Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Characteristics of CO2 and atmospheric pollutant emissions from

China’s cement industry: A life-cycle perspective
Chaoyue Zheng a, Haoran Zhang a, Xingrui Cai a, Long Chen b, Maodian Liu c,
Huiming Lin a, Xuejun Wang a, *
a
Ministry of Education Laboratory of Earth Surface Process, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
b
Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science (Ministry of Education), School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai,
200241, China
c
School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: To estimate the air pollution emissions from China’s cement industry and quantify the impacts of various
Received 28 May 2020 influencing factors, we estimated the direct emissions and indirect electricity emissions of greenhouse
Received in revised form gases and atmospheric pollutants from China’s cement industry over 2005e2012 at the provincial level
16 September 2020
from the perspective of the cement life-cycle. Carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides
Accepted 4 October 2020
(NOX), and particulate matter (PM) were considered in this study. Using the Logarithmic Mean Divisia
Available online 7 October 2020
Index (LMDI) method and the multi-regional decomposition analysis (M-R) model, we quantified the
^as de
Handling Editor: Cecilia Maria Villas Bo impacts of the emission factor, energy intensity, output structure, clinker share, and production scale on
Almeida the tempo-spatial variations in pollutant emissions. Our results show that, from 2005 to 2012, the
emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx, and total suspended particulate (TSP) changed by 62%, 65%,
13%, and
46%,
Keywords: respectively. The major driving forces of these changes were production scale, output structure, pro-
Cement industry duction scale and output structure, and emission factor, respectively. In 2012, the proportions of indirect
Life-cycle analysis electricity emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx, and TSP corresponded to 10%, 33%, 20%, and 12% of the total,
CO2 and atmospheric pollutants
respectively. The emission intensities in the developed eastern provinces were much lower than the
Tempo-spatial variations
national average, due to their technological advantages. Through the interprovincial clinker trade, most
China
of the pollution derived from the cement life-cycle in the eastern provinces was transferred to the central
and western provinces, further increasing the pollution in these latter regions. This study may provide a
reference for the comprehensive accounting of pollutant emission characteristics in a specific industry.
The findings of this study suggest that China’s cement industry should adopt deNOx devices and use
alternative raw materials and fuels to further reduce environmental burden.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction intensive and high-polluting: it consumes a large amount of raw

Cement is a widely used construction material. Due to rapid
economic growth and urbanization, China has become the world’s
largest cement producer since the 1980s (National Bureau of
Statistics, 2006e2019). China’s cement output increased from
597 Mt in 2000e2208 Mt in 2018, accounting for up to 54% of the
world’s total in 2018 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2006e2019;
Agency International Energy, 2019). The cement industry is energy-
* Corresponding author. Ministry of Education Laboratory of Earth Surface Pro-
cesses, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing,
100871, China.
E-mail address: xjwang@urban.pku.edu.cn (X. Wang).
materials and energy (van Oss and Padovani, 2002). In China, the
production of 1 ton of cement clinker consumes 1.65 tons of raw
materials on average (mainly limestone) (Cui and Liu, 2008; Gao
et al., 2017). In 2012, China’s cement industry consumed a total of
176 Mtce, accounting for ~4.4% of the country’s total energy con-
sumption (China Cement Association, 2005e2012; National Bureau
of Statistics, 2006e2019). During the process of cement production,
large amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and hazardous atmo-
spheric pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere, contributing to
climate change, environmental pollution, and human health risk. A
study has shown a statistically significant positive association be-
tween indoor particulate concentrations and the number of respi-
ratory symptoms (Mulenga and Siziya, 2019). In 2015, the cement

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124533
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Cai et al.
industry contributed to 12% of China’s total CO2 emissions (Agency
International Energy, 2015; Wei and Cen, 2019). Besides, the
cement industry is also regarded as the largest source of atmo-
spheric primary particulate matter (PM), accounting for ~20% of the
country’s total PM emissions (Lei et al., 2011a, 2011b).
The process of cement production involves three stages: raw
material preparation, clinker calcination, and cement grinding
(Agency International Energy, 2009). Fossil fuels are mainly used in
the clinker calcination stage, while auxiliary processes (e.g.,
crushing, grinding, and drying) rely on electricity (Feng et al., 1995)
To obtain the atmospheric pollution emission characteristics in
China’s cement industry, previous studies have used a variety of
methods, such as emergy analyses (Zhang et al., 2017; Song et al.,
2019), material flow analyses (Hu et al., 2015; Gao et al., 2016),
and life-cycle assessments (Li et al., 2015; Song et al., 2016), to study
one or several specific cement production lines. For example, Song
et al. (2016) analyzed the life-cycle environmental impact of a
typical 2500 ton/day suspension preheater cement production line,
while Hu et al. (2015) conducted a metabolism analysis on two
typical cement production lines with different processes in Anhui
Province. Since the results of assessments conducted on different
function units can vary greatly (Salas et al., 2016), the above-
mentioned studies may not provide realistic estimations of the
pollutant emissions of the entire cement industry. Some studies
have developed emission inventories of GHGs and atmospheric
pollutants, contributing to pollution accounting in China’s cement
industry. For GHGs, most previous studies estimated both direct
emissions and indirect electricity emissions, but they used a fixed
electricity emission factor to calculate indirect emissions in
different years, and neglected the continuous reduction of carbon
emissions from China’s power system (Gao et al., 2017; Shan et al.,
2019). As for atmospheric pollutants, Lei et al. (2011b) and Hua et al.
(2016) calculated the direct emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx and PM, and
obtained the historical trends of pollutant emissions from China’s
cement industry at the provincial level, but they did not consider
indirect emissions caused by purchased electricity. Since electricity
represents an important fraction (~10%) of the energy used for
cement production, ignoring the use of purchased electricity may
affect the accuracy of pollutant emission accounting results from
China’s cement industry (China Cement Association, 2005e2012;
Song et al., 2016).
To quantify the impacts of different factors on pollutant emis-
sions from the cement industry, some researchers used the Loga-
rithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method proposed by Ang et al.
(1998). This method presents obvious advantages in terms of
applicability, flexibility, consistence, and perfect decomposition
(Ang and Liu, 2001); therefore, it has been widely used to study
regional and industrial energy consumptions (Wang et al., 2010;
Wang and Feng, 2018), carbon emissions (Lin and Long, 2016), and
air pollutant emissions (Lyu et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2019). In
addition to temporal decomposition analysis, Ang et al. (2015)
extended the application of the LMDI method to spatial decom-
position by establishing the multi-regional decomposition analysis
(M-R) model. The LMDI method has been used to study China’s
cement industry. Most of the existing studies on this topic involved
energy consumption or carbon emissions, and conducted temporal
decomposition analysis at the national level, in which the impact
factors included energy efficiency, energy structure, industry scale,
labor productivity, and fixed capital, among others (Wang et al.,
2013; Lin and Zhang, 2016; Shan et al., 2019). Liu et al. (2018)
studied the emissions of atmospheric pollutants and developed a
tempo-spatial decomposition analysis to examine the driving
forces of pollution at the provincial level. However, they did not
consider the proportion of different cement kiln types as a factor
affecting atmospheric pollutant emissions when using the LMDI
2
Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533
method. As a result, the impacts of cement production technology
shift over time and regional technology differences on pollutant
emissions have not been fully addressed.
Considering the limitations of accounting scope and influencing
factor categories in previous studies, our study aimed to accurately
estimate the atmospheric pollutant emissions of China’s cement
industry and quantify the impacts of various influencing factors,
including technology shift, on pollutant emissions. During
2005e2012, China experienced a significant international financial
crisis and several natural disasters, which caused great changes in
the structure of China’s cement industry. The proportion of new
suspension preheater (NSP) kiln clinker increased from 40% in 2005
to 92% in 2012 with respect to the total clinker production, and
industry data were available for this period (National Bureau of
Statistics, 2006e2019). Therefore, the time span of our study was
set to the period of 2005e2012. From a life-cycle perspective, we
estimated both the direct emissions and indirect electricity emis-
sions of GHGs and atmospheric pollutant emissions (i.e., carbon
dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and PM)
from China’s cement industry at the provincial level. Notably, the
Tibet Autonomous Region, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao were not
included, due to lack of data. Furthermore, the LMDI and the M-R
model was used to quantify the impacts of the emission factor,
energy intensity, output structure, clinker share, and production
scale on tempo-spatial variations in air pollution, to identify the
major driving forces of the emission changes, and analyze the
causes of the spatial differences across provinces. Finally, the
characteristics and impacts of the interprovincial clinker trade were
analyzed. Based on the life-cycle of the cement industry, this study
may provide a reference for the comprehensive accounting of
pollutant emission characteristics in a specific industry. The find-
ings of this study can support the development of industry policies
and provide suggestions for further energy conservation and
emission reduction with regard to China’s cement industry.
2. Methodology
2.1. Study scope and emission calculations
To calculate the historical emission trends of CO2 and atmo-
