Professional Documents
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تقنية الانتاج ثاني
تقنية الانتاج ثاني
Oil department
Production and field measurement section
7 Pigging 6 140-159
Total 128
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Production Technology Second Stage
Chapter 1
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CONTENTS
1.1 OIL RECOVERY .................................................................................................. 4
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Primary recovery, refers to the recovery of oil and/or gas that is recovered by either
natural flow or artificial lift through a single wellbore. Thus, primary recovery occurs as a
result of the energy initially present in the reservoir at the time of discovery. When the
initial energy has been depleted and the rate of oil recovery declines, oil production can
be increased by the injection of secondary energy into the reservoir. Secondary recovery
is recovery of oil and/or gas that involves the introduction of artificial energy into the
reservoir via one wellbore and production of oil and/or gas from another wellbore.
Conventional means of secondary recovery include the immiscible processes of water
flooding and gas injection. Currently in the US water flooding is the dominant secondary
recovery method in that about half of the oil production is recovered from water flooding
projects. After secondary recovery, a substantial amount of oil may remain, and attempts
to recover oil beyond primary and secondary recovery are referred to as tertiary recovery.
Any method that recovers oil more effectively than plain water flooding or gas injection is
defined as enhanced recovery. The more sophisticated enhance methods may be
initiated as a tertiary process if they follow water flooding or gas injection, or they may be
a secondary process if they follow primary recovery directly. Many of the enhanced
recovery projects are implemented after water-flooding.
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Sucker rod pumps, beam pumps or rod pump or refers to an artificial lift system that
uses a surface power source to drive a downhole pump assembly.
A beam and crank assembly at the surface (often called a "pump jack") creates
reciprocating motion, which is converted to a vertical motion in a sucker-rod string that
connects to the downhole pump assembly. The pump contains a plunger and valve
assembly to impart vertical fluid movement. Due to its long history, sucker rod pumping
is a very popular means of artificial lift. Roughly two-thirds of the producing oil wells
around the world use this type of lift. Structure of a modern sucker rod pumping unit
has drastically changed with its maximum stroke reaching to 240-inches.The plunger
diameter of some bottom- hole pumps (casing-type) runs as high as 5 3/4 -inches.
Today practice sucker rod pumping approaches 13,000 feet and capacities of 5,000
and 6,000 Barrels/Day from shallow to medium depths are handled with ease
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Gas lift is used in the oil wells that have insufficient reservoir (drive) pressure to
produce the well. The process involves injecting gas through the tubing- casing
annulus. Injected gas aerates the fluid to reduce its density; the formation pressure is
then able to lift the oil column and forces the fluid out of the wellbore.
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The Electric Submersible Pump (ESP) is a device which has hermetically sealed motor
close- coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be
pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a
problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface.
Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet pumps having to pull
fluids. Submersibles are more efficient than jet pumps.
The submersible pumps used in ESP installations are multistage centrifugal pumps
operating in a vertical position. Although their constructional and operational features
underwent a continuous evolution over the years, their basic operational principle
remained the same. Produced liquids, after being subjected to great centrifugal forces
caused by the high rotational speed of the impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the
diffuser where a conversion of kinetic to pressure energy takes place. This is the main
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Other parts include the radial bearings (bushings) distributed along the length of the
shaft providing radial support to the pump shaft turning at high rotational speeds. An
optional thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump but most of
those forces are absorbed by the protector’s thrust bearing.
Found in operating environments all over the world, ESPs are very versatile. As a rule,
ESPs have lower efficiencies with significant fractions of gas, typically greater than
about 10% volume at the pump intake.
Given their high rotational speed of up to 4000-rpm and tight clearances, they are also
only moderately tolerant of solids like sand. If solid-laden production flows are
expected, special running procedures and pump placement techniques are usually
employed.
When very large amounts of free gas are present, downhole gas separators and/or
gas compressors may be required in lieu of a standard pump intake.
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Historically, both natural gas and air have been used in gas injection projects, and in
some cases nitrogen and flue gases have been injected. Many of the early gas injection
projects used air to immiscible crude oil from reservoirs. The injection of hydrocarbon gas
may results in either a miscible or immiscible process depending on the composition of
the injected gas and crude oil displaced, reservoir pressure and reservoir temperature.
Hydrocarbon miscible injection is considered as an enhanced recovery process.
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Although the ultimate oil recovered from immiscible gas injection project will normally be
lower than for water flooding, gas injection may be the only alternative for secondary
recovery under certain circumstances. If permeability is very low, the rate of water
injection may be so low that gas injection is preferred. In reservoir with swelling clays, gas
injection is preferable. In steeply-dipping reservoirs, gas that is injected up dip can very
efficiently displace crude oil by a gravity drainage mechanism; this technique is very
effective in low-permeability formations such as fractured shales. In thick formations with
little dip, injected gas (because of its lower density) will tend to override and result in
vertical segregation if the vertical permeability is more than about 200 md. In thin
formations especially if primary oil production has been by solution-gas drive, gas may
be injected into a number of wells in the reservoir on a well pattern bases; this dispersed
gas injection operation attempts to bank the oil in a frontal displacement mechanism. In
addition to the external gas injection into reservoirs with dip as just described (which may
be into a primary or secondary gas cap), a variation called attic oil recovery involves
injection of gas into a lower structure position. If there is sufficient vertical permeability,
the injected gas will migrate upward to create a secondary gas cap that can displace the
oil downward where it is recovered in wells that are already drilled.
1.3.2 Water Injection
One section (one square mile or 5280 ft by 5280 ft) is 640 acres. If wells are drilled evenly
such that each well is theoretically assigned to drain 40 acres, the 16 wells per section
would be as spaced as in Figure 5.1. Each 40 acres (¼ mile by ¼ mile or 1,320ft by
1,320ft) would contain 40 x 43,560 or 1,742,400 ft 2. The 10-acres region in Figure 1.9
would measure 660ft by 660ft and would contain 435,600 2 ft. Similarly, a 20-acres region
would contain 871,200 ft2 and would measure [20 x871200]2 or 933.4ft by 933.4ft.
In many parts of the United States, 40-acres spacing or less is common for oil wells, and
160-acres spacing is common for gas wells. Because drilling costs increased
considerably with depth, deeper wells may be on larger spacing.
