. Removal of supports. The most labor-intensive part of the LOM process is its last phase of
post- processing when the part has to be separated from its support material within the
rectangular block of laminated material.
Applications
 Medical imaging.
 Tooling and casting applications
 Moulding and tooling.
New AM Classification Schemes
Metal Systems
One of the most important recent developments in AM has been the proliferation of direct metal
processes. Machines like the EOSint-Mand Laser-Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) have been
around for a number of years Recent additions from other companies and improvements in laser
technology, machine accuracy, speed, and cost have opened up this market.
Most direct metal systems work using a point-wise method and nearly all of them utilize metal
powders as input. The main exception to this approach are the sheet lamination approaches,
particularly the Ultrasonic Consolidation process from the Solidica, USA, which uses sheet metal
laminates that are ultrasonically welded together Of the powder systems, almost every newer
machine uses a powder spreading approach similar to the Selective Laser Sintering process,
followed by melting using an energy beam. This energy is normally a high-power laser, except in
the case of the Electron Beam Melting (EBM) process by the Swedish company Arcam Another
approach is the LENS powder delivery system used by Optome This machine employs powder
delivery through a nozzle placed above the part. The powder is melted where the material converges
with the laser and the substrate. This approach allows the process to be used to add material to an
existing part, which means it can be used for repair of expensive metal components that may have
been damaged, like chipped turbine blades and injection mold tool inserts.
.
Milestones in AM Development
We can look at the historical development of AM in a variety of different ways. The origins may
be difficult to properly define and there was certainly quite a lot of activity in the 1950s and 1960s,
but development of the associated technology (computers, lasers, controllers, etc.) caught up with
the concept in the early 1980s. Interestingly, parallel patents were filed in 1984 in Japan (Murutani),
France (Andre et al.) and in the US (Masters in July and Hull in August). All of these patents

described a similar concept of fabricating a 3D object by selectively adding material layer by layer.
While earlier work in Japan is quite well-documented, proving that this concept could be realized,
it was the patent by Charles Hull that is generally recognized as the most influential since it gave
rise to 3D Systems. This was the first company to commercialize AM technology with the
Stereolithography apparatus.
The first AM technology from Hull, who founded 3D systems (photo courtesy of 3D Systems)
Further patents came along in 1986, resulting in three more companies, Helisys (Laminated Object
Manufacture or LOM), Cubital (with Solid Ground Curing, SGC), and DTM with their Selective
Laser Sintering (SLS) process. It’s interesting to note neither Helisys or Cubital exist anymore, and
only SLS remains as a commercial process with DTM merging with 3D Systems in 2001. In 1989,
Scott Crump patented the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) process, forming the Stratasys
Company. Also in 1989 a group from MIT patented the 3D Printing (3DP) process. These processes
from 1989 are heavily used today, with FDM variants currently being the most successful. Rather
than forming a company, the MIT group licensed the 3DP technology to a number of different
companies, who applied it in different ways to form the basis for different applications of their AM
technology. The most successful of these is ZCorp, which focuses mainly on low-cost technology.
Ink-jet technology has become employed to deposit droplets of material directly onto a substrate,
where that material hardens and becomes the part itself rather than just as a binder. Sanders
developed this process in 1994 and the Objet Company also used this technique to print
photocurable resins in droplet form in 2001
There have been numerous failures and successes in AM history, with the previous paragraphs
mentioning only a small number. However, it is interesting to note that some technology may have
failed because of poor business models or by poor timing rather than having a poor process. Helisys
appears to have failed with their LOM machine, but there have been at least four variants from
Singapore, China, Japan, and Israel. The most recent Solido process laminates polymer sheets
together rather than the paper sheets used in the original LOM machine. Perhaps this is a better
choice of material and perhaps the technology is in a better position to become successful now
compared with the original machines that are 20-years old. Another example may be the defunct
Ballistic Particle Manufacturing process, which used a 5-axis mechanism to direct wax droplets
onto a substrate. Although no company currently uses such an approach for polymers, similar 5-
axis deposition schemes are being used for depositing metal.
Hybrid system
 Hybridization of is one of the leading strategies in developing more flexible and efficient
manufacturing processes and implementing them into Production/Manufacturing
environment.
 In general, hybridization includes conventional and unconventional manufacturing/
machining processes using two rules, i.e. combination of different energy ysources/tools or
controlled applications of process mechanisms
 On the other hand,the concept of hybrid machining/manufacturing systems in which two or
more individual machining/manufacturing processes are combined into one system is
developed.
 In particular, hybrid machine tools (e.g. mill-turn centers) integrate different machining
operations within one machining platform. Accordingly, the multi-tasking or complete
machining is also defined

 Recently, a new trend in developing hybrid manufacturing processes combining additive
(AM) and subtractive (SM) processes, which are performed on one hybrid manufacturing
platform consisting of a multi-functional (multi-tasking) CNC machine tool and AM module
along with automatic 3D scanning and dimensional control
 It should be noticed that additive manufacturing is commonly termed 3D printing. As a
result, additive fabrication and finish machining of a part is carried out on one machine
without any additional fixing and transportation.
The main reasons for the use of hybrid additive systems in low volume production, high
construction variability of parts include:
1. Repair – Hybrid machines allow to use either additive or subtractive process and the main
application for hybrid systems is repair of currently existing components
2. Surface finish–By coupling the additive technique seamlessly with CNC milling, all internal and
external surfaces can be milled to traditional CNC surface finish.
3. Precision – Hybrid additive manufacturing allows every surface to be printed and milled in the
same reference coordinate system, allowing tighter tolerances.
4. Adding difficult features– In traditional manufacturing, multiple parts are bolted, welded, and
brazed into a final product. On the other hand, hybrid additive manufacturing design reduces
complicated, multiple-part into one single part and difficult features are added around the periphery.
A single part building reduces time, labour and cost to one part.
5. Multi-metal 3D printing – Parts consisting of multiple metals are difficult to produce even with
additive manufacturing. A hybrid system architecture allows for a part to start with a preform of
material A, add material B using additive manufacturing, and then switch to material C for further
additive manufacturing.
In general, additive manufacturing uses the powder and wire technology and two deposition
methods are mainly utilize, i.e. laser cladding and arc welding in order to fabricate the near-net
shaped parts directly from CAD models. Usually, the powder technology is adapted for fine
components and small parts, whereas wire technology is recommended for large structural
components. However, a CNC finish machining is implemented to ensure desired accuracy by
eliminating the stars effects resulting from deposition of certain layers
The spectrum of possible solutions is very broad including the fabrication of additional complex
features using 3D printing and blown-powder melting (LMD-laser metal deposition), deposition of
additional elements made of materials different than the base (substrate) material, as well as
remanufacturing/regeneration of damaged/worn high-value parts. In production practice, several
equivalent names for directed energy deposition by
laser or electron beam are used including:
• Laser powder fusion welding,
• Directed metal deposition,
• Reverse machining laser cast,
• Laser cladding.
AM APPLICATIONS
 Functional models
 Pattern for investment and vacuum casting
 Medical models
 Art models

 Engineering analysis models
 Rapid tooling
 New materials development
 Bi-metallic parts
 Re-manufacturing.
 Application examples for Aerospace, defence, automobile, Bio-medical and general
engineering industries
Functional models:
o There are a number of RP technologies that meet the need for building. Functional prototypes
with material properties close to those of production parts.
o One of the RP processes that are widely used for producing models for functional tests is
SLS.
o Initially, four nylon-based materials (standard nylon, fine nylon, fine nylon medical grade,
nylon composite) were available commercially for this process.
o Later Duraform PA and glass reinforced Duraform GF were added to this. Duraform
prototypes can be relatively easily finished to a smooth appearance.
o The production of nylon parts is generally cost-effective when a small number (1-5) of parts
is required.
o Before the introduction of Duraform pa, a nylon composite known as the proto-form
composite was used widely for producing functional parts.
A case study of protoform - building a functional model
 Proto form is a blend of 50% by weight nylon powder and 500/0by weight spherical glass
beads. This SLS glass-filled nylon processed to near full density which has a high modulus
and good heat and chemical resistance.
 The housing in figure is a test part and is built in proto form composite because it is required
to withstand harsh testing conditions including temperatures of about 100°c.
 As a base part for mounting precision components, it has to keep its dimensions within close
limits. The geometry of the housing prevented the downdraft, leaving a hot area inside the
part and causing post-build warping of the walls.
 The first part manufactured suffered from much distortion: there was vertical growth and
"wash out" (loss of definition and rounding of edges) on the downward facing surfaces and
the external dimensions of the sidewalls varied.
 This problem was solved by making the wall thickness uniform and reducing its
dimension.
 The non-functional ribs were added across the housing to stiffen it. Two ribs were
positioned vertically and two others horizontally as shown in figure the number and size
of the ribs were determined from experience to constrain post process distortion in the
x and y directions without adding too much build time. The ribs were also located so that
they could easily be removed by machining after completing the build.
 Subsequently manufactured parts had much better dimensional accuracy.
 Form or geometrical accuracy measurements were taken. To evaluate the influence of
the ribs, the accuracy in the build direction (z direction) and the x-y plane was studied.
 The results showed that the ribs improved the accuracy consistently but had different
effects in each direction. Also, there was reduced post-process distortion due to the added
ribs.

 Another indicator of the quality of a part produced by RP is the international tolerance
grade established by the ISO-ANSI standards which showed good results in nylon.
Fig. Composite nylon housing: without ribs (left) a n d with ribs (right )
Pattern for investment and vacuum casting:
 RP technologies are widely used for building patterns for investment and vacuum casting.
For example, models built employing SLA, SLS, and FDM can be used as patterns for both
casting processes.
 A case study is presented below that discusses some accuracy aspects of producing SLS
patterns and also addresses general issues regarding the technological capabilities of the
process.
 Two SLS materials are currently available for producing casting patterns, cast form
And true form. In this case study, true form, which is an acrylic-based powder, is used to
build casting patterns.
 It is processed at relatively low temperatures, good accuracy but moderate strength. The
density of true form parts can vary from 70 to 90% depending on build parameters
and they can be polished to a mirror-like finish.
 Dense parts are used as patterns for vacuum casting while rather porous parts are better
suited for investment casting; unlike dense models, they do not expand to cause shell
cracking during the burning out of the patterns.
 The figure shows below, BS 199 aluminum housing (195x 145x250mm) made by
investment casting from a true form pattern.
 Trueform housing pattern (right) and aluminum investment casting (left)
 Trueform behaves like an injection molded plastic and thick sections may be subjected to
sinking or sagging. Part orientation must, where possible, be selected to prevent sagging.
 This may not always be practicable and ill such cases shelling of the model (i.e. Converting a
solid model into a hollow part) can significantly reduce part distortion. Trueform normally
gives good accuracy.
 If a larger SLS machine such as the Sinterstation 200 had been used this would have allowed
the. part to be oriented horizontally in the build area.
 In this way, the accuracy would certainly have been much closer to ±0.12smm which is the
accuracy quoted for the trueform material by the machine manufacturer.
 However, even if some dimensions were out ofthe required general tolerance (±0.12smm) the
aluminum castings were fully satisfactory as any deviations were able to be corrected when
some of the features were machine-finished afterward.

 Trueform patterns become cost-effective when a small number of parts, say up to 50, of
complex design are required and the cost of a mold for wax patterns is prohibitive.
Fig. BS 199 aluminum housing (195x 145x250mm) made by investment casting from a
true form pattern
Medical or Surgical models:

 R P technologies are applied in the medical/surgical domain for building models that provide
visual and tactile information.
 In particular, R P models can be employed in the following applications:
 1. Operation planning. Using real-size R P models of patients’ pathological areas, surgeons can
more easily understand physical problems and gain a better insight into the operations to be
performed. RP models can also assist surgeons in communicating the proposed surgical
procedures to patients.
 2. Surgery rehearsal. RP models offer unique opportunities for surgeons and surgical teams to
rehearse complex operations using the same techniques and tools as in actual surgery. Potentially,
such rehearsals can lead to changes in surgical procedures and signicantly reduce risks.
 3. Training: R P models of specimens of unusual medical deformities can be built to facilitate
the training of student surgeons and radiologists. Such models can also be employed for student
examinations.
 4. Prosthesis design: R P models can be used to fabricate master patterns which are then
replicated using a biocompatible plastic material. Implants produced in this way are much more
accurate and cost effective than those created conventionally.
 The following example, reported by a company in Queensland, Australia, demonstrates the use
of R P models in the medical domain. Two SLA medical models were built for a patient suffering

from a secondary carcinoma of the right superior orbital margin and the adjacent frontal bone.
The model was used to plan the resection of the cancerous bone and also as an operation reference
and patient consent tool as shown in fig.
 The second model was then employed to construct an acrylic custom implant in fig.
Fig. The SLA model with the resection template Fig. The SLA model together with template and
the implant
Art models:
 Another growing application area for R P technologies is art and design.
 Initially, the high cost of R P models meant strict limits on the size of the models.
 However, recently, with the introduction of concept modelers, which are relatively inexpensive
R P machines for quickly producing design models, it has become cost effective to employ R P
techniques in many artistic applications.
 The two examples described below demonstrate the use of R P techniques in art. These were
part of work conducted within the CALM (creating art with layer manufacture) project, which
was supported by the Higher Education Funding Council for England as part of an initiative to
promote the use of information technology (IT ) within the art and design community in UK
higher education.
 The rest example is an artwork representing a splash spanning the inside of a plexiglass vitrine
 In its final installation, the R P model will be incorporated into a plexibox exactly the width of
the splash itself.
 The second example is a cyber sculpture representing an artefact that cannot be created using
any conventional methods.

Fig. Cross-sections of the three-dimensional model of a water splash. (Courtesy of M. H arris and
the CALM project.)
Fig. SLS model representing a water splash. Fig. SLS model of a cybersculpture.
(Courtesy of M. Harris and the CALM project) (Courtesy of K. Brown and the CALM project)
Engineering analysis models:

 Computer aided engineering (CAE) analysis is an integral part of time-compression
technologies.
 Various software tools exist, mainly based on finite element analysis (FEA), to speed up the
development of new products by initiating design optimization before physical prototypes are
available.
 However, the creation of accurate FEA models for complex engineering objects sometimes
requires significant amounts of time and effort. By employing RP techniques, it is possible to
begin test programmes on physical models much earlier and complement the CAE data.
 physical prototypes are available. However, the creation of accurate FEA models for complex
engineering objects sometimes requires significant amounts of time and effort.
 By employing RP techniques it is possible to begin test programmes on physical models much
earlier and complement the CAE data.
 Four applications of RP models for engineering analysis are described below
1. Visualization of flow patterns: SLA models were used to optimize the cross-flow
jacket of a V6 high performance racing engine (Fig. below). Sixty sensors were
installed in the model to monitor local flow temperature and pressure conditions. The
coolant flow patterns were visualized by accurately injecting very small air bubbles.
The flow patterns were recorded by high-speed video.
Fig. Assembly of the cross-flow water jacket of a V6 high-performance racing engine

2. Thermoelastic tension analysis (THESA), By employing the THESA method [49], RP
models of real part s can be used on test rigs for structural analysis. This method allows
temperature changes in the test parts to be directly correlated to the load. The effect of a
particular load on the temperature patterns is analysed using thermal imaging.
3. Photo elastic stress analysis: Photoelastic testing is employed to determine the stresses
and strains within physical part s under specific conditions. This method is based on the
temporary birefringence of a transparent material subjected to a specifc load. SLA models
exhibit the required birefringence that can be observed by irradiating the test samples with
polarized white and monochromatic light. Results from photoelastic analysis of SLA
models can be transferred to functional metal parts by employing fundamental similarity
laws. It is also possible to ‘freeze’ the stresses and strains by warming the loaded model to
a level above the resin glass transition temperature and then gradually cooling it back to
room temperature (Fig. below)

Fig. The frozen stress distribution for a model of an aeroengine turbine rotor
4. Fabrication of models for wind tunnel tests. RP techniques can be used to produce wind
tunnel models, which are not subjected to significant loads For example, the strength,
accuracy and surface finish of models produced using SLA, SLS, FDM and SGC
technologies are sufficient for tests of nonstructurally loaded parts. In addition, SLS
models produced using steel powder or metal models fabricated from RP patterns are
adequate for lightly loaded applications.
RAPID TOOLING:
 As R P becomes more mature, material properties, accuracy, cost and lead-time have improved
to permit it to be employed for the production of tools.
 Indirect methods for rapid tool production Indirect RT methods are alternatives to traditional
mould-making techniques. These less expensive methods with shorter lead-times allow tool
validation to be conducted before changes become very costly. The aim of these RT methods is
to fill the gap between R P and hard tooling by enabling the production of tools capable of short
prototype runs.
 A brief description of the most widely employed indirect methods is provided below:
1. Metal deposition. This process involves using an R P model with a good surface finish
that incorporates a draft angle and an allowance for the shrinkage of the moulding material.
The pattern is embedded along its parting line into plasticine within a chase. The sprue, gates
and ejector pins are added and, after the exposed half of the mould is coated with a release
agent, a 2–3 mm thick shell of a low-temperature molten metal is deposited over it. Once a
metallic shell has been created, water cooling lines can be added and the shell is back filled
with epoxy resin or ceramic to improve the strength of the mould.
2. Room temperature vulcanizing ( R T V ) . This process is an easy, relatively inexpensive
and fast way to fabricate prototype or pre-production tools. RTV tools are also known as
silicone rubber moulds. The most widely used form of RTV moulding is vacuum casting. The
vacuum casting process includes the following main steps, (a) producing a pattern (any R P
method can be employed); (b) adding venting and gating to the pattern; (c) setting-up the

pattern on the parting line and then suspending it in a mould casting frame; (d) pouring a
deaerated silicone rubber into the casting frame around the pattern; (e) curing the mould inside
a heating chamber; (f) removing the pattern from the silicone mould by cutting along the
parting line and then closing and sealing the mould; (g) pouring a urethane resin into the
mould inside a vacuum chamber; (h) curing the part in a heating chamber for 2–4 hours and
then removing it from the mould; (i) cutting off the gate and risers from the casting to make
an exact copy of the pattern. This process is best suited for projects where form, functional
testing can be done with a material that mimics the characteristics of the production material.
3. Epoxy tooling. This process is used for manufacturing prototype parts or limited runs of
production parts. Epoxy tools are used as moulds for prototype plastic injection, moulds for
castings, compression moulds and reaction injection moulds. The fabrication of the mould
begins with the construction of a simple frame around the parting line of the R P model (Fig.
19). Sprue gates and runners can be added or cut later on, once the mould is finished. The
exposed surface of the model is coated with a release agent and epoxy is poured over the
model.
4. Ceramic tooling. Instead of epoxy, any plaster ceramics can also be cast around a master
to produce a tool cavity. Ceramic tools can be employed in plastics processing, metal forming
and metal casting. In making ceramic tools, the amount of water used has to be controlled to
avoid excessive shrinkage as the material sets. Recently, attention has been focused on non-
shrinking ceramics.
5. Spin casting. This process consists of injecting a material through a central sprue into a
mould that is rotated at high speed. Spin casting moulds for metal parts are made of heat-
vulcanized silicone. The heat that is given out during the fabrication of such moulds is too
high for most R P patterns
6. Investment casting. This process is used to cast complex and accurate parts. Wax patterns
are employed to define the part shape and then are melted away. It is also possible for patterns
to be produced from foam, paper, polycarbonate and other R P materials that can be easily
melted or vaporized. Two forms of this process are known, shell investment casting and solid
ask investment casting. The latter employs solid ask moulds instead of shells. In addition, the
moulds are lled under a vacuum differential.
7. Fusible metallic core. Fusible metallic core technology is a new method for forming
complex, hollow, one-piece plastic components that may be difficult to produce by any other
method. This technology can be considered as a variation of investment casting
8. Sand casting. The sand casting process is often employed for the production of relatively
large metal parts with low requirements for surface quality. R P techniques can be utilized to
create master patterns for fabricating sand moulds. These moulds are produced by placing R
P patterns in a sand box which is then filled and packed with sand to form the mould cavity.
When employing R P techniques, it is easy to build patterns that include compensation for the
shrinkage of the castings as well as additional machining stock for the areas requiring
machining after casting.
9. 3D KeltoolTM process. This process is based on a metal sintering process introduced in
1976. The 3D KeltoolTM process converts R P master patterns into production tool inserts
with very good denition and surface finish.

Direct methods for rapid tool production
Indirect methods for tool production as described in the previous section necessitate a minimum
of one intermediate replication process. This might result in a loss of accuracy and could increase
the time for building the tool. To overcome some of the drawbacks of indirect methods, some
RP apparatus manufacturers have proposed new rapid tooling methods that allow injection
moulding and die-casting inserts to be built directly from three-dimensional CAD models. Direct
RT methods enable the production of inserts capable of surviving from a few dozen to tens of
thousands of cycles and represent good alternatives to traditional mould-making techniques.The
most popular direct RT methods are presented below:
1. Direct ACES TM Injection Moulds ( AIM TM) . With this method, SL is used to produce
epoxy inserts for injection mould tools for thermoplastic parts.
2. Laminate tooling. The original LOM process produces parts with a wood -like appearance
using sheets of paper. Experiments to build moulds directly or coated with a thin layer of
metal have been reported. Unfortunately, moulds built in this way can only be used for low-
melting thermoplastics and are not suitable for injection molding or blow molding of common
thermoplastics
3. Rapid Tool TM process. This process employs SLS to build tooling inserts. The latest
materials developed for the RapidTool process of producing metal parts by SLS are Laser
Form TM and copper polyamide(PA).
4. Sand Form TM tooling. Sand Form TM zirconium and silicon materials can be used to
build moulds and cores directly from three-dimensional CAD data employing the SLS
process. The sand moulds and cores produced are of equivalent accuracy and have properties
that are identical to those of moulds and cores fabricated with conventional methods.
5. EOS Direct Tool TM process. This process uses proprietary metal powders that are
selectively sintered in a specially developed machine. The sintered parts are porous and
usually must undergo infiltration with an epoxy resin in order to increase their strength. After
infiltration, further polishing of the part surfaces is possible to achieve the quality required
for injection moulding inserts. The Direct Tool TM process is mainly utilized for rapidly
producing complex inserts, the surfaces of which cannot be machined directly.
6. Direct metal tooling using 3DP. This RT process uses 3DP to build tooling inserts in a
range of materials including stainless steel, tungsten and tungsten carbide. The process allows
the fabrication of parts with overhangs, undercuts and internal volumes as long as there is an
escape route for the unused loose powder.
7. Topographic shape formation ( TSF). This technology is used primarily for the rapid
production of moulds. Parts are built by successive layering of a silica powder and selective
spraying of paraffin wax from an X –Y –Z controlled nozzle. The wax binds the powder to
form a new cross-section of the part and also partially melts the previous layer to ensure good
adhesion.
APPLICATIONS OF RAPID TOOLING TECHNOLOGY
1. Die casting inserts. To evaluate the applicability of Rapid Tool TM to aluminium gravity die
casting, inserts for a windscreen wiper arm were built. The inserts were finished following the

steps described in reference. The tool was used to cast parts in LM 6 aluminium alloy. After
producing 250 castings in four separate runs, no degradation signs were visible on the insert
surfaces or on the cast parts.
2. Injection moulding inserts. This example illustrates the capability of the Rapid Tool TM
process for fabrication of injection moulding inserts. An insert was manufactured for moulding
the cap for a nose hair trimmer. While the external surface of the part is relatively simple, its
internal features are much more complex.
3. Metal parts: car seat frame. The Rapid Tool TM process can also be used directly to build
complex metal parts. However, it must be borne in mind that the parts in their intermediate green
stage are very fragile and must be handled with great care. Another problem is that, in contrast
to moulding inserts, such parts do not normally have at bases that can be used for infiltration
during the furnace cycle.


Bimetallic parts:
 Additive manufacturing of bimetals is important to many industries such as energy, automobile,
aerospace, chemical and petrochemical industries, power generation, and oil and gas industries.
 As an example, advanced high temperature nuclear reactor systems may utilize liquid coolants to
optimize heat transfer, neutronics, safety, and compactness of the nuclear supply system.
 The structural components of the primary system in contact with the reactor coolant must be
adequately compatible with the materials of the reactor components.
 Bimetallic structure plays an important role here, by using one metal as a cladding with high
temperature strength and Lead–Bismuth eutectic (LBE) corrosion resistance to be joined/bonded
with another base metal. High-Cr martensitic steel is considered as one of the best candidate
materials.
 Laser additive manufacturing (AM), e.g., powder bed fusion (PBF) system, uses material powders
to build three dimensional parts with complicated structures.
 It has been proved to be an efficient, robust, and cost-effective way for the next generation
manufacturing.
 Though many breakthroughs have been achieved, it is still a big challenge for processing
dissimilar metals, due to many impact parameters such as their differences in solubility,
intermetallic compounds, weldability, thermal expansion coefficient, melting points, thermal
conductivity.
AEROSPACE:
Borescope bosses for A320neo geared TurbofanTM engine

 Industry user sector: Aerospace Industry
 Material: Nickel alloy 718
 Part dimensions: Volume: 15.600 mm3
 LxBxH Boundary Box: 42x72x36 mm
 Additive process used: Laser Beam Melting
 The bosses are made by selective laser melting (SLM) on an EOS machine.
 They form part of MTU’s low-pressure turbine case and allow the blading to be
inspected at specified intervals for wear and damage using a borescope.

Fig. Courtesy: MTU Aero Engines
Benefits of AM technology
 Series production of up to 2000 parts per year
 Lower development production leadtimes and lower production costs.
 Suitable for producing parts in materials that are difficult to machine, as, for example,
nickel alloys
 For complex components that are extremely difficult, if not impossible to to
manufacture using conventional methods.
 Tool-free manufacturing and less material consumption
Support to satellite antenna
 Industry user sector: Aerospace

 Material: Ti6Al4V
 Part height and weight: 380 mm, 3.3 kg
 Part made by EBM with optimized design thanks to topology optimization
Fig. Courtesy: Poly-Shape
 Weight reduction: 55%

RSC emission Rake
 Industry user sector: Aerospace / Experimental research
 Material: Inconel 718
 Part dimensions: 270 mm x 80 mm x 180 mm
 Part weight: 2.0 kg
 Additive process used: Laser Beam Melting
 The water cooled emission rake is placed into the exhaust duct of a high pressure
combustion facility. It is used to sample hot exhaust gases using 6 sampling tubes and
supplies the gas to an analyzing system. It can sample gas at temperatures of 2100°C
and a maximum pressure of 45 bar. The part was produced on a laser cusing M2
machine by Concept Laser.
Fig. Courtesy: RSC Engineering GmbH
 Manufacturing of all components and details in one single step (fast manufacturing)
 Additional design freedom (individual cooling geometries, conical and helical
sampling tubes,...)
 Cost saving up to 60% compared to a conventional manufactured rake for similar use
DEFENCE APPLICATIONS FOR AM (3D PRINTING)

Modelling, test units and prototyping
 Additive manufacturing is an ideal solution for creating quick concept models and
prototypes, and it is widely used in the defence industry to rapidly produce prototypes
without the need for expensive tooling.
 Design concepts, as well as validation testing, can be done much faster, thereby
shortening the product development cycle.
Replacement parts, tooling and maintenance

 As military equipment is typically kept and used over a period of many years, the defence
industry relies heavily on spare and replacement parts.

 For years, outsourcing has been the most common way to procure these parts,
with thousands of replacement parts and tools for military equipment sourced from
external companies.
 Here, additive manufacturing becomes a viable option, as it facilitates the cost-effective
and relatively quick production of parts and tools on demand. Many ships in the US Navy
have 3D printers on board that are used for replacement parts, helping to maintain the
aging fleet without having to order a spare part or to return to a port.
 Furthermore, technologies like Direct Energy Deposition (DED) and Wire Arc Additive
Manufacturing (WAAM) are already widely used to repair functional military
equipment. Thanks to these technologies, worn surfaces of turbine blades and other high-
end equipment can be restored and repaired. As replacement parts can quickly run out of
stock, 3D scanning techniques can be used to reverse engineer an available part, which
then can be easily replicated via 3D printing.

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Additive Manufacturing and Subtractive Manufacturing:

Fig. A) Subtractive Manufacturing, B) Additive Manufacturing

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 1

Difference between CNC And Additive Manufacturing:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 2

Need for Additive Manufacturing

1. Create parts with greater complexity

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 3

The limitations of AM technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 4

Generic AM Process Chain:

2. Computer Aided Design (CAD) Models:

 In general, the AM process chains start with 3D CAD modeling.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 5

Fig. An example part in STL format

5. STL File Manipulation:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 6

6. Machine Set Up:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 7

8. Removal and Clean Up:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 8

9. Post Processing of Part:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 9

 Following post-processing, parts are ready for use.

Fig. Schematic view of AM process chain

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 10

Other Related Technologies

2. Computer aided engineering (CAE):

Reverse engineering technology

Reverse Engineering Process

Development of Additive Manufacturing Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 11

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 12

Machine control: AM technology requires precise positioning of equipment in a similar way to a

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 13

Fig. General integration of an AM machine

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 14

Computer-Aided Design Technology

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 15

CAD technology has rapidly improved along the following lines:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 16

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 17

Other Associated Technologies

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 18

Fig. Printer technology used on an AM machine (photo courtesy of Objet)

Programmable Logic Controllers

Computer Numerically Controlled Machining

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 19

The use of layers

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 20

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, M.I.T.E., MOODABIDRI. Page 21

There are numerous ways to classify AM technologies.

Fig. Classification of AM Processes

1. Liquid Polymer Systems