spheric pollutants of China’s cement industry, it is necessary to
define a boundary within which emissions are accounted for.
Referring to ‘The greenhouse gas protocol: a corporate accounting
and reporting standard’ (Ranganathan and Bhatia, 2004), from a
life-cycle perspective, three scopes should be ideally included
(Table S1). Considering that the sources of Scope 3 emissions
include multiple industrial sectors, and the availability and uncer-
tainty of the associated data, the study scope in this paper was set
to include Scope 1 and Scope 2.
In the cement industry, Scope 1 emission sources of GHGs and
atmospheric pollutants are different. CO2 emissions can be divided
into process-related emissions (emissions from carbonate decom-
position and organic carbon conversion) and fuel-related emissions
(emissions from fuel combustion). SO2 and NOX emissions are
derived from the fuel combustion process of cement kilns. The
emission sources of PM are quite complex to reconstruct (Gao et al.,
2016). For simplicity, in this study, PM emissions were divided into
two groups: those derived from the clinker manufacturing process
(emissions from material crushing, raw material milling, clinker
calcination and clinker cooling) and those from the cement milling
process. Based on China’s environmental monitoring specifications
and the availability of data, we divided the particulate matter into
three particle size ranges: <2.5 mm, 2.5e10 mm, and >10 mm. Given
the high application rate and significant effects of PM control
technologies, net emissions depend on both the unabated
C. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Cai et al.
emissions, and the penetration rate and removal efficiency of
various control technologies (Lei et al., 2008).
There are two main types of cement kiln: shaft and rotary kilns
(Madlool et al., 2011). NSP kilns are a special type of rotary kiln with
a pre-calciner or a pre-heater set in front of the barrel. Different
types of cement kilns are characterized by different energy con-
sumption levels, calcination temperature, and pollutant emissions.
To gain more accurate results, we considered three types of cement
kilns: NSP, shaft, and other rotary (OR) kilns. Coal and electricity
account for ~90% and 10%, respectively, of the total energy con-
sumption in China’s cement industry; hence, only coal was taken
into account for energy-related Scope 1 emissions (China Cement
Association, 2005e2012). The calculation equations applied for
Scope 1 emissions are shown in Table S2.
Scope 2 emissions were calculated based on the electricity
consumption and the emission factor:
X
E2t ¼ ECj;i;t  EEFj;t
j;i
E2: total Scope 2 emissions; EC: electricity consumption; EEF:
emission factor of the electricity consumption; i: cement kiln types;
j: province; t: year.
According to the above calculation equations, we estimated the
annual emissions of CO2, SO2, NOX, and PM at the provincial level,
and aggregated them to obtain the historical emissions from
China’s cement industry over 2005e2012. The pollutant emission
intensities were obtained by dividing the annual emissions by the
annual cement output.
2.2. Tempo-spatial decomposition analysis
To conduct the tempo-spatial decomposition analysis, we
adopted the LMDI method and the multi-regional decomposition
analysis (M-R) model. The correspondent equations are shown
below:
X (China Cement Association, 2005e2012). The output of NSP kilns
E¼ x1;i x2;i /xn;i
i
DE ¼ ET
E0 ¼ DEx1 þ DEx2 þ / þ DExn
ET
D¼ ¼ Dx1 Dx2 /Dxn
E0
DE DEx1 DEx2 DExn
¼ ¼ ¼/¼
lnD lnDx1 lnDx2 lnDxn
E represents an energy-related or emission-related aggregate,
while i represents the sub-category of the aggregate (e.g., the in-
dustrial sector or fuel type; Ang, 2005). It was assumed that n
P temperatures and long residence times and carbon oxidation rates
factors contributed to the change of E from E0 ¼ x01;i x02;i /x0n;i in
i
P T T
period 0 to ET ¼ x1;i x2;i /xTn;i in period T. In the additive decom-
i thus, the negligible differences between kiln types were ignored in
position form (Eq. (3)), the decomposition results were given in a
physical unit, while in the multiplicative decomposition form in Eq.
(4), the results were expressed in indexes (Ang, 2005).
The LMDI method comprises two different methods: LMDI-I and
LMDI-II (Ang, 2015). As shown in Table S3, the weight formula of
LMDI-I is more concise (Ang, 2015): this method is consistent in
aggregation (Ang and Liu, 2001) and provides a perfect decompo-
sition at the subcategory level (Ang et al., 2009). Therefore, in this
study, we chose to apply LMDI-I with the additive decomposition
form.
Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533
The M-R model allows emission intensity comparisons between
the targeted regions and the group average (Ang et al., 2015; Liu
et al., 2018). The formulas used for the direct decomposition anal-
ysis between the provinces and the national average are shown
below as Eqs. (6) and (7). To simplify the spatial decomposition
analysis process, the time range was divided into three stages:
2005e2007, 2008e2010, and 2011e2012. The provincial and na-
tional emission intensities were calculated for each time period;
afterward, the M-R model was applied.
DEIRi
CHN ¼EIRi
EICHN ¼ DEIx1
Ri
CHN
þ DEIx2
Ri
CHN
þ/þ DEIxn
Ri
CHN
(6)
X xRi
DEIxk
Ri
CHN
¼ LðEIiRi ; EIiCHN Þlnð CHN
k:i
Þ (7)
i
xk;i
(1) We assumed that the total emissions were influenced by five
factors: the emission factor (ef), the energy intensity (int), the
output structure (str), the clinker share (sha), and the production
scale (scale). All these factors are defined in Table S4. The influ-
encing factors of the emission intensity included ef, int, str, and sha.
We analyzed Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions separately, and then
quantified the impacts of each factor on the emission amounts and
emission intensity to identify the driving forces. Since GHGs and
atmospheric pollutants were associated with different emission
mechanisms and data types, we designed detailed decomposition
formulas for different pollutants based on the LMDI method to
conduct tempo-spatial decomposition analysis (Table S5).
3. Data
3.1. Production and energy consumption
The China Cement Almanac provided provincial data on China’s
cement industry for 2005e2012, including clinker production,
cement production, coal consumption, and electricity consumption
(2)
was obtained from the China Cement Association, while the out-
puts of the other two kiln types were estimated according to in-
formation available in the literature (Li, 2004; Kong, 2005; Xu et al.,
(3) 2012). Based on the outputs and energy intensities of the three
cement kiln types reported in the literature (China Cement
Association, 2005e2012; Xu et al., 2012; Hua et al., 2016), we
(4)
were able to estimate a breakdown of the coal and electricity
consumptions for each kiln type. The production and energy con-
sumption data are shown in Tables S6, S7 and S8.
(5)
3.2. Emission factor
All types of cement kilns are characterized by high combustion
can reach ~99%, (National Development and Reform Commission,
2011; Word Business Council for Sustainable Development, 2011);
this study. Cui and Liu (2008) conducted a comprehensive analysis:
their calculation of the CO2 emission factor of China’s cement in-
dustry has been widely quoted. Following their results, the process-
related emission factors EFC ¼ 0.55 kg CO2/kg clinker and the energy
related emission factor EF ¼ 1.94 kg CO2/kg coal. Scope 1 emissions
for SO2 and NOx varied depending on the cement kiln type. In NSP
kilns, most limestone is decomposed during the pre-calcination
process and the CaO produced absorbs a large amount of SO2. It is
generally assumed that ~80% of the SO2 is absorbed in NSP kiln, while
only 30% is absorbed in shaft and OR kilns (Liu, 2006). Considering
3
C. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Cai et al.
the sulfur content in China’s coal, Lei et al. (2011b) estimated the SO2
emission factor for three types of cement kiln (see Table S9). Scope 1
NOx emission factors mentioned in this paper are from Hua et al.
(2016), who calculated the NOX emission factor for different kiln
types using the field data provided by Su et al. (1998) and the Chi-
nese Academy of Environmental Sciences (see Table S9). Regarding
the PM, since the three cement kiln types were associated to
different exhaust emissions and dust concentrations, values of the
unabated emission factor EFRc and the net emission factor efc from
the clinker manufacturing process were also different. The values of
EFRc and the unabated emission factor from cement milling EFRm
were obtained from Jiao (2007) and Lei et al. (2008) (see Table S10).
PM control technologies used in the cement plant include cyclone
(CYC), wet scrubber (WET), electrostatic precipitator (ESP) and
baghouse filter (FF). Their respective dust removal efficiencies are
shown in Table S11 (Lei et al., 2008). The application rates of these
four technologies in China’s cement industry have been investigated
and estimated in previous studies (Lei et al., 2008; Hua et al., 2016)
(see Fig. S1).
Scope 2 emission factor for CO2 was obtained from Song et al.
(2013), who considered all the types of power, grid division, and
power exchange between grids to calculate China’s regional CO2
electricity emission factor (see Table S12). The power emission
factors of the atmospheric pollutants were obtained from the
Ecoinvent database (Ecoinvent Association, 2010), which is the
world’s leading life-cycle inventory database: it includes the air
pollutant emission factors per unit of power consumption in China
(down to the provincial level) (see Table S13).
4. Results
4.1. Emissions of CO2 and atmospheric pollutants from 2005 to 2012
As shown in Fig. 1, CO2 emissions increased from 785 Mt in 2005
8000
7000
6000
5000
Emission (kt)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2005 2006
Fig. 1. Emissions of CO2 and atmospheric pollutants of China’s cement industry.
Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533
to 1269 Mt in 2012. The trend of NOx emissions was similar with
that of CO2: they increased from 1122 kt to 2563 kt. In contrast, the
SO2 emissions decreased from 1543 kt to 1341 kt over the same
period. The reduction of TSP emissions was much more significant
during this period; it dropped from 7745 kt to 4164 kt.
As shown in Tables S14, S15 and S16, direct (Scope 1) emissions
always represented most of GHGs and atmospheric pollutant
emissions of China’s cement industry. Indirect electricity (Scope 2)
emissions of various pollutants increased over 2005e2012. In 2012,
Scope 2 emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx, and TSP were 134 Mt, 441 kt,
522 kt and 498 kt, respectively. Over 2005e2012, Scope 2 emissions
of CO2 accounted for ~10% of the total CO2 emissions, while the
proportion of Scope 2 emissions of NOx decreased from 25% to 20%.
Moreover, the proportions of Scope 2 emissions of SO2 and TSP
increased significantly from 16% to 33%, and from 3% to 12%,
respectively. The CO2 emissions estimated in this study are close
those reported by Wang et al. (2013), Chen et al. (2015), and Gao
et al. (2017); however, the emissions of atmospheric pollutants
estimated in this study are slightly higher than those in other
studies (Lei et al., 2011b; Hua et al., 2016). The main reason for these
differences is the distinct study scopes: other studies only calcu-
lated the direct emissions, while our study considered the life-cycle
of cement production, including the indirect emissions caused by
purchased electricity.
Fig. S2 shows the emissions calculation results at the provincial
level. In 2005, the emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx, and TSP in eastern
China accounted for ~50% of the national total emissions; moreover,
the emissions in central China were slightly higher than those in
the western region. Among the eastern provinces, Shandong
showed the highest emissions in the country, while Guangdong,
Jiangsu, and Zhejiang ranked among the top five. In the central
region, Anhui, Henan, and Hubei provinces had relatively high
emissions. Meanwhile, the emissions in western provinces were
generally low, with the exception of Sichuan, whose SO2 emissions
PM >10
PM 2.5-10
PM 2.5
CO₂/1000
SO₂
NOx
TSP
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Year
4
C. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Cai et al.
ranked the forth in the nation.
Over 2005e2012, the growths of CO2 (14%) and NOx (62%)
emissions in the eastern region were far below the national
average, while the reductions of SO2 and TSP emissions were much
higher than the national average. The emissions of all the pollutants
in Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai declined during this period. In
addition, the four abovementioned eastern provinces, which had
high emissions in 2005, have also significantly low emission
growth rates. The change rates of pollutant emissions in the central
region were similar to the national average. But the emission
growth rate in the Anhui Province was the highest in China: from
2005 to 2012, the CO2 and NOx emissions increased by 55 Mt and
119 kt, respectively, while the SO2 emissions increased by 39%. In
the western region, the emissions increased significantly during
this period: the emission growth rates of CO2 and NOx were 135%
and 244%, respectively (much higher than the national average);
the regional growth rate of SO2 emissions was 25%, offsetting one-
third of the total SO2 emission reduction in the eastern and central
regions. Meanwhile, the TSP emissions declined in the western
region, but their reduction was much lower.
With the development of China’s cement industry over
2005e2012, the gap in pollutant emissions between different re-
gions greatly narrowed. In 2012, the CO2, NOx, and TSP emissions of
the cement industry in the western, central, and eastern regions
were similar to each other. The SO2 emissions were particularly
high in the western region, accounting for 40% of the total emis-
sions in China. The five provinces with the highest emissions
changed from 2005 to 2012: in 2012, they corresponded to Shan-
dong, Guangdong (both in the eastern region), Anhui (in the central
region), Sichuan, and Guangxi (both in the western region). Besides,
Anhui had replaced Shandong as the province with the highest CO2,
NOx, and TSP emissions, while the highest SO2 emissions were
registered in the Sichuan Province.
4.2. Emission intensities of CO2 and atmospheric pollutants
As shown in Fig. 2 and Table S17, the pollutant emission in-
tensities in the first stage (over 2005e2007) were 0.72 kg CO2/kg
cement, 1.33 g SO2/kg cement, 1.42 g NOx/kg cement, and 5.28 g
TSP/kg cement, while they changed to 0.59 kg CO2/kg cement,
0.65 g SO2/kg cement, 1.57 g NOx/kg cement, and 1.95 g TSP/kg
cement in the third stage (over 2011e2012). Scope 1 and Scope 2
emission intensities of CO2, SO2, and TSP all decreased during the
three stages; however, the reduction in Scope 1 emission intensities
was more obvious. Scope 2 NOx emission intensity decreased, but
the increase in Scope 1 NOx emission intensity was more signifi-
cant. In the third stage, Scope 2 emission intensities were 0.06 kg
CO2/kg cement, 0.21 g SO2/kg cement, 0.24 kg NOx/kg cement, and
0.23 g TSP/kg cement.
The pollutant emission intensities in the eastern provinces were
relatively low; notably, the lowest values were registered in Tianjin,
Shanghai, Jiangsu, and Hebei. For the central region, the emission
intensities were very high in Anhui and Jilin, while they were close
to the national average in the other provinces. During the third
stage, emission intensities of 0.98 kg CO2/kg cement and 2.01 g
NOx/kg cement were observed in Anhui, while emission intensities
of 0.91 kg CO2/kg cement, 2.49 g NOx/kg cement, and 1.02 g SO2/kg
cement were observed in Jilin. In the western region, the emission
intensities were generally higher than the national average, espe-
cially those of SO2.
4.3. Results of the temporal decomposition analysis
The results of temporal decomposition analysis are shown in
Fig. 3, Table S18, and Fig. S3. Due to the changes of Scope 1 emission
5
Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533
factors, TSP emissions were reduced by 7760 kt from 2005 to 2012,
while changes in other pollutants were negligible. Both the coal and
electricity intensities dropped during this period, causing the CO2,
SO2, NOx, and TSP emissions to decrease by 130 Mt, 267 kt, 169 kt,
and 395 kt, respectively. There are exceptions in terms of energy
intensity across provinces; for example, its values increased in Jilin,
Chongqing, and Shandong during this period. The energy intensity
growth in Jilin was the most obvious, and linked to increases in CO2
(29%), SO2 (55%), NOx (79%), and TSP (2%). These also explain the
observed increase in Scope 2 emission intensity in Jilin.
The output structure showed a weak increasing effect on Scope
2 emissions, but its effect on Scope 1 emissions varied by pollutant
type. Due to the shift in output structure, Scope 1 emissions of CO2
decreased by 18 Mt and those of TSP increased by 984 kt over
2005e2012. The effect was significant for Scope 1 emissions of SO2
and NOx: it caused the SO2 emissions to fall by 875 kt and the NOx
emissions to increase by 1158 kt. As shown in Fig. S3, the effects of
the output structure in single provinces were similar to those
observed for the whole country.
Clinker share usually plays an important role in reducing
pollutant emissions. During the study period, it led to CO2, SO2,
NOx, and TSP emission reductions of 172 Mt, 195 kt, 2254 kt, and
729 kt, respectively. However, the clinker share increased in Beijing,
Hainan, Hubei, and Xinjiang, causing slight emission increases.
Contrary to the clinker share, production scale tends to have an
increasing effect on pollutant emissions. With the continuous
expansion of the production scale, the emissions of CO2, SO2, NOx,
and TSP increased by 751 Mt, 1096 kt, 1191 kt, and 3664 kt,
respectively. In the eastern provinces (i.e., Shandong, Guangdong,
Jiangsu, and Zhejiang), where emissions were high in 2005, the
emission increase caused by production scale was much lower than
in the provinces of other regions. In the central and western re-
gions, in fact, the emission growth caused by production scale was
obvious.
Based on the temporal decomposition results, we were able to
identify the key driving forces of pollutant emissions from China’s
cement industry. The leading driving factors for the growth of CO2
and NOx emissions were the production scale, the production scale
and the output structure, respectively. Furthermore, the leading
driving factors for the decline in SO2 and TSP emissions were the
output structure and Scope 1 emission factor, respectively. Except
for production scale, other factors combined effectively reduced the
emissions of CO2, SO2, and TSP, while NOx emissions still increased
due to the effect of the output structure. As a result, the emission
intensities of CO2, SO2, and TSP dropped, while that of NOx
increased during the study period.
In the eastern region, the energy efficiency and the production
technology improved significantly, while the increase in cement
production was relatively low. However, in the central and western
regions, the rapid expansion of the production scale offset the
reduction effects of the other factors, especially in Anhui, Sichuan,
and Guangxi. Therefore, the pollutant emission differences be-
tween the regions narrowed during the period 2005e2012.
4.4. Results of the spatial decomposition analysis
The effects of each factor on the provincial emission intensities
during the third stage (2011e2012) are presented in Fig. 4. The
clinker share and the energy intensity were the main factors
leading to differences in the provincial emission intensities of CO2,
NOx, and TSP. In the case of SO2, the output structure and Scope 2
emission factor were also essential. In the eastern region, due to the
energy intensity and clinker share effects, the emission intensities
of various pollutants in Beijing were relatively high, while in other
provinces/municipalities (e.g., Shanghai, Tianjin, Jiangsu, Zhejiang,
C. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Cai et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533

05-07 05-07
1.40 3.00
05-07ave 05-07ave
08-10 08-10
08-10ave 08-10ave
1.20
11-12 2.50 11-12
11-12ave 11-12ave
1.00
2.00

0.80
1.50
0.60

1.00
0.40

0.50
0.20

0.00 0.00

Yunnan

Xinjiang
Inner Mongonia
Zhejiang
Shanghai

Sichuan

Gansu
Tianjin

Liaoning

Fujian

Hainan
Guangdong
Beijing

Hebei

Shanodng

Henan

Ningxia
Guangxi
Hunan
Jiangsu

Shanxi

Hubei

Chongqing
Tianjin

Zhejiang

Yunnan

Xinjiang

Heilongjiang
Anhui

Guizhou

Shaanxi

Qinghai
Inner Mongonia
Hainan

Jilin

Jiangxi
Shanghai

Sichuan
Fujian
Liaoning

Guangdong

Gansu
Henan
Beijing

Ningxia
Hebei

Shanodng

Jiangxi

Guangxi
Jiangsu

Shanxi

Hunan
Hubei

Chongqing
Anhui

Guizhou
Heilongjiang

Shaanxi

Qinghai
Jilin

(a) (b)
Eastern region Central region Western region Eastern region Central region Western region
05-07 05-07
3.00 05-07ave 12.00 05-07ave
08-10 08-10
08-10ave 08-10ave
2.50 11-12 10.00 11-12
11-12ave 11-12ave

2.00 8.00

1.50 6.00

1.00 4.00

0.50 2.00

0.00 0.00

Yunnan

Xinjiang
Zhejiang

Inner Mongonia
Hainan

Sichuan
Tianjin

Liaoning
Shanghai

Gansu
Fujian

Guangdong

Henan
Beijing

Hebei

Ningxia
Shanodng

Anhui

Guangxi
Jiangsu

Shanxi

Hubei
Hunan

Chongqing
Guizhou

Shaanxi

Qinghai
Heilongjiang

Jiangxi
Jilin
Zhejiang

Yunnan

Xinjiang
Inner Mongonia
Hainan
Tianjin

Shanghai

Heilongjiang

Hubei

Sichuan

Gansu
Liaoning

Fujian

Guangdong

Henan
Beijing

Hebei

Ningxia
Jiangsu

Shanodng

Guangxi
Shanxi

Hunan

Chongqing
Anhui
Jiangxi

Guizhou

Shaanxi

Qinghai
Jilin

(c) (d)
Eastern region Central region Western region Eastern region Central region Western region

Fig. 2. Emission intensities of CO2 and atmospheric pollutants from China’s cement industry during three time stages.

and Hebei) the emissions intensities were generally low. Among
the central provinces, we highlight the cases of Jilin (where the high
emission intensity was led by the energy intensity and the clinker
share) and that of Anhui (where the leading factor was the clinker
share). The western region was at a disadvantage with regard to
clinker share and the output structure; notably, some western
provinces even had high energy intensities and emission factors.
Therefore, the emission intensities of the western provinces were
always higher than the national average, especially in the case of
SO2: their output structures led to SO2 emission intensities of
0.27 g/kg cement in Xinjiang, Guizhou, and Sichuan.
5. Discussion
From the perspective of the cement life-cycle, we estimated
both Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions from China’s cement industry.
Most other researchers had focused mainly on the cement clinker
calcination process and calculated the direct emissions without
considering the emissions derived from purchased electricity.
Notably, electricity accounts for up to 10% of the total energy con-
sumption of China’s cement industry, and is the most important
energy type other than coal. Our estimations show that Scope 2
emissions have been increasing during the period 2005e2012, ac-
counting for a considerable portion of the total emissions; in
particular, SO2 and NOx emission accounted for 33% and 20% in
2012, respectively. These data prove the importance of electricity.
Besides, the results obtained by distinguishing the emissions
derived from different phases of the cement life-cycle are useful for
the formulation of reasonable industry policies. For example, our
results show that the NOx emission intensity increased over time,
while Scope 2 emission intensity of NOx decreased. This suggests
that further reduction efforts should focus on direct emission
process.
Temporal decomposition analysis results showed that the
continuous expansion of production scale was the most important
factor leading to the emission increase, which is related to the social

6
C. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Cai et al.
Fig. 3. Temporal decomposition analysis results: impacts of various factors on the changes in CO2 and atmospheric pollutant emissions of China’s cement industry over 2005e2012.
economy development. During this period, the urbanization rate in
China increased from 43% to 53% (National Bureau of Statistics,
2006e2019), leading to great demand for infrastructures and
housing; besides, the rapid economy growth and large-scale fixed-
asset investment also propelled the growth of cement production.
However, this type of production fluctuated during the study
period, especially in 2008 and 2012, when the annual growths were
of only 4.33% and 5.64% (China Cement Association, 2005e2012),
respectively. In 2008, China suffered from severe natural disasters
and an international financial crisis, which led to a decline in the
cement production growth rate. In response to this financial crisis,
the Chinese government decided to invest 4 trillion yuan (RMB) by
2010 to stimulate the domestic demand and start the post-disaster
reconstruction, generating a large demand for cement. Conse-
quently, the cement production increased significantly in the
following years, with annual growth rates of 16% in 2009 and 15% in
2011 (China Cement Association, 2014). After completing the ‘4
trillion yuan investment’ and the post-disaster reconstruction, the
growth rate of China’s fixed-asset investment fell from 30% in 2009
to 20% in 2012 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2009e2012).
As a result, the growth rate of cement production declined again in
2012.
Due to the differences in regional policies, resource abundance
and market demands, the influences of production scale on the
7
Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533
three regions are different: the influence on the eastern region was
relatively small, while that on the central and western regions were
significant. The eastern region is economically developed, showing
a high degree of industrialization and urbanization, as well as a
heavy environmental load. Therefore, the Chinese government
restricted the growth of cement production capacity in this region.
The ‘4 trillion yuan investment’ policy focused mainly on the cen-
tral and western regions, generating a huge cement demand in
these regions. In the western region, the development strategy and
the post-disaster reconstruction projects further promoted the
prosperity of the cement market. Therefore, the cement industry in
the central and western regions developed rapidly and the pro-
duction increased significantly during the study period.
In addition to the production scale, industrial restructuring also
led to changes in the emission factor, energy intensity, output
structure, and clinker share during the study period. At the
beginning of the 21st century, disqualified production capacity
dominated China’s cement industry, causing a huge waste of re-
sources and severe environmental pollution. Thus, the Chinese
government decided to adopt efficient production technology to
promote the sustainable development of cement industry. With
pre-decomposition and pre-heating systems, NSP kilns have higher
energy efficiency, provide clinkers of better quality and can absorb
more SO2. Since China’s cement market is dominated by low-
C. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Cai et al.
Fig. 4. Spatial decomposition analysis results: impacts of various factors on the differences in the emission intensities of CO2 and atmospheric pollutants in each province and the
national average emission intensities during the third stage (2011e2012).
strength cement, the improvement in clinker quality allows the
addition of mixed materials, reducing the energy consumption and
pollutant emissions per cement product (Wang et al., 2016; Wei
and Cen, 2019). Therefore, the National Development and Reform
Commission formulated the ‘Guidance Catalogue for the Adjust-
ment of Industrial Institutions’ in 2005 and the ‘Cement Industry
Development Policy’ in 2006, encouraging the elimination of dis-
qualified technologies (e.g., vertical kilns and wet process kilns) and
the development of large-scale NSP cement production lines. The
‘Eleventh Five-Year Plan for the Development of Materials Industry’
and the ‘Twelfth Five-Year Plan for the Development of Cement
industry’ even quantified the objectives of the industrial restruc-
turing for each stage. Moreover, China revised the air pollutant
emission standards for the cement industry, strengthening the
limits for PM emissions and asking for the adoption of effective dust
control measures. With the implementation of these policies,
China’s cement industry has undergone observable changes.
8
Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533
During 2005e2012, the proportion of NSP clinker within the total
clinker production increased from 40% to 92%, the clinker share
decreased from 72% to 60%, and the comprehensive energy con-
sumption per cement product was reduced from 110 tce/kg to 80
tce/kg (China Cement Association, 2005e2012). Besides, the
application rate of the high-efficiency dust collectors significantly
increased, resulting in great reduction in PM emissions. However,
few cement kilns have been equipped with NOx control devices,
and thus NOx pollution got more severe.
The results of spatial decomposition analysis showed that the
main reasons for the regional differences in emission intensities are
energy intensity and clinker share, which are related to regional
technology differences. Compared with the central and western
regions, the eastern region has a better industrial foundation. In
2005, NSP production lines were prevalent in the eastern region,
especially in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Zhejiang, where the
NSP clinker production accounted for 70% of the total. Meanwhile,
C. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Cai et al.
in the central and western regions disqualified technologies
dominated the cement industry. After the industrial restructuring,
the technology differences between the regions narrowed signifi-
cantly. In 2012, in central and western provinces with poor indus-
trial foundations (e.g., Hunan, Sichuan, and Guizhou) the
proportion of NSP clinker production was 80%. But on the whole,
the technology condition in the eastern region was still much better
and thus the emission intensity was generally low.
However, the differences in clinker share between some prov-
inces were so large that it could not be explained merely by tech-
nology difference. For example, in 2012, the clinker share in Anhui
reached 103%, while in the developed provinces of Tianjin, Jiangsu,
Zhejiang, and Shanghai it was very low (21%, 37%, 49% and 5%,
respectively). These differences confirm the occurrence of an
interprovincial clinker trade. In developed provinces mineral re-
sources are scarce; therefore, the expansion of the clinker pro-
duction capacity was restricted. To meet the demand for cement,
these provinces needed to purchase clinker from their neighboring
provinces. In this context, Anhui became the major clinker export
province due to its rich limestone resources and large clinker
production capacity. A large-scale clinker and cement trade also
occurred from Guangxi to Guangdong. In the cement life-cycle,
pollution is mainly produced during the clinker calcination pro-
cess; therefore, the cement-related pollution of developed prov-
inces should have been much higher than what was estimated in
this study. A considerable part of this pollution was transferred to
underdeveloped provinces through the interprovincial trade of
clinker and cement.
According to the above discussion, industrial restructuring has
played a key role in energy savings and emission reduction in
China’s cement industry over 2005e2012. Since the proportion of
NSP kilns reached 92% in 2012, China’s cement industry should take
other measures to achieve further energy savings and emission
reduction. Considering the temperature and flue gas residence time
in a cement kiln, selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) is
regarded as the most suitable technology to control NOx emissions,
and its deNOx efficiency can reach 80% (Fan et al., 2014; Fu et al.,
2015). Rehman et al. (2020) evaluated the composition and calo-
rific value of municipal solid waste (MSW), and their results indi-
cated that MSW might be utilized as an alternative fuel in cement
production. Moreover, it has been reported that fly ash and gran-
ulated blast furnace slag can be used as alternative raw materials
for cement to manufacture concrete, which could not only reduce
the environmental burden, but also improve the performance of
concrete (Reddy et al., 2019). Therefore, we suggest that the Chi-
nese government ask cement plants to equip their production lines
with NOx control devices and promote the use of alternative fuels
and raw materials.
This study may provide a reference for the comprehensive ac-
counting of pollutant emission characteristics in a specific industry.
From a life-cycle perspective, the emissions of the entire produc-
tion process are considered, and thus the calculation would be
more accurate. Combined with the LMDI method and the M-R
model, the major driving forces for the tempo-spatial differences
could be identified. Furthermore, it is possible to measure the
effectiveness of industry policies and make targeted suggestions for
further energy conservation and emission reduction.
6. Conclusions
This study estimated the emissions of GHGs and primary air
pollutants from China’s cement industry from a life-cycle
perspective. The driving factors for tempo-spatial emission differ-
ences over 2005e2012 were determined by using the LMDI method
and the M-R model. Our results show that the CO2, SO2, NOx, and
9
Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533
TSP emissions of China’s cement industry changed by 62%,
65%,
13%, and
46%, respectively, over the study period. Notably,
the emission intensities of CO2, SO2, and TSP dropped, while that of
NOx increased slightly. Scope 2 emissions continued to increase
during 2005e2012, accounting for a considerable portion of the
total emissions. In 2012, the proportions of Scope 2 emissions of
CO2, SO2, NOx, and TSP corresponded to 10%, 33%, 20%, and 12% of
the total, respectively. The main driving forces of the CO2, SO2, NOx,
and TSP emissions were the production scale, the output structure,
production scale and output structure, and the emission factor,
respectively.
The eastern region, characterized by unique industrial founda-
tion and policy, presented a low emission intensity and a slow
production growth; meanwhile, the central and western regions
showed obvious production growths and high emission intensities
(especially the western region). The clinker and cement transport
from the underdeveloped provinces to the eastern developed
provinces apparently enhanced the pollution in the central and
western regions.
Based on the life-cycle perspective, this study may provide a
reference for the comprehensive accounting of pollutant emission
characteristics in a specific industry. The findings of this study
proved the effectiveness of China’s industrial policies in the cement
industry. To achieve further energy savings and emission reduction,
we suggest that the Chinese government focus on the use of NOx
control devices, alternative raw materials and fuels. Due to data
limitation, this study did not estimate the scope 3 emissions, which
may lead to underestimation of the total life-cycle emissions.
Therefore, further research should be conducted to collect data on
energy consumption and pollution emissions of upstream and
downstream industries through field investigations.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Chaoyue Zheng: Writing - original draft, Work together with
the corresponding author to design and implement the work.
Prepare the draft manuscript. Haoran Zhang: Involved in the
design of the work. Participate in model establishment. Xingrui
Cai: Data curation, Involved in data collection and treatment, as
well as discussion on the results and discussion sections. Long
Chen: Participate in model establishment. Maodian Liu: Involved
in the discussion on the results and discussion sections. Huiming
Lin: Data curation, Involved in data collection and treatment.
Xuejun Wang: Writing - review & editing, Design the work. Revise
and finalize the manuscript. Responsible for ensuring that the de-
scriptions are accurate and agreed by all authors.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (41630748, 41977311, and 41821005).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124533.
C. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Cai et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 282 (2021) 124533

References Liu, H., 2006. Control of SO2 from cement kiln systems. China Cement 11, 74e77 (In
Chinese).
Liu, J., Zhang, S., et al., 2018. Exploring the driving forces of energy consumption and
Agency International Energy, 2009. Technology roadmap - cement. https://www.
environmental pollution in China’s cement industry at the provincial level.
iea.org/reports/technology-roadmap-cement.
J. Clean. Prod. 184, 274e285.
Agency International Energy, 2015. Data and Statistics. https://www.iea.org/data-
Lyu, W., Li, Y., et al., 2016. Driving forces of Chinese primary air pollution emissions:
and-statistics.
an index decomposition analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 133, 136e144.
Agency International Energy, 2019. Tracking industry. https://www.iea.org/reports/
Madlool, N.A., Saidur, R., et al., 2011. A critical review on energy use and savings in
tracking-industry.
the cement industries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (4), 2042e2060.
Ang, B.W., 2005. The LMDI approach to decomposition analysis: a practical guide.
Mulenga, D., Siziya, S., 2019. Indoor air pollution related respiratory ill health, a
Energy Pol. 33 (7), 867e871.
sequel of biomass use. SciMedicine Journal 1, 30e37.
Ang, B.W., Liu, F.L., 2001. A new energy decomposition method: perfect in
National Bureau of Statistics of China (Ed.), 2009-2012. Statistical Yearbook of the
decomposition and consistent in aggregation. Energy 26 (6), 537e548.
Chinese Investment in Fixed Assets (2009e2012 Editions). China Statistics
Ang, B.W., Xu, X.Y., et al., 2015b. Multi-country comparisons of energy performance:
Press, Beijing (In Chinese).
the index decomposition analysis approach. Energy Econ. 47, 68e76.
National Bureau of Statistics (Ed.), 2006-2019. China Statistical Yearbook
Ang, B.W., Zhang, F.Q., et al., 1998. Factorizing changes in energy and environmental
(2006e2019 Editions). China Statistics Press, Beijing (In Chinese).
indicators through decomposition. Energy 23 (6), 489e495.
National Development and Reform Commission, 2011. Guidelines for provincial
Ang, B.W., 2015a. LMDI decomposition approach: a guide for implementation. En-
greenhouse gas inventories. http://www.cbcsd.org.cn/sjk/nengyuan/standard/
ergy Pol. 86, 233e238.
home/20140113/download/shengjiwenshiqiti.pdf.
Ang, B.W., Huang, H.C., et al., 2009. Properties and linkages of some index
Ranganathan, J., Bhatia, P., 2004. The Greenhouse Gas Protocol: a Corporate Ac-
decomposition analysis methods. Energy Pol. 37 (11), 4624e4632.
counting and Reporting Standard, Revised Edition. World Business Council for
Chen, W., Hong, J., et al., 2015. Pollutants generated by cement production in China,
Sustainable Development (WBCSD).
their impacts, and the potential for environmental improvement. J. Clean. Prod.
Reddy, L.S., Reddy, A.S., et al., 2019. A quantitative approach to prioritize sustainable
103, 61e69.
concrete. Civil Engineering Journal-Tehran 5 (12), 2579e2586.
China Cement Association (Ed.), 2014. China Cement Almanac 2014. China Building
Rehman, A., Khan, K.A., et al., 2020. Effective utilization of municipal solid waste as
Materials Industry Press, Beijing (In Chinese).
substitute for natural resources in cement industry. Civil Engineering Journal-
China Cement Association, 2005-2012. In: China Cement Almanac (2005e2012
Tehran 6 (2), 238e257.
Editions). China Building Materials Industry Press, Beijing (In Chinese).
Salas, D.A., Ramirez, A.D., et al., 2016. Environmental impacts, life cycle assessment
Cui, S., Liu, W., 2008. Analysis of CO2 emission mitigation potential in cement
and potential improvement measures for cement production: a literature re-
producing processes, 04 China Cement 57e59 (In Chinese).
view. J. Clean. Prod. 113, 114e122.
Ecoinvent Association, 2010. Database. https://www.ecoinvent.org/.
Shan, Y., Zhou, Y., et al., 2019. Peak cement-related CO2 emissions and the changes
Fan, W., Zhu, T., et al., 2014. Effects of gas compositions on NOx reduction by se-
in drivers in China. J. Ind. Ecol. 23 (4), 959e971.
lective non-catalytic reduction with ammonia in a simulated cement pre-
Song, D., Yang, J., et al., 2016. Life-cycle environmental impact analysis of a typical
calciner atmosphere. Chemosphere 113, 182e187.
cement production chain. Appl. Energy 164, 916e923.
Fu, S., Song, Q., et al., 2015. Study on the catalysis of CaCO3 in the SNCR deNO(x)
Song, D., Lin, L., et al., 2019. Emergy analysis of a typical New Suspension Preheaters
process for cement kilns. Chem. Eng. J. 262, 9e17.
cement plant in China. J. Clean. Prod. 222, 407e413.
Feng, L., Ross, M., et al., 1995. Energy efficiency of China’s cement industry. Energy
Song, R., Zhu, J., et al., 2013. Getting Every Ton of Emissions Right: an Analysis of
20 (7), 669e681.
Emission Factors for Purchased Electricity in China. World Resources Institute.
Gao, T., Shen, L., et al., 2016. Analysis of material flow and consumption in cement
http://www.wri.org/publication/analysis-of-emission-factors-for-purchased-
production process. J. Clean. Prod. 112, 553e565.
electricity-in-china.
Gao, T., Shen, L., et al., 2017. Evolution and projection of CO2 emissions for China’s
Su, D., Gao, D., et al., 1998. Pollution of hazardous gases from cement kilns and its
cement industry from 1980 to 2020. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 74, 522e537.
control, 01 Chongqing Environmental Science 22e25 (In Chinese).
Hu, D., Guo, Z., et al., 2015. Metabolism analysis and eco-environmental impact
van Oss, H.G., Padovani, A.C., 2002. Cement manufacture and the environment: Part
assessment of two typical cement production systems in Chinese enterprises.
I: chemistry and technology. J. Ind. Ecol. 6 (1), 89e105.
Ecol. Inf. 26, 70e77.
Wang, M., Feng, C., 2018. Decomposing the change in energy consumption in
Hua, S., Tian, H., et al., 2016. Atmospheric emission inventory of hazardous air
China’s nonferrous metal industry: an empirical analysis based on the LMDI
pollutants from China’s cement plants: temporal trends, spatial variation
method. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82, 2652e2663.
characteristics and scenario projections. Atmos. Environ. 128, 1e9.
Wang, W., Jiang, D., et al., 2016. A Material Flow Analysis (MFA)-based potential
Jiao, Y., 2007. Air Pollution Control in Cement Industry. Chemical Industry Press,
analysis of eco-efficiency indicators of China’s cement and cement-based ma-
Beijing (In Chinese).
terials industry. J. Clean. Prod. 112, 787e796.
Kong, Z., 2005. Scale and technical equipments status of Chinese cement industry,
Wang, W., Mu, H., et al., 2010. Changes in industrial electricity consumption in
05 China Building Materials 34e38 (In Chinese).
China from 1998 to 2007. Energy Pol. 38 (7), 3684e3690.
Lei, Y., He, K., et al., 2008. Technology-based emission inventory of particulate
Wang, Y., Zhu, Q., et al., 2013. Trajectory and driving factors for GHG emissions in
matters (PM) from cement industry. Huanjing Kexue 29 (8), 2366e2371 (In
the Chinese cement industry. J. Clean. Prod. 53, 252e260.
Chinese).
Wei, J., Cen, K., 2019. Empirical assessing cement CO2 emissions based on China’s
Lei, Y., Zhang, Q., et al., 2011a. Primary anthropogenic aerosol emission trends for
economic and social development during 2001e2030. Sci. Total Environ. 653,
China, 1990e2005. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11 (3), 931e954.
200e211.
Lei, Y., Zhang, Q., et al., 2011b. An inventory of primary air pollutants and CO2
Word Business Council For Sustainable Development, W., 2011. CO2 and Energy
emissions from cement production in China, 1990e2020. Atmos. Environ. 45
Accounting and Reporting Standard for the Cement Industry.
(1), 147e154.
Xu, J., Fleiter, T., et al., 2012. Energy consumption and CO2 emissions in China’s
Li, C., Cui, S., et al., 2015. The LCA of portland cement production in China. Int. J. Life
cement industry: a perspective from LMDI decomposition analysis. Energy Pol.
Cycle Assess. 20 (1), 117e127.
50, 821e832.
Li, T., 2004. Report on present status of energy efficiency in China’s cement industry
Zhang, X., Shen, J., et al., 2017. An environmental sustainability assessment of
and its energy saving potentiality. China Build. Mater. 9, 33e37 (In Chinese).
China’s cement industry based on emergy. Ecol. Indicat. 72, 452e458.
Lin, B., Long, H., 2016. Emissions reduction in China‫׳‬s chemical industry e based on
Zhang, Y., Shuai, C., et al., 2019. Socioeconomic factors of PM2.5 concentrations in
LMDI. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 53, 1348e1355.
152 Chinese cities: decomposition analysis using LMDI. J. Clean. Prod. 218,
Lin, B., Zhang, Z., 2016. Carbon emissions in China‫׳‬s cement industry: a sector and
96e107.
policy analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 58, 1387e1394.

10