ENGLISH VERB SYSTEM 2

1. A GENERAL THEORY OF TENSE

Short definition: Tense is a grammaticalized location in time - when something

happened.
Long definition: Tense relates the situation denoted by the verb to the time of
utterance (the point of speech), time is a physical category (of physical entity) of our
reality which consists of time and space. Tense is a grammatical category (gram. way
to express time), and it is related to time.
In Western civilisations, time is understood as linear, we have a time-line or time axis,
presented as a straight line (an arrow) because time represents a continuous flow.

Speed is an important component. In order to discuss time in linguistics, we have to

assume that time flows at the same speed. Relativity theory is disregarded by
linguistics.

Relations can be grammaticalized and the we talk about tenses (inflections,

grammatical markers) and lexicalized (using lexical items or adverbials to express
time).
Time-line: no natural orientation point, so we have to determine the deictic nature
(NOW) - an arbitrary point. Thus we get three segments:

PRESENT - a section of time which is simultaneous and always simultaneous with

NOW;
PAST - before NOW;
FUTURE - after NOW.

Subdivisions:
PAST - before past and past;
FUTURE - before future and future.

Serbian division of past is more complex that the English one, and there is no one-to-
one correspondence between temporal segments (present, past, future) and tenses on
the time axis.

Other concepts of time:

Hopi Indians do not divide the time into these three segments, but into subjective
(future, myths, legends) and objective (witnessed by the senses) segments.

Traditional grammar divides tenses into two kinds:

Absolute - can be defined on the basis of the deictic centre NOW (e.g. simple past -
before point of speech, no need for other points to define it);
Relative - need NOW and other points to be defined (e.g. past perfect - now + past
point).

Present Tense can be simultaneous and almost simultaneous with the point of speech -
it is simultaneous if it denotes only one point, but if it is habitual present containing
past and future and denoting eternal truths, it is almost simultaneous.
Real present is always simultaneous with the point of speech (performatives).
e.g. I pronounce you husband and wife!

2. TIME LINE AND THE TENSES IN ENGLISH

There are several temporal segments in English:

BEFORE PAST: past perfect (non-progressive, progressive)

PAST: past (non-progressive, progressive) and present non-progressive (narrative)
NOW: present (non-progressive, progressive)
BEFORE FUTURE: future perfect (non-progressive, progressive)
FUTURE: future (non-progressive, progressive), present (non-progressive,
progressive) and be going/about to

Present Perfect is not part of it because it doesn’t occupy only one segment and we do
not have a clear temporal segment of it. That is the reason grammarians treat it as an
aspect. There is no one-to-one correspondence (2 or 3 forms for temporal segments).

Binary opposition and tenses:

There are present, past and the future.
But, as categories normally have binary oppositions and are divided into marked and
unmarked members, some grammarians insist that it is also the case with tense. In
GCs, marked member always carries more morphological information that the
unmarked one, and it is less frequent and less general. Grammarians usually do not
include future in this primary opposition - arguments:
A) No inflections
B) Conceptual reason (past and present are factual, future is speculation)
C) Shall and will for future

Some grammarians use the term modal present for future because the speaker has
some expectations.
e.g. You shall do that! (order); They will leave that window open. (habit)

Tense is thus divided into past and perfect. Past is seen as the marked member here, as
it requires special morphology and is less general. That is why we do not have the
division into, for example, present and non-present.

3. FUNCTIONS OF TENSE FORMS IN ENGLISH

Temporal location - basic function; specific location in time.

Speaker’s attitude - subjunctive and conditionals; past tense in the subjunctive is not
used for past, but for making comments about the present (possibility, etc.).
Sequence of tenses - no relocation of the events in time, simply following a rule for
back-shifting.

 TEMPORAL LOCATION
Specifying when and locating events in time. For example, present locates events in
the present section, but also has different uses and implications:
A. Habitual present - most typical (He drives to work.)

B. Eternal truths (The Earth turns around the Sun.)

C. Real present - sports commentaries, instructions, performatives

e.g. I open the cage. (a series of acts and a single suddden act)
VS
I’m opening the cage. (a gradual process)

We accept your offer. (a performative)

VS
We are accepting your offer. (discussing, thinking about it)

He scores a goal. (real present)

VS
He scores goals. (habitual)

D. Future implication (The bus leaves soon.)

E. Past reference:
a) Historic present: Then comes my secretary and tells me...

b) With verbs of communication: learn, write, hear

e.g. He tells me you’re moving out. (the event seems nearer)

c) In literary criticism and essays:

e.g. He was the last representative of the time. (stating facts)
He is the last... (seems as a generally accepted fact)

d) Newspaper headlines: X wins lottery. (more dramatic)

F. Past non-progressive: locates events in past, but sometimes it can be used for
events in the present.
e.g. I wanted to ask you... (more polite)

 SPEAKER’S ATTITUDE

SUBJUNCTIVE - productivity; NOT very productive, because we need a specific

context to use it. To avoid it, use should.

a) Dependant THAT clause: exist, require, demand, insist...

BARE INFINITIVE, we use that

e.g. We ask that every citizen inform themselves on these matters.

TO INFINITIVE, without that

e.g. They recommended that the company invest in new property.

b) Set expressions: God save the queen!

c) Wish: followed by past non-progressive (past simple) or past perfect (I wish I were
there.); with modals (I wish I could help you.)

d) It’s high time: past non-progressive (It’s high time we left.)

e) As if/as though: indicative subjunctive (He talks as if he owned/owns the place.);

past perfect (He talks about Paris as if he had been there.)

f) Had better, would rather: had better + bare infinitive (You better go.); would rather
+ bare infinitive (I’d rather he didn’t say that.

CONDITIONALS: reality/unreality

4. SEQUENCE OF TENSES

Some verbs are back-shifted. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, it triggers the
shift of the verbs and some of the pronouns and adverbials. In some cases, we have
another option.
Marked case: no application of the rule - adds some comment or attitude (most often
that something is still valid or true).
She told me that she was/is getting married in June.
He said that he would visit us when the weather was/is better.

Exceptions:
A. Present non-progressive: it doesn’t have to be back-shifted if it is generally true
(He proved that the earth is round.); still a valid habit (He said that he always gets up
early.); the situation hasn’t changed (He said that his mother is always ill.)

B. Present progressive: always changes when it denotes the real present, but when it
denotes the future, we can choose (She said she was visiting her grandmother.)

C. Shall/will future is shifted to should/would

D. Present perfect: back-shifted, situation is still valid (He said that the bridge has
(had) collapsed.)

E. Past non-progressive: back-shifted; specific past time adverbial (She said that the
letter (had) arrived last Friday.)

F. Subjunctives and conditionals: don’t change subjunctive (I wish I were there. She
said she wished she were there. It’s time we went home.)
Real conditional - changed; unreal conditional - not changed.

G. Would, could, might

H. Must, mustn’t, needn’t:
MUST changes into HAD TO or remains MUST;
MUSTN’T changes into DIDN’T HAVE TO, WAS/WERE NOT TO;
NEEDN’T changes into DIDN’T HAVE TO.

Permanent commands: Children mustn’t swim in the river. Children must obey their
parents.
Strong probability: He must be at least 60. (strong probability)
They are opening/were opening the bottle.
He wishes he knew her name.
The employees demanded that he resign.

5. TENSES IN SERBIAN

When forming a sentence, one uses a string of lexical items, to which grammatical
meanings are added (agreement, attitude, voice, tense in finite clause...). Temporal
determination is placing this situation into a temporal segment. Tenses are used to
place a situation in a temporal segment, as well as some lexical items (PPs) and
subordinate clauses - temporal.

Tenses: temporal determination could be viewed as a gradual quantification from a

certain point (illustration). As far as tenses in Serbian are concerned, they start for the
assumption that Serbian is a highly inflected language, with both finite and non-finite
forms. Finite verb forms show tense and person. You have to add temporal
determination and tense, and you do it within the predicate.

Several other terminologies:

Indicative (absolute) vs. relative temporal determination: indicative temporal
determination is measured for the point of speech, and can be simultaneous, anterior
or posterior. Relative is measured from some other point, not point of speech:

Tada je primetio da se po obali pale svetla. (present relatively used for past)
Večeras ćemo posmatrati kako se otvaraju Olimpijske igre. (relatively used for future)
Naši takmičari nisu znali da će prvog dana imati test. (future used for past)
Sutra će se znati ko je položio ispit. (past used for future)

Temporal transposition: a certain tense used for a non-typical temporal segment (Idem
ja juče i sretnem...).
Referential use: for a specific situation, one specific temporal segment (Juče su
otputovali.)
Non-referential use: repetition, several occasions, several temporal segments (Svakog
leta putuju na more.)

Sequence of tenses doesn’t allow these combinations in English. We have no such

distinction, but it is called HABITUAL.

Tenses:
PREZENT (the only present tense in Serbian)
A. Real present - referential situations and imperfective verbs (Oni pišu domaći. -
more or less simultaneous with now).
B. Extended present (Čekaju ga od juče. - includes large period of time)
C. Omnitemporal present (Zemlja se okreće oko Sunca.)
D. Qualificative present: characteristic (Ona obično malo jede.)
E. Non-referential use (Ona redovno posećuje roditelje.)
F. Transposition of present for past and future (Do tog razgovora on pokazuje veću
uzdržanost.; Avion polazi tek ujutro.)

PERFEKAT (general past tense, happened before now, no further specifications)

Kiša je padala to veče.

Nad rekom se nadnela visoka planina. (qualificative?)
Redovno je prisustvovao tim sastancima. (non-referential use)

Relative use: Zaboravio sam šta mi je sve pričala. (treba pluskvamperfekat)

PLUSKVAMPERFEKAT (denotes anteriority in the past, before past)

Kada je digla pogled, sve je već bilo prošlo.

AORIST

1st use is for situations that happened immediately before the point of speech
Pade ti olovka;
2 use is for some time before the point of speech
nd

Rekoh li ti da ćeš položiti?

IMPERFEKAT (duration in the past)

Oni ga uporno gledahu.

FUTUR I

After now (Sutra ćemo sve nadoknaditi.)

Non-referential use (Više neće dolaziti svakodnevno.)
Relative use (Pomislio sam da ću imati dovoljno vremena.)
Modal use: 1st is initiative (Nećeš više izlaziti bez kape.), 2nd is certainty (Sigurno će
biti još ovakvih primera.)

FUTUR II

Subordinate clauses, used for event that is:

- simultaneous with another future situation (Dok budemo putovali, razgovaraćemo.)
- anterior to another future situation (Kada bude svanulo, izaći ćemo napolje.)
- posterior to another future situation (Ova ponuda važi dok se ne bude usvojila
druga.)
6. REICHENBACH’S APPROACH TO TENSES

Hans Reichenbach’s “Elements of Symbolic Logic”, one section called Tenses of

Verbs - basis of theory of tense.
Temporal points: S - point of speech, E - point of event (when it happened), R point
of reference (context).
Relations: anterior, posterior, simultaneous.

Tense is location in relation to the point of speech. Notion of tense is complex. In

relation to S we have 3 tenses (present, past, future). We need a more complex
interpretation. Formal view: every finite verb form is a tense.

Peter had gone. (implies two events S&R, and E)

Three points are used for all three tenses. R is used for relative tenses, can be
simultaneous with S, or precede/follow it. If you have a come between 2 points, they
are simultaneous; a hyphen means that something precedes/follows.

Present: I see Jon. (presented on a time-line); three points, S, R and E -

formal approach always uses this formula.

7. REICHENBACH’S PERMANENCE OF THE REFERENCE POINT IN

ENGLISH AND SERBIAN

In compound sentences, the R point in each clause should be in the same column
(when you write formulas for each clause, it should be in the same column - should be
for all the clauses for the sentence to be grammatical).

Positional use of the R point: R is referentially used in the context. With three points,
there are 13 possible combinations, 9 fundamental. In English, there are 6
combinations:

E-R-S: anterior past (new name) vs. past perfect (traditional name)
E, R - S: simple past (both new and traditional)
E-S, R: anterior present/present perfect

Logical categories were not clearly seen in the beginnings of language, but are results
of long developments. The actual language doesn’t always fit the schema, we try to
construct in symbolic logic. Language is actually not logical, you cannot always apply
the rules of logic.

8. FUTURE TIME IN ENGLISH

Not a typical tense (no inflections, conceptual problem). There is a distinction

between plain future (denotes only time after now) and modal future (after now +
additional information).
PLAIN FUTURE
There is a limited number of examples, we need specific context. No human control
over the events, no volition, intention.
e.g. Most areas will have rain.
Tomorrow will be Wednesday.
Bill won’t come/won’t be coming tomorrow. - no progressive, includes volition,
modal.

With the progressive, we have expression of plain future, it’s a fact about his arrival.

MODAL FUTURE
Broadly understood modal future shows willingness, plan, arrangement etc.
e.g. Peter shall do that.
Tom ‘will walk on that side.
It’s going to rain soon. (circumstances, cause)
I’m going to tell him about it. (plan, intention)
It’s going to cost me a fortune. (certainty, making a conclusion)
It will... (more neutral, statement or a fact, usually happens)

9. EXPRESSING OF FUTURE TIME IN ENGLISH

There are different ways to express future and they are not always mutually
interchangeable, and there are different implications.

I. SHALL/WILL FUTURE (SIMPLE FUTURE)

Most frequent and most natural, used for making predictions. These forms have
double function - as modal auxiliaries and as future auxiliaries, and sometimes it’s
difficult to distinguish between the two.

II. SHALL/WILL HAVE + Ven (FUTURE PERFECT)

It denotes an action which will be completed before or up to a point in the future.
By Friday, she’ll have moved her furniture.
Some grammarians say that this is the past in the future - past form of a future point of
view.

III. SHALL/WILL BE + Ving (FUTURE PROGRESSIVE)

A process in the future that is going to be somewhere around a point in the future. The
subject is going to be in the middle of a certain process.
Don’t call me at 7. I’ll be having dinner. (in the middle of dinner)

I’ll drive to London next week. (statement as a fact, typical future)

I’ll be driving to London next week. (future as a matter of cause, something
usually and typically done)

The sun will set in a minute. (typical future, complete)

The sun’ll be setting in a minute. (begin to set)

A specific situation: momentary verbs + progressive - ironic tone:

 He’ll be losing his head one of these days.

Future Progressive in use:

- In future situations around a point of time.
Next June, she’ll be sailing across the Atlantic.

- When another future situation begins; somewhere in the middle.

When you arrive, I’ll be writing letters.

- Expressing: from...to..., between...and...,all morning, etc.

She’ll be working all morning. (emphasized duration)
She’ll work all morning. (a fact)

IV. BE GOING TO
A very frequent way to express future. When we use be going to, we relate future with
present, which is why we have two types:

1. Future fulfillment of the present CAUSE

Circumstances, making a certain conclusion, different types of subjects: human,
animal, inanimate subjects.
This box is going to fall.
There is going to be a storm in a minute.
Usually, it is immediate future, but somehow also distant:
They are going to move to a new flat.
I’m going to be a painter when I grow up.
They’re going to arrive late.

V. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
Implication: after now + plan, arrangement, programme.
She is inviting us to the party. (to emphasize her plan)
They are getting married next month. (emphasize)
I’m sorry, I’d like to play chess with you, but I’m taking Mary out. (no
speaker’s intention but shows a plan)
Expresses near future, but there are examples like: When he grows up, he is joining
the army.
Subjects can be animate and inanimate.
Bill is rising at 5am tomorrow. (plan)
The sun is rising at 5am. (difficult to plan for the sun)

It is going to rain tomorrow. (cause)

It is raining tomorrow. (kind of arrangement, although not logical with this
context.

VI. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

Used both in subordinate and main clauses.

Subordinate clauses
a. Temporal: When he arrives, we’ll go fishing.
b. If-clauses: If he arrives soon, we’ll go fishing.
 He will tell you when he has a necessary information. (temporal
adverbial clause - present simple)
He will tell you when he will have a necessary information. (nominal
object clause - future simple)

Main clauses
After NOW + meaning of certainty, “future as a fact”; context of organized events,
time-tables, schedules, calendars. Verbs to use: arrive, start, leave, etc.
The term starts on October 16th.
If used with momentary verbs with situations which are not so certain to happen, we
get an ironic comment.
Next week he starts doing drugs.
Decision can be subject’s or anybody else’s.
His train leaves at 5. (future or habitual present)
*He knows the answer tomorrow. (not grammatical because stative verbs are
not used with present simple for future, they don’t imply an arrangement)
My doctor won’t let me get up yet. (modal meaning)
I’m seeing Kate tomorrow. (present progressive, arrangement, plan)
I’ll be seeing Kate tomorrow. (not a plan, but there is a chance that I will see
her tomorrow - future as a matter of cause)

10. SERBIAN EQUIVALENTS OF ENGLISH FUTURE FORMS

MAIN CLAUSES

 SHALL/WILL + V
Most frequent way to express future, most natural, used in a variety of contexts; can
be used in all concepts, except in some subordinate clauses (e.g. temporal). Serbian
equivalent is Futur I.

 SHALL/WILL BE + Ving: Futur I.

 SHALL/WILL HAVE Ven: Futur II.

 BE GOING TO: the 2nd most frequent, equivalent is Futur II. In colloquial speech
(Idem da...);
In English, there is a distinction between intention and cause: I’m going to eat./I’m
going to make a phone call.
In Serbian, both indicate a movement: Idem da jedem. Idem da telefoniram.

English: after now, temporal distance (future), intention and cause.

Serbian: physical movement, special distance, also after now, intention.
It’s going to rain./Ide da pada kiša.

With cause, we can’t translate with IDEM DA, the subject is inanimate, and we don’t
have movement:
On ide da proda TV. (ok)
On ide da peva glasno. (ok, ako će biti neko kretanje)
 On ide da postane doktor. (not ok, it is a stative verb, no movement)

 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
Futur I; present of imperfective verbs. In English - plan, arrangement, programme.
It’s raining tomorrow. (we can’t have a plan for the weather)
I’m leaving tomorrow.
Sutra pada kiša. (govorimo ovako ukoliko smo sigurni u nešto)
Sutra odlazim. (futur I; animate subject)

 PRESENT NON-PROGRESSIVE
Future as a fact, unalterable, almost certain.
Train leaves at 5. Voz polazi u 5. (present of imperfective verbs)

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

 TEMPORAL CLAUSES
While he is sleeping, we’ll go away. Dok bude spavao...
When he falls asleep, we’ll go away. Kada zaspi...

Čim stigne, ja ću ti javiti. As soon as he arrives, I’ll let you know.

(immediately)
As soon as he has arrived... (not necessarily immediately, emphasis on
completion)

 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
If I know the answer, I’ll raise my hand. (*If I will know...)
Kad znam odgovor, dignem ruku.

 Some types of RELATIVE CLAUSES

Nagradu će osvojiti onaj ko bude imao najviše bodova. (futur II)
The prize will go to the one with the highest score.

 ŠTO GOD/KO GOD

Što god budete činili, gledajte da se ne osramotite. (futur II)
Whatever you do, make sure you don’t embarrass yourselves. (present simple)

 Some ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PURPOSE/MANNER

Što više budeš učio, više ćeš znati.
The more you learn, the more you know.

11. NON-FINITE CLAUSES AND TEMPORAL RELATIONS

Non-finite forms: not denoting tense.

Temporal relations in clause: anteriority, posteriority, simultaneousness.
Orientation point: point from the context, not necessarily point of speech.

INFINITIVES
 TO INFINITIVE
They planned to get to the seaside. They wanted to see you. (simultaneous or
posterior action in the non-finite clause)
 PERFECT INFINITIVE
She wished to have seen that film.

PARTICIPLES
 PRESENT PARTICIPLE
Simultaneous action (knowing Japanese...). Exceptions with momentary verbs of
perception (see, hear...).
Hearing father’s steps below, she went downstairs.
Arriving at the station, they took a taxi. (precedes)

 HAVING Ven: precedes

 PAST PARTICIPLE: precedes

Encouraged by the success, she continued.
The police burst in and arrested the man sitting on the sofa.
Temporal relation is measured from a contextually given orientation point, which is
not necessarily NOW.

12. OLDER DEFINITIONS OF ASPECT

Aspect is a more controversial category than tense. There are different definitions and
terminology. Controversial especially in English, even the very existence of the
category is controversial.

Oldest definitions:

In Ancient Greece, Aristotle said that predicate denotes time, and from this
assumption, we developed the category of tense.

However, the first meanings we now relate to aspect can be found in the group of
philosophers - the Stoics. They analyzed the Greek myth, used the term completion,
and divided Greek verbs into complete and incomplete.
Complete verbs are perfect, pluperfect, and incomplete are present, imperfect.
Philosophers described language within their philosophical systems. Their
terminology reflects philosophical assumptions, not linguistic. We can be critical
now, it doesn’t mean we can use these terms now if we want to use them
linguistically.

Varro (Latin grammarian) included tenses and notion of completion in his description
of Latin verbs and grammar. That grammar was the model for other languages.

Older English grammar books and studies:

Henry Sweet (A New English Grammar) - in the introduction, he specifies the goals
he wants to achieve: to coin new terminology and new expressions where the existing
one is defective, to choose the best terminology and achieve the universal one. His
solution is the division of tenses into:
- simple and compound (with or without auxiliaries)
- complete and incomplete (The clock is striking noon. - IC;
The clock has struck noon. - C)
But, present perfect is not always complete, no
correspondence between the form and the meaning.
- definite and indefinite (definite have more precise location in time, indefinite not:
He is writing a letter.
He is writing his letters in the evening.
- long and short (theoretically problematic, tenses express when and not for how long.
Long tenses can be continuous or recurrent, short - a brief moment)
I have been writing. I go to France once a year.
We passed through...
- inchoative verbs (mark the beginning of a situation)
We began to talk.

The conclusion is that he had good ideas and realized what the problem with
terminology is, but his solutions are not always logical and cannot always be applied.

Otto Jaspersen (The Philosophy of Grammar) - aspectual meanings put in oppositions:

aorist/imperfect; conclusive/non-conclusive; permanent/punctual; repeated/non-
repeated. Som of them are formal (1st), others more or less semantic.

George Curme (English Grammar) - when it comes to terminology, aspect uses the
following terms:
- terminative: something habitual, characteristic (present simple)
- progressive: not complete yet
- point-action (ingressive and effective): momentary (He ate up all the soup.)

Palmer (The English Verb) - Aspect can be progressive and non-progressive. Phase:
not his term, not the 1st one to use it, he simply used phase as a specific category
(situation that started before, but continued up to a point - present/past/future perfect)
- not accepted in grammar books. Palmer is right in one point - division aspect. Phase:
perfect and non-perfect; aspect: progressive and perfect? - he had two categories to
link them, we cannot have this binary opposition, they have to be mutually exclusive,
but they are not - perfect progressive is a possible combination in English. In English,
you might have two aspects, A1 and A2.

Quirk et. al. (A Grammar of Contemporary English) - this is a standard description of

English aspect, and the authors include aspect as a category in English. Simple
definition - it is a manner in which a verb situation is experienced. It represents a
comment of the author. Two pairs of aspectual oppositions: progressive and non-
progressive and perfective and non-perfective. Difference between perfect and
perfective - perfect is related to the form (present perfect), while perfective is related
to completion, at least in Slavic grammars (semantic notion). It may be better to call it
perfect than perfective.

13. B. COMRIE AND L. BRINTON ON ASPECT AND AKTIONSART

I. L. Brinton (The Development of English Aspectual System)

Two trends in aspectual studies - notional and formal. Notional starts form the
meaning/concept and then sees how they are expressed. Fromal starts form tenses and
aspects - usage.

He walks/is walking to work. He *has worked/worked all day yesterday.

In notional approach, you start from notional concepts, like

durative/momentary/stative/dynamic, etc. For example, stative verbs cannot be used
in the progressive.

Set of aspectual meanings:

 Perfective: expressed by non-progressive: present simple, past simple. Denote the
whole situation.
 Imperfective (progressive): situation viewed as a structure
 Phase: ingressive and egressive - segment; ingressive = beginning,
egressive = end?
 Habitual: non-progressive, used to
 Perfect: have + Ven

Criteria for division is semantic, also some formal (perfect - form).

Aspect vs. Aktionsart

Aspect: grammatical, subjective, related to speaker’s standpoint, progressive/non-
progressive - speaker can choose which one to use.
Aktionsart: lexical, semantic, more objective, related to the meaning, similar to
Vendler’s classification, if you have a momentary or a stative verb, it is an obvious
difference.

Lexical-grammatical interaction: grammatical - aspect; lexical - meaning of verbs

(stative, momentary, etc.) Pattern: If you want to make a statement, you start from
your mental lexicon, you want to find the words that convey your message. If you
choose the verb RUN, you use the knowledge about that verb (denotes activity,
dynamic, intransitive, requires an animate subject, etc.). Grammatical part: you have
to have an animate subject, you can use it both in the progressive and non-
progressive, in past and present - features of the lexical item influence morphological
structure.

Bernard Comrie (Aspect)

Definition - aspect is a view of the internal temporal constituency of a situation
(general, refers to more than just one language). View - subjective, S’s standpoint;
temporal - related to time; internal temporal: tense is external time, while this is
internal, inside the situation; constituency: arrangement. Tense is external time -
present, past, future. Objective choice: structure (imperfect) and whole (perfect). He
mentions in his book basic opposition, uses terms perfective and imperfective, but
gives them a different meaning, they are not related to completion.

Perfective aspect: key word is whole, we present a situation as a whole, as a single

whole that cannot be analyzed, we talk about the entire situation and look at it from
the outside. There is no division into phases.
Imperfective aspect: the key word is situation, we present phases of a situation, we
look at a situation form the inside, most often speaker’s/writer’s shoice. Not an
objective difference between the two.
I entered (perfective/non-progressive) while he was reading
(imperfective/progressive). - simultaneous, but not completely overlapping, only
partial.
Helen read that book yesterday. While she was reading it, a postman came.
(we can present the same situation (reading) in two different ways; choice of
perfective/imperfective is subjective; depends on the context.

Aspect and time: both tense and aspect are related to time, but in a different way.
Tense is related to external time - present, past and future; and it is deictic (related to
the point of speech). Aspect is internal time, time inside the situation. We can
represent it as a whole or as a structure. Aspect is not a deictic category, and we do
not need context.

Aspect and inherent meaning: this is grammatical interaction, some semantic

properties of verbs interact with aspectual oppositions, prohibiting some combinations
and restricting their meaning.
She painted/was painting a picture. (with past simple, there is a goal and it is
accomplished; in the second we still have a goal and don’t know if it is reached; it is
neutralized)
For durative and progressive, it means repetition. If we have a stative verb, we cannot
use it in the progressive.

Marked and unmarked member: perfective is marked and imperfective is unmarked,

as it is more general. It is not as clear as some categories.

14. ASPECT AND METALANGUAGE

Metalanguage and the terminology used to describe time, tense and

aspect/grammatical categories. As an example we have the notion of
perfective/imperfective that can mean different things in different languages. In
Slavic languages, it stands for finished/unfinished, in English for whole/structure.

Broadly, any metalanguage is language or symbols used when language itself is being
discussed or examined. In logic and linguistics, a metalanguage is a language used to
make statements about statements in another language (the object language).
Expressions in a metalanguage are often distinguished from those in an object
language by the use of italics, quotation marks, or writing on a separate line. There is
a variety of recognized metalanguages, including embedded, ordered and nested (or,
hierarchical). Metalanguage is a language that describes language.

15. ASPECT IN SERBIAN

Serbian grammars: definitions are language-specific. Most typical distinction is into

complete and incomplete verbs. Also OF: momentariness, short duration.
Momentariness: PF. Arguments against the definition: there is only a small number of
momentary verbs which are perfective (reći, skočiti). Others, like prepisati,
prepisivati are not momentary.
Pisao je oko pola sata.
Napisao je pismo za pola sata. (napisati je imperfective, but they are both
used with the same temporal adverbial)

Momentariness: not significant, not crucial notion for aspect.

Complete/incomplete distinction: the most frequent distinction. We need aspectually

relevant contexts, both general and language specific definitions can be applied.

Contexts:

 Glagolski prilog sadašnji: pevajući, plivajući - only perfective vs.imperfective

Čitajući tu knjigu, sećao se/setio se svog detinjastva.
Temporal relations: čitajući - not complete, simultaneous with setio se
Whole vs. structure: imperfective is structure, setio se (perfective) is whole. One point
in the structure is simultaneous with the whole. 2nd sentence: two structures, complete
overlapping.
 Glagolski prilog prošli: perfective verbs. Pročitavši tu knjigu, setio se/*sećao se...
Two complete situations, whole and whole - two different definitions.
 Fazni glagoli: phase verbs - početi, prestati, nastaviti: Počeo je da čita/*pročita.
(perfective verb does not have phases, it is a whole)

Summary: general vs. Language specific definition in Serbian. For comparison of E

and S, we use a general definition. For Serbian and Slavic languages both definitions
can be used.