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In peripheral flooding, the injectors are located around the periphery so that the flood
progresses toward the center as shown in Figure 1.6 When the first row of producers
flood out, they are converted to injectors. This type of flood can result in maximum oil
recovery with a minimum of produced water injected, and less water injected is required
for a given amount of production, but a peripheral flood usually takes longer than a pattern
flood. In general, adequate permeability is required to permit movement of fluids at an
acceptable rate with the available well spacing. Central flooding is the opposite case in
which injectors are located in the center of the field, and the flood progresses outward
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A form of peripheral flooding is an end-to-end flood such as that shown in Figure 1.10
This type of injection could include the injection of gas into a gas cap or the injection of
water into an aquifer.
The choice of peripheral or repeating pattern flood is usually made on the basis of:
1- Formation permeability,
2- Formation dip
3- Area and dimensions of the reservoir, and
4- The initial production response that is acceptable.
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2. Pattern Flooding
In pattern flooding, the injectors are distributed among the producers in some repeating
fashion. Examples of the common repeating patterns are shown in Figure 1.7. Pattern
flooding is very common, and the selection of the type of pattern will depend on
circumstances in a given field. If existing wells were drilled on square patterns, 5-spots
and 9-spots are common, and both yield similar oil recovery and water-oil ratio
performance. If the injected fluid is more mobile than the displacing fluid (which is often
the case, especially when oil viscosity is high), a pattern having more producers than
injectors may be desired to balance the injection and production rates. In cases where
the injected fluid is less mobile or when the formation permeability is low, a pattern having
more injectors than producers may be desired.
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EOR methods are classified by the main mechanism of oil displacement. There are really
just three basic mechanisms for recovering oil from rock other than by water alone. The
methods are grouped according to those which rely on (a) A reduction of oil viscosity, (b)
The extraction of the oil with a solvent, and (c) The alteration of capillary and viscous
forces between the oil, injected fluid, and the rock surface.
EOR methods are therefore classified into the following three categories:
Thermal methods (injection of heat);
Miscible gas injection methods (injection of a solvent);
Chemical methods (injection of chemicals/surfactants).
1.4.1 Thermal EOR
Thermal EOR methods are generally applicable to heavy, viscous crudes, and involve the
introduction of thermal energy or heat into the reservoir to raise the temperature of the oil
and reduce its viscosity. Steam (or hot water) injection and in-situ combustion are the
popular thermal recovery methods.
Three common methods involving steam injection are cyclic steam stimulation (huff and
puff), steam flooding and steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD). In-situ combustion
involves the injection of air, where the oil is ignited, generates heat internally and also
produces combustion gases, which enhance recovery.
Steam injection has been most popular in heavy oil sand reservoirs.
The future of thermal methods is perhaps the brightest for the more difficult heavy oil and
tar sands resources. This technology is ripe for being applied in other parts of the world.
Air injection, if tamed and understood, may also have applications in light oil reservoirs
as the injectant supply is plentiful. Steam flooding too has been tested successfully in
light oil reservoirs that satisfy certain criteria (depth < 3,000 ft, oil saturation-porosity
product > 0.1).
1.4.2 Miscible Gas EOR
Gas injection, especially CO2, is another popular EOR method (see fig below), and is
applicable to light oil reservoirs, in both carbonates and sandstones. Its popularity is
expected to increase for two reasons: increased oil recovery through miscibility and
disposal of a greenhouse gas.
Their success has partially been due to the availability of low-cost natural CO2 from
nearby fields and reservoirs. Many other CO2-EOR projects are on the drawing board as
a result of environmental reasons (sequestration). Hydrocarbon gas is also an excellent
solvent for light oil reservoirs, if available.
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Production Technology Second Stage
In places where it cannot be monetizing (no local market), it can be injected into an oil
reservoir for EOR. Other gases, such as nitrogen and acid or sour gases, have, or will be
injected, although to a lesser extent than CO2 and hydrocarbon gases. The current
challenges in gas injection as an EOR method are gravity segregation, and most
importantly, availability of a low-cost gas source.
In chemical EOR or chemical flooding, the primary goal is to recover more oil by either
one or a combination of the following processes:
Mobility control by adding polymers to reduce the mobility of the injected water,
Interfacial tension (IFT) reduction by using surfactants, and/or alkalis.
In down-hole conditions, water is almost always less viscous than oil. Ideally, however, in
addition to maintaining reservoir pressure, injected water should be able to push the oil,
like a piston. Yet because it flows more easily than the oil, the water flood often fails to
fulfil this function, escaping through the paths of least resistance that it finds in the
reservoir
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In theory, the solution is as simple as the problem itself: simply reduce the mobility of the
water by increasing its viscosity and making its properties as close as possible to those
of the target oil. This can be achieved by adding polymer to the water.
Provided the polymer is water-soluble, it can “uncoil” in the water to raise its viscosity.
The “piston effect” thus becomes much more efficient, potentially increasing the recovery
factor by 5 to 15%.
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The difference between the reservoir pressure and the BHP of a well is the driving force
for inflow into the wellbore. Resistance to well inflow depends on reservoir rock properties,
fluid properties, details of the completion of the well, and sometimes the late effects of
drilling and workover activities. In combination, these factors determine the inflow
performance of the well. Because all fluids entering the wellbore have to pass through the
narrow area around the wellbore, the highest flow rates in the reservoir occur just there
and any increased resistance to flow has a large effect on the well performance. Because
inflow performance plays such an important role, it should be regularly measured through
production testing, i.e. by flowing the well through a test separator and determining the
gas, oil, and water flow rates as function of wellbore pressure. The pressure should
preferably be measured at the bottom hole with either a permanent downhole gauge
(PDG) or a dedicated wire line tool. This regular testing will give an indication when a well
is producing less than expected due to impairment, i.e. blockage of the pores in the near
wellbore area. Remedial measures, such as hydraulic fracturing of the formation through
pumping of high-pressure liquids, or stimulation with acids, can then be taken.
The IPR curve is a graphical presentation of the relation between the flowing bottom-hole
pressure and liquid production rate. A typical IPR curve is shown in figure 1.10.
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The magnitude of the slope of the IPR curve is called the ‘‘productivity index’’ (PI or J),
−qo
J= ………………………….………………. (1.1)
Pe −Pwf
Where (J) is the productivity index
qo = inflow rate, bpd s.c.
pe or pr = reservoir pressure, psi
pwf = flowing bottom-hole pressure, psi
For radial transient flow around a vertical well as shown on figure 1.11
0.007082 K h (Pe −Pwf )
𝑞𝑜 = r …………………………………(1.2)
Bo μo ln e
rw
−qo −0.007082 K h
J= = r ………………………………(1.3)
Pe −Pwf Bo μo ln e
rw
Where
k = reservoir permeability, md
h = reservoir thickness, ft
pe or pr = reservoir pressure, psi
pwf = flowing bottom-hole pressure, psi
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/stb
µo = oil viscosity, cp
re = well’s drainage radius, ft
rw = wellbore radius, ft
The reservoir inflow model represented by equations above were derived on the basis of
the assumption of single-phase liquid flow and there is no formation damage (skin factor
= 0). This assumption is valid for undersaturated oil reservoirs, or reservoir portions where
the pressure is above the bubble-point pressure. For two phase flow the productivity index
will not be constant and the IPR carve will be as shown in the figure 1.12
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Several important features of the straight line IPR can be seen in figure 1.10
1- The well flow rate define the x axis and the independent variable, wellbore flowing
pressure, defines the y axis
2- When the wellbore flowing pressure equals reservoir pressure (Pe ),the flow rate will
be zero and no flow enters the wellbore due to the absence of any pressure drawdown
3- Maximum rate of flow, qmax , or absolute open flow ,corresponds to wellbore flowing
pressure equal to zero,
4- The slope of the straight line equals the reciprocal of the productivity index (slope =
1/J)
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Production Technology Second Stage
Example Problem 1.1 Calculate the productivity index for oil well by using the following
table?
Sol. q ( bpd ) P ( psi )
q2 − q1 120 650
J=
pwf2 − pwf1 200 400
200−120
J= = -0.32 bpd/psi
400−650
Example Problem 1.2 - Construct IPR of a vertical well in an oil reservoir when the wells
distribution are as in the figure below. The following data are given:
Sol.
√43560 ∗ 𝐴
re =
2
√43560 ∗ 640
re =
2
Re = 2980 ft
−0.007082 K h
J= r
Bo μo ln r e
w
−0.007082 ∗ 8.2 ∗ 53
J=
2980
1.1 ∗ 1.7 ln(0.328)
J = - 0.1806 bpd/psi
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−q o
J=
Pe −Pwf
−q o
−0.1806 =
5651 − 0
q o = 1020.5 𝑏𝑝𝑑
When Pwf = Pe, qo = 0
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Sol.
rw= 3/12 = 0.25 ft
−0.007082 K h
J= r
Bo μo ln r e
w
−0.007082 ∗ 50 ∗ 30
J=
250
1.18 ∗ 4 ∗ ln( )
0.25
J = - 0.326 bpd/psi
−q o
J=
Pe −Pwf
−600
−0.326 =
3000 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓
Pwf = 1159.5 bpd
Problems
1- Oil well with ( 40 acres ) drainage area with a maximum flow rate ( Qmax = 375 bpd )
,from the data in the table below, calculate the following
1- Pay zone thickness ( h )
2- The radius ( r ) when the reservoir pressure ( P = 900 psi )
Pe (psi ) K ( md ) μ (cp) rw (ft) Boi
1250 47 3 0.4166 1.25
2- The flow rate for an oil well (175 bpd) when the BHP ( 500 psi ) and the reservoir
pressure Pe ( 1000 psi ),from the data in the table below calculate
1- The productivity index
2- reservoir radius
k ( md ) μ (cp) h (ft) Boi rw (ft)
60 3 25 1.25 0.292
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Chapter 2
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CONTENTS
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
Crude product after Separation requires further treatment to remove salt, residual water,
light ends and sour gas before it can meet export specifications. This further treatment is
carried out in two stages; first in a dehydration and desalting unit where brine is removed
by a process involving electrostatic coalescence and a second stripping process where
the crude is stabilised and sweetened by a stripping process.
Before produced crude oil can be sent to a refinery, it must meet a specification for water,
salt and solids. Although these may vary slightly, all crude oil sales require the removal
of almost all water and solids. A very small content, such as 0.2% of ‘basic sediment and
water’ (BS&W) contamination of crude oil can still result in corrosion of the inside walls
and buildup of deposits that could cause erosion. The removal of water by treatment of
emulsions and reduction of the salt content of crude oil are very important parts of
production operations.
What is an Emulsion?
An emulsion can be defined as a mixture of two immiscible liquids that do not separate
quickly or easily due to the presence of emulsifying agents
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Production Technology Second Stage
Three conditions are necessary for the formation of a stable emulsion (an emulsion that
will not break down or separate into water and oil without treatment).
1. The liquids must be immiscible i.e. do not mix
2. There must be an emulsifying agent present i.e. something that helps water and oil
to mix intimately
3. There must be sufficient agitation to disperse one liquid phase (as droplets) into the
other
Two containers contain crude oil and water. Container B has been agitated (shaken)
strongly
Crude oil is produced from reservoirs in association with natural formation water or a
mixture of formation water and injection water. This crude mixture is mainly produced in
the form of an oil/water emulsion.. Failure to separate the oil/water mixture efficiently can
result in a number of problems, including:
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Emulsions are usually formed in crude oil due to the forceful mixing (i.e. agitation) of the
crude oil and water in the presence of an emulsifying agent. The amount of mixing that
occurs in the reservoir is relatively minor and even in the production tubular string there
may not be enough turbulence to form a stable emulsion. However, the basic cause of
the formation of emulsions is forceful mixing in turbulent conditions.
Sources of agitation can be found at many locations in the production and processing of
the well fluids as shown in Figure. These areas include:
1. In the bottom of the well - where agitation is caused by turbulent flow near to the
entrance to the production tubing (well bore)
2. In the production tubing - equipment installed in the tubing can produce turbulent flow,
which will cause severe agitation of the liquids
3. At the wellhead - restrictions in valves and chokes cause further agitation
4. In surface production process vessels/equipment - the well stream encounters more
agitation
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A stable emulsion is difficult to break i.e. separate into its water and oil components.
Factors that affect the stability of an emulsion are:
1. Viscosity of liquids
2. Specific gravity or liquid density
3. Age of the emulsion, how long has it been formed
4. Droplet size in the emulsion
5. Presence of emulsifying agent or emulsifier
1- Viscosity
Oil with a high viscosity retains much larger droplets of water than an oil of lower viscosity;
the large water droplets cannot escape so easily. Crude oils with a high viscosity require
a longer settling time plus heat to separate the water from the emulsion. Heating crude
oil lowers its viscosity and causes it to flow more freely.
2- Specific Gravity
Emulsified oils with large differences in oil and water specific gravities (SG), i.e. weight of
oil compared to weight of water, separate faster during settling than emulsions with similar
oil and water SGs.
Heavy oils with a high SG (low API gravity) that is close to water SG tend to retain water
droplets in suspension longer than lighter oils. Heating the oil reduces its density and
releases water droplets.
3- Age of Emulsions
If an emulsion is not treated quickly and removed from the tank, some water will separate
and settle out by gravity and coalescence. This is not a complete separation and a small
percentage of water remains in the oil even after an extended period of settling time. This
small percentage of water increases the stability of the emulsion and makes it more
difficult to break.
4- Droplet Size
An emulsion in which the water droplets are extremely small is known as a tight emulsion,
which is very difficult to break.
Droplet size is an important factor in emulsion treatment. To break an emulsion, the small
droplets must collide with other small droplets to coalesce and form larger droplets, which
fall through the oil phase and settle.
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Although crude oil emulsion treating processes vary, the three principals involved in
treating an emulsion are the same.
To break the surrounding skins, the effect of the emulsifier must be neutralized. The
methods used to do this are:
1. The injection of demulsifier chemicals
2. Heating
3. Applying an electrostatic force
1. Increase temperature
2. Electrical methods
3. Increase residence time
4. Chemical treatment
1- Increased Temperature
Increasing the temperature will reduce the density and viscosity of emulsions. Low oil
viscosity in a water-in-oil emulsion causes the water droplets to move faster, increasing
the collision factor and coalescence. This speeds up the settling action
2- Electrical Methods
The electrical field causes positive and negative poles to form on the water droplets, which
are further destabilized by becoming elongated. A high voltage A.C is applied, which
excites the water particles and brings them closer together, accelerates the coalescence
of the small droplets to give free water.
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Figure 2.5 - positive and negative poles to form on the water droplets
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1. Viscosity of crude
2. Residence time
3. Desired final oil/water quality
4. Position of injection points , etc……..
The selection of the best demulsifier to use is made by "bottle tests". Lab technicians
conduct a series of tests using a range of demulsifier bases. It is very important that
testing is only done on fresh samples of emulsion, as old samples of oxidized oils can
give wrong results.
Several tests are necessary before the most suitable combination of demulsifier bases is
found. Once the lab technician has completed the tests, it is normal to conduct a small-
scale field test for a period of several days in a test separator.
These treaters are the most widely used dehydrators to treat emulsions available in
various sizes, and are normally arranged horizontally. The hot wet oil then enters the
electrical coalescing section.
A high voltage AC. field is applied, which excites the water particles and brings them
closer together, which accelerates the coalescence of the small droplets to give free
water.
The placement of electrodes and selection of voltage is adjustable, according to the
requirements. Some chemelectric treaters do not have heating sections if the inlet
temperature of the oil emulsion is sufficient for the electrostatic dehydration of the
emulsion to proceed
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The Dehydrators are operated liquid packed with the operating pressure above the liquid
bubble point.
The primary objective of the dehydrator is to remove emulsionated water from Crude oil;
however salts present in the formation water are also removed by the dehydration.
The crude/water emulsions are resolved by the action of a high voltage electrostatic field
inside the process vessel. The electrostatic field action coalesces the dispersed water
phase and gravity causes the enlarged water droplets to fall and collect in the bottom of
the vessel. The water, which contains the various impurities removed from the crude, is
continuously discharged through the effluent system. Dehydrated crude oil flows from the
top of the vessel to the following Desalting Stage.
The purpose of the electrostatic dehydrator is to provide efficient separation of entrained
water in the crude oil thereby reducing the water content of the outlet oil to an acceptable
level. The separation process is possible due to the density difference between the oil
and water. Since the water is heavier than oil, with sufficient retention time, the water will
settle to the bottom of the desalter.
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The oil/water emulsion enters the desalter through a distributor located above the bottom
of the vessel after leaving the distributor, the emulsion flows upward through an electric
field generated by a high voltage electrode plates located just above the vessel centreline.
The electric field is to increase the rate of coalescence for small water droplets found in
the oil. As the size of the droplets increases, the settling rate for the droplets greatly
increases. The dehydrated oil exits from the top of the vessel through a collector pipe.
The water level is maintained by an interface control which operates a water discharge
valve. The oil and entrained water flow upward, and are uniformly distributed to utilize the
full cross-sectional coalescing area. As the oil and entrained water come into contact with
the electrical field in the grid area, final coalescing of the water takes place. The water
falls back into the water phase and the clean oil continues to rise to the top of the vessel,
where it is collected and is discharged through the clean oil outlet valve
The Desalters are operated liquid packed with the operating pressure above the liquid
bubble point.
The purpose of the desalter is to remove salt and water from crude oil. Salts in crude oils
are generally contained in residual water that is suspended in the oil phase. The chemical
composition of these salts varies, but the salts most commonly found in crude oil are
sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides. All crude oils contain, as mechanical
suspensions, such impurities as silt, iron oxide, quartz sand and sometimes crystalline
salt.
All desalters require the addition of substantial quantities of wash water to the crude oil
charge stream just upstream from the mix valve. When the crude charge Pump is located
on the crude unit site, then the ability to inject a small amount of Wash water into the
crude pump suction may be useful. This may allow a Reduction in the mixing valve
pressure drop, since good mixing will be obtained in the crude charge pump. The wash
water required will be variable depending on the salt content of the crude, the operating
conditions and the quality of the wash water available.
The crude/water mixtures are resolved by introduction into a high voltage electrostatic
field inside the process vessel. The electrostatic field action coalesces the dispersed
water phase and gravity causes the enlarged water droplets to fall and collect in the
bottom of the vessel. The water, which contains the various impurities removed from the
crude, is continuously discharged to the effluent system. Clean dehydrated/desalted
crude oil flows from the top of the vessel.
Typically, demulsifying chemical will be needed. Demulsifier chemical injection points
should be provided upstream of the crude charge pump and upstream of the heat
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Production Technology Second Stage
exchanger train in order to provide the maximum time for contacting prior to introduction
into the desalter. The final injection scheme and dosage should be optimized after the
plant start-up.
The principle of the desalting operation is that wash water before and/or after pre-heating
is mixed with the crude oil under controlled conditions to dissolve and/or wet the
impurities. The water/crude mixture is then resolved by coalescence in a high voltage
electrical field and subsequently separated in the desalter or process vessel.
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So that the stable crude oil mean it’s become free of H2S and water and meets the
shipping specification for light ends
Stability of crude oil is determined by measuring TVP (True Vapour Pressure) or RVP
(Reid Vapour Pressure). These are standard indicator of volatility or how quickly a fuel
evaporates, and is a key quality control factor, in particular when considering the crude
oil storage and transportation. (If the product is too volatile, it will evaporate in warm
weather despite venting control. Volatile fractions also ignite easily, incurring a safety risk
and more stringent safety regulations.)
Crude oil is considered to be “Sweet” if the dangerous acidic gases are removed from it.
On the other hand, it is classified as “Sour” if it contains more than 0.5% Sulphur.
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) gas is a poison hazard because 0.1% in air is toxically fatal in
30 min. Additional processing is mandatory-via this operation-in order to release any
residual associated gases along with H2S present in the crude.
The crude oil discharged from the last stage of separation in a gas-oil separation plant
(GOSP) has a vapour pressure equal to the total pressure in the last stage.
Stabilization mechanism is based on removing the more volatile components by:
As stated earlier, the two major specifications set for stabilized oil are as follows:
Following table shows boiling point, vapour density and vapour pressure for various
components of the crude.
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By stabilizing we are removing light hydrocarbon up to Butane. This will result in more
stable crude oil which is safe for storage and transportation. Also it is clear from the above
table that except Methane all volatile gases are having higher vapour density than air
which results in setting down of gases in case of leak and it is difficult to disperse them,
which can create fire hazard.
The stabilized crude is stored in the large storage tanks from where it is pumped to oil
depot or to ship loading.
The stabilizer column can be a “packed tower”, packed with a specific design of packing
material or tray design using bubble cap, valve or sieve trays. Tray towers are a more
commonly used design; in general, it is built with up to 40 trays in some units. The
reboilers supply the required heat for stripping of light ends from the crude.
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Chapter 3
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CONTENTS
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon. It consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon
gases which are made up of hydrogen and carbon. The simplest hydrocarbon is
“Methane” which contains one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH 4). Higher
hydrocarbons are formed by increasing number of carbon atoms and accordingly number
of hydrogen atoms. Natural gas has been used commercially as a fuel since it was early
produced. It formed naturally in sedimentary rocks as free gas or as associated gas with
oil.
Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases along with some impurities that are the
result of decomposed organic material. The impurities found also include water vapor and
heavier hydrocarbons. When raw natural gas is withdrawn from the underground
reservoirs to supply energy demands, these impurities are considered objectionable and
are usually removed by various processing schemes. The hydrocarbon gases normally
found in natural gas are methane, ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and small
amounts of hexanes, heptanes, octaves, and the heavier gases.
Impurities are usually found in natural gas and must be removed because they cause
difficulties in handling and processing. Such components as hydrogen sulphide, carbon
dioxide, mercaptans, water vapor, noncombustible gases (such as nitrogen and helium),
pentanes, and the heavier hydrocarbons are generally considered as impurities since the
processed natural gas is usually burned as fuel and these compounds may cause
extremely unreliable and hazardous combustion conditions for the consumer. Removal
of hydrogen sulfide, which is very poisonous, carbon dioxide, and water vapor eliminates
the problems of toxicity, corrosion, and hydrate formation in transmission and distribution
systems. Market value of some of these impurities may make it attractive for the producer
to remove and market them separately, thereby making the processing of the natural gas
more economical.
When natural gas comes out of the ground, it is typically at high pressure, hot, and carries
some amount of liquid.
As the natural gas moves along the pipeline to the gas plant, whether offshore or onshore,
it will cool off and lose pressure. Both of these physical changes cause the liquids in the
gas to fall out.
Most of this liquid is very desirable, light hydrocarbon liquid called NGLs (natural gas
liquids). Both the gas and liquid are very valuable for a variety of applications. The natural
gas will ultimately be used to generate electricity or heat. The NGLs can be converted
into butane, kerosene, jet fuel, anti-freeze and dozens of other products.
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Pipelines that transport both gas and liquids together, known as two phase flow, can
operate in a flow regime known as slugging flow or slug flow. Under the influence of
gravity liquids will tend to settle on the bottom of the pipeline, while the gases occupy the
top section of the pipeline. Under certain operating conditions gas and liquid are not
evenly distributed throughout the pipeline, but travel as large plugs with mostly liquids or
mostly gases through the pipeline. These large plugs are called Slugs.
Slugs exiting the pipeline can overload the gas/liquid handling capacity of the plant at the
pipeline outlet, as they are often produced at a much larger rate than the equipment is
designed for.
Whether a slug is able to reach the outlet of the pipeline depends on the rate at which
liquids are added to the slug at the front (i.e. in the direction of flow) and the rate at which
liquids leave the slug at the back.
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4. Wavy flow: gas flows in top of pipe section, liquid in lower section and the resulting
friction at the interface forms liquid waves.
5. Slug flow: slugs of gas bubbles flowing through the liquid. It is formed when the
liquid waves grow large enough to bridge the entire pipe diameter and the stratified
flow pattern breaks down.
6. Annular flow: liquid flows in continuous annular ring on pipe wall, gas flows through
center of pipe
7. Spray flow: gas and liquid dispersed. When the vapor velocity in annular flow
becomes high enough, all of the liquid film is torn away from the wall and is carried by
the vapor as entrained droplets.
3.2.2 Definition of Slug Catcher
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Production of crude oil and natural gas is usually associated with the production of water.
During the early life of the petroleum fields, water-free production of oil and gas is normally
experienced. However, water will eventually be produced later.
The produced water may be:
Water that exists within the petroleum reservoir
A result of water flooding operations
3.3.1 Definition of Dehydration
1. Preventing hydrate formation: Condensation of water along the production line creates
the conditions for possible hydrate formation
2. Avoiding corrosion problems: Corrosion often occurs when liquid water is present
along with acidic gases
3. Meeting downstream processing requirements: In most commercial hydrocarbon
processes, the presence of water may cause side reactions, foaming, or catalyst
deactivation
4. Prevent: - Slugging (two phase flow) and erosion
- Increase specific volume and decrease in the heating value of gas
The overall objective of dehydration is to remove a sufficient amount of water from the
natural gas so that the specification for maximum allowable water content in the treated
gas is met.
Natural gas can be dehydrate to pipeline specifications by several processes including:
1. Liquid Desiccants (Absorption – e.g. by Glycols)
2. Solid Desiccants (Adsorption – e.g. by Alumina, Silica Gel, Molecular Sieves)
Following each of the above two methods there is a Regeneration process to regenerate
the desiccant this process also known as (Desorption).
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Temperature
Contact Area
Process Description
By far, the most common process for dehydrating natural gas is contact the gas with a
hygroscopic liquid such as one of the glycols.
This is an Absorption Process, where the water vapor in the gas stream becomes
dissolved in a relatively pure glycol liquid solvent stream.
Glycol dehydration is relatively inexpensive, as the water can be easily "boiled" out of the
glycol by the addition of heat.
This step is called "Regeneration" or "Reconcentration" (called also Desorption) and
enables the glycol to be recovered for reuse in absorbing additional water with minimal
loss of glycol.
The desiccant used in the liquid-type dehydrator is usually a solution of one of the glycols,
Diethylene Glycol (DEG) or Triethylene Glycol (TEG),. The method of operation is the
same, TEG is a more recent development in the field than DEG. TEG has gained almost
universal acceptance as the most cost-effective choice because:
Wet gas is gas containing water vapor prior to contacting glycol in the absorber.
Dry gas is gas leaving the absorber after contacting glycol.
Desiccant is a drying or dehydrating medium; here, the desiccant is a Triethylene
Glycol-Water (TEG) solution.
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Natural gas at line temperature and pressure enters near the bottom of the absorber and
rises through the column where it is intimately contacted by a lean glycol solution flowing
downward across bubble trays. Here the gas gives up its water vapor to the glycol.
Leaving the top tray, the gas passes through mist-extractor elements,
The lean glycol solution enters at the top of the absorber and flows through it where the
glycol contacted with the ascending gas; this action dehydrates the gas and dilutes the
glycol at the same time. The dilute solution (rich glycol) collects in the base of the absorber
from which point it is discharged to the regeneration column
through still column where its heated by the hot water vapor that leaves the reboiler and
continue to the flash separator to remove the remain amount of gas that leave with rich
glycol then the rich glycol goes through filters than enter the heat exchange to increase
its temperature by exchange heat with the lean glycol that leave the reboiler .
after that the rich glycol enter the reboiler where it reaches maximum temperature, and
The regenerated glycol solution accumulates in the reboiler than goes through the heat
exchange to the surge tank and pumped again to the absorber tower
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1. Temperature: The higher the gas temperature, the more water it will contain in vapor
form.
If the temperature of the wet natural gas is around 140 oF or above, the natural gas
does not want to give up the water vapor to the glycol. On the other hand, if the natural
gas temperature is 40oF or below, the glycol becomes viscous and does not want to
pick up the water vapor. Therefore, dehydration will take place at temperatures
between 50 to 130oF. The best results are obtained between 80 and 110oF
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The temperature of the lean glycol entering the top tray of the contactor should be 10
to 15oF above the temperature of the gas to be treated. If the glycol temperature is too
much higher than the gas temperature, the glycol will tend to foam and be carried out
of the contactor tower with the gas.
Conversely, if the glycol temperature is much lower than the gas temperature, liquid
hydrocarbons, condensate, will tend to form and fall to the bottom of the contactor
tower, causing problems in the glycol regeneration system.
2. Pressure: At constant temperature, the lower the pressure, the higher the water
content of the inlet gas. Other than affecting the water content of the inlet gas stream,
pressure has very little effect on the mechanics of glycol dehydration.
3. Glycol circulation flow rate: Determining the proper glycol circulation rate is not an
easy task due to several limitations and considerations involved. There are many
factors that must be considered, but, for simplicity, over a normal pressure range up
to 1200 psi, about 3 to 5 gallons of glycol must be circulated for every pound of water
removed at a 55oF dew point depression.
4. Glycol concentration: Since the main objective of natural gas dehydration is
maximum dew point depression, relatively high glycol concentrations must be used.
The usual practice is to introduce, at the top of the glycol contacting tower, a solution
of regenerated glycol with a concentration ranging from 97 to 99%, and to remove the
solution from the base of the contactor tower at a glycol concentration of 80 to 90%.
3.2.7 N.G. Dehydration by Solid-Desiccant (Adsorption Process)
Where the highest possible dew-point depression is required, the solid or dry-desiccant
dehydration system is the most effective type. It is not uncommon to process gas through
these systems with a resultant residual water vapor in the outlet gas of less than ½ lb per
MMscf. In the average system, this might correspond to a dew point of -40 ºF.
Dehydrators of this type are manufactured as packaged units ranging in capacity from 3
to 500 MMscf/D with design pressures of from 300 to 2,500 psig. Solid-desiccant units
find their greatest application in gas transmission line systems.
Adsorption is purely a surface phenomenon. Physical adsorption involves the formation
of physical bonds such as van der Waals type interaction between the surface of a solid
desiccant and the water vapor in the gas.
The water forms an extremely thin film that is held to the desiccant surface by forces of
attraction, but there is no chemical reaction. The desiccant is a granular drying or
dehydrating medium with an extremely large effective surface area per unit weight
because of a multitude of microscopic pores and capillary openings. A typical solid
desiccant can have an interfacial area as high as 4 millions square feet per 1 lb.
The essential components of a solid-desiccant dehydrator installation are-
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Adsorbent Solids
All solids adsorb water to some extent, but their efficiency varies primarily with the nature
of the material, its internal connected porosity, and its effective surface area. Adsorbents
are specific in nature, and not all adsorbents are equally effective. Different molecules will
be attracted to adsorbents at different rates. Because of this, adsorbents are capable of
separating materials preferentially, in either gaseous or liquid phases. This is
accomplished by passing the stream to be treated through the tower packed with
adsorbent. The degree of adsorption is a function of operating temperature and pressure;
adsorption, up to a point, increases with pressure increase and decreases with a
temperature increase. A bed may be regenerated by either decreasing its pressure or by
increasing its temperature. For practical reasons, dehydration towers are regenerated by
increasing the bed temperature by passing a stream of very hot gas through the bed. The
hot natural gas not only supplies heat but also acts as a carrier to remove the water vapor
from the bed. After the bed is heated to a predetermined temperature, it is cooled by the
flow of unheated gas and thus made ready for another adsorption cycle.
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Mostly used where a high concentration of water (>1 mol%) vapor is present
in the feed, and low levels of water in the dehydrated gas are not needed
Activated alumina (Al2O3)
Very polar, strongly attracts water and acid gases
Used for moderate levels of water in the feed when low levels of water in
the product are not required.
High mechanical strength
Molecular sieves
Zeolite 4A is the most commonly used
Allow to achieve very low water concentrations, suitable for cryogenic
processes
Process Description
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P
F
Valve
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The usual process for the removal of (H2S) stream from the H/C streams in the
Sweetening unit; Where H2S is removed by counter current washing with amine
(Absorption), the H2S being removed for sulphur recovery by heating the amine solution
in a separate vessel thus regenerating the amine for recycle to the washing stage
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The gas sweetening with amine solution is based on the chemical reaction of weak
alkaline with weak acid. The amine solution is alkaline and H 2S is acidic. The reactions
involved are very complex, but the following summarises the basic processes.
The reaction in the absorber is at a constant pressure and at a temperature range
between 80 °F to 120 °F. It is a reversible reaction.
The H2S is removed by a chemical reaction that is reversible and dependent on the
temperature change. The CO2 is physically absorbed.
1. sour gas enters the contactor tower and rises through the descending amine solution
2. purified gas flows from the top of the tower
3. the amine solution carrying absorbed acid gases, heaves the tower from the heat
exchanger or optional flash tank
4. rich amine is heated in the heat exchanger by the hot regeneration lean amine
5. rich amine is further heated in the regeneration still Colum by heat supplied from the
reboiler
6. hot regenerated lean amine is cooled by the heat exchanger then by aerial cooler and
circulated to the contactor tower completing the cycle
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Suction Scrubbers
Compressors
Gas Coolers
Why the gas is compressed?
1. To move gases from place to place and to overcome friction in pipes & fittings
2. To reduce the volume of vessels and equipment handling large amount of gas
3. To liquefying the gas
4. To increase the pressure of the gas to a level required in some chemical reactions
5. To provide a source of energy, for example compressed air to drive air driven tools or
motors, or for use by instruments.
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Figure 3.8 - gas compression process
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1. Reciprocating Compressor
The reciprocating compressor (Figure 3.9) normally consists of the following elements:
The compressing elements, consisting of cylinders, heads, pistons, inlet, and
discharge valves.
A system of connecting rods, piston rods, crossheads, and a crankshaft and flywheel
for transmitting the power developed by the driving unit to the cylinder piston.
A self-contained lubricating system for bearings, gears, and cylinder walls, including a
reservoir or sump for the lubricating oil, and a pump, or other means of delivering oil to
the various parts. On some compressors, a separate force-fed lubricator is installed to
supply oil to the compressor cylinders.
A regulation or control system designed to maintain the pressure in the discharge line
and air receiver (storage tank) within a predetermined range of pressure.
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compressors are usually driven by gas turbines, steam turbines and electric motors.
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Speed-increasing gears may be used in conjunction with these drivers to obtain the high
speeds at which many of these units operate. Most of the gas plant units run between
9,000–15,000 rpm.
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2. Reaction. The remainder of the H2S is mixed with the combustion products and
passed over a catalyst.
The H2S reacts with the SO2 to form sulfur.
The sulfur drops out of the reaction vessel in the molten (melted) form.
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Chapter 4
Utilities
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CONTENTS
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
The main utilities system in the plants are
Water Systems
HVAC
Flaring Systems
Chemical Systems
Water Injection System
Fire Fighting System
Instrument and Utility Air
Inert Gas System – Nitrogen
Drainage & venting System
Filtering
Power Generation
Steam Generation
Emergency Power Generatio
Fule gas system
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Most of the processing facilities require a source of compressed air to supply variety of
services. These services are generally divided into two categories; plant air and
instrument air, each with its own special design requirements. Large installations or those
handling highly toxic materials such as hydrogen sulfide may also require a breathing air
system.
Plant air is normally used during maintenance operations to drive pneumatic tools, hoists,
spray guns, etc. Other process applications include pneumatic conveying of solid
materials and air driven pumps.
Instrument air is used primarily as a medium to transfer control signals and as the motive
power to actuate control valves and on/off valves.
Instrument air is vital to the proper operation of the plant and a secure supply is, therefore,
required. The equipment in the instrument air system, particularly the air compressor,
must be properly specified and proper consideration must be given for the provision of
installed spare equipment for improved reliability.
The loss of instrument air usually results in a complete shutdown of the plant. Therefore,
in an integrated plant and instrument air systems, instrumentation is provided to shutdown
the plant air supply to protect the Instrument air supply. An air receiver is included to
provide the surge required to allow a safe shutdown to occur.
Many of the passages through which instrument air flows are small and can be easily
blocked if the air is not clean. It is therefore essential to ensure not only that the supply
piping is clean at all times, but that the air is suitably conditioned to remove dust, oil, water
which could damage controls and instrumentation.
Most of the processing facilities require a source of compressed air to supply variety of
services. These services are generally divided into two categories; plant air and
instrument air, each with its own special design requirements. Large installations or those
handling highly toxic materials such as hydrogen sulfide may also require a breathing air
system.
Plant air is normally used during maintenance operations to drive pneumatic tools, hoists,
spray guns, etc. Other process applications include pneumatic conveying of solid
materials and air driven pumps.
Instrument air is used primarily as a medium to transfer control signals and as the motive
power to actuate control valves and on/off valves.
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Instrument air is vital to the proper operation of the plant and a secure supply is, therefore,
required. The equipment in the instrument air system, particularly the air compressor,
must be properly specified and proper consideration must be given for the provision of
installed spare equipment for improved reliability.
The loss of instrument air usually results in a complete shutdown of the plant. Therefore,
in an integrated plant and instrument air systems, instrumentation is provided to shutdown
the plant air supply to protect the Instrument air supply. An air receiver is included to
provide the surge required to allow a safe shutdown to occur.
Many of the passages through which instrument air flows are small and can be easily
blocked if the air is not clean. It is therefore essential to ensure not only that the supply
piping is clean at all times, but that the air is suitably conditioned to remove dust, oil, water
which could damage controls and instrumentation.
Air Compressor
Screw type compressors (see figure 4.1) are most commonly used for the Plant
air/Instrument air system. Rotary screw compressors can be designed as having either a
dry rotor or oil injection rotor. The basic compressor is a two rotor positive displacement
unit in which air is compressed between two intermeshing rotors and the walls of their
housing chamber.
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The rotors are positioned relative to one another by timing gears and revolve at high speed
of typically 10,000 rev/min, with no mechanical contact between them.
The rotors are not identical in shape; e.g. the male rotor with 'four lobes' would operate
with a female rotor having "six flutes". The male rotor (the driven rotor) revolves at 1.5
times the speed of the female and in the opposite direction. The effect of this is that air is
progressively trapped between the meshing rotors at the inlet end and is smoothly
compressed during its passage towards the outlet end.
The screw compressor is less efficient than the traditional well-known reciprocating
compressor but it also has a number of advantages:
Throughput is controlled by an automatically operated inlet valve which controls the airflow
as required. Compressed air leaves the package at a discharge pressure of approximately
9 to 10 barg and with a temperature of approximately 35 - 45⁰C joining the air from the
other package in a common header. The air is saturated with water and needs to be dried
to meet the required dew point specification.
Nitrogen is commonly used in industry as a purge medium. This means that by injecting
nitrogen into a system it will displace other things such as oxygen or flammable gases.
The systems may be opened for maintenance or cleaning and the nitrogen will be replaced
by the atmospheric air. This is normally held to be the safest way.
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Nitrogen may also be used as a blanket, normally within a holding tank; it displaces the
ullage space. This is the gap between liquid and the top of the tank that would allow
flammable or toxic vapours to form if it is not held in a nitrogen atmosphere.
Also nitrogen may be used as a gas seal in rotating equipment such as compressors. By
injecting higher pressure nitrogen and allowing it to flow between two seal faces this does
not allow process gas to leak past this gas barrier.
The two most factors affecting a membrane separator are feed pressure and temperature.
Pressure being the most direct i.e. the higher the feed pressures the higher the discharge
rate though care must be taken or a loss of purity or quality would happen if the separator
is not given time to perform the task.
Temperature is critical, by placing an air heater between the filter and membrane we can
warm the air up. This improves the permeability or ability of oxygen to pass through the
membrane leaving argon and nitrogen to pass on.
The quality of the nitrogen is of prime importance. If the membrane separator lost
efficiency the first contaminate to appear with the nitrogen would be oxygen. As the target
is to produce an inert gas the presence of oxygen that would support ignition would be
unacceptable. To ensure that this will not happen, oxygen sensors are fitted to the
discharge line of the membrane separator.
The purpose of the drain system is to collect all drainage streams to an appropriate
disposal system in such a way as to protect personnel, equipment, and to avoid
environmental pollution.
Drain systems provide the means of safely removing residual process and wash- down
fluids from vessels, pipes, flooring and instruments, resulting either from operational
activities or from preparation prior to carrying out maintenance work. The fluids are
collected and transported to a recovery system or are disposed of in a safe and
environmentally acceptable manner. A fundamental safety consideration is that a drain
system must not provide a route for migration of flammable liquids or vapours from one
hazardous area to another, or to non-hazardous areas.
Each processing plant generates some gaseous and liquid waste material. The waste
generated in the plant must be collected and disposed-off as per the norms set up by the
local authorities. Following are the guidelines for the design of the drain system:
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• Each production facility should be provided with minimum three separate drainage
systems, i.e. a closed drains system and two open drains systems, one for
hazardous and one for non-hazardous areas.
• Where possible the drainage collection and disposal system should operate under
gravity.
• All drain lines should be adequately sloped to the drain vessel to avoid
accumulation of liquid.
• Drain lines should not have any pockets except where seals are specified.
• Drains from the high pressure process system to the drain header should be
opened only after depressurization is carried out.
• The drain valves should be kept car sealed closed.
• Material of construction for the drain drum and the drain lines should be compatible
with the service.
• Drain drum should be catholically protected for corrosion protection.
• Drain header rodding/decoking facility should be provided wherever required.
• Local drains should be provided on a case-to-case basis. These valves should be
opened only after the necessary isolation is applied.
All these points should be considered at an early design stage during the project
development phase.
In addition to these systems, there are some more independent drain systems utilized for
the safe and environmentally friendly removal of waste or chemicals from the Oil & Gas
plant.
Tri Ethylene Glycol is generally used in the Gas dehydration unit for the dehydration of
the gas. Glycol drain is segregated from other drains in order to recover the costly Glycol.
The Glycol (TEG) drained from equipment or pipe work after depressurization for
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maintenance or repair flows through a sealed collection system header to the TEG Sump
Vessel. Liquid collected in the TEG Sump Vessel is returned to the TEG regenerator using
a sump tank transfer pump. Vapors from the sump vessel are sent to the LP Flare
Figure 4.2 - Glycol close drain drum & the TEG package
Amine solvent is generally used in the Gas Sweetening unit for removal of acid gases.
Amine drain is segregated from other drains in order to recover the costly Amine solvent.
Amine drain system is similar to Glycol drain system. Amine drained from equipment or
pipe work after depressurization for maintenance or repair flows through a sealed
collection system header to the Amine Sump Vessel. Liquid collected in the Amine Sump
Vessel is returned to the Amine regenerator using a sump tank transfer pump. Vapors
from the sump vessel are sent to the LP Flare.
Chemicals drained from the tanks, pumps and strainers are routed to a separate
underground tank and vacuumed out for the disposal as per the company safety norms.
Laboratory drains are used for the disposal of hydrocarbon samples, chemicals and
solvents. The normal disposal route would be to an open hazardous area drain via a water
sealed drain pipe into. Since the laboratory itself is a non- hazardous area, the drains are
not hard-piped to avoid the possibility of back- flow of flammable vapors. Only
hydrocarbon and water samples can be disposed of into the laboratory drain system. All
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other fluids should be collected in drums for removal from the laboratory. If the only
convenient drain is an open non-hazardous drain, then all fluids including hydrocarbons
should be collected in drums for the disposal.
Water removed from the Plant/Instrument air system is drained to a Soak-Away Pit. Water
drained from various drain points from the Instrument air skid is routed to a soak away
pit. Some part of this water percolates in to the ground and some part is evaporated in to
the atmosphere. The water collected in the pit slowly soaks into the ground.
The purpose of such type of vent is to provide the breathing facility for the tank. This is
normally provided for the non-hazardous systems like water & steam condensate tanks.
When the tank is getting filled up, the air/vapours are vented out to atmosphere to avoid
tank getting pressurized. Also when the tank contents are pumped out, air will come in
through the goose neck to avoid vacuum formation in the tank. Thus the goose neck vent
maintains the tank at atmospheric pressure. Bird screen is also provided to avoid any bird
or insect getting inside the tank.(See figure 4.3)
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When the tank or equipment breathes out some hazardous substances in small quantity,
this type of vent is provided. For example, acid tank vent, caustic tanks vent, Hypochlorite
generation system vent, nitrogen vent etc. This type of vent is similar to Goose neck
except that the length of the vent pipe is more. The vent pipe height is such that when the
vented gas/vapor comes to operating level, it gets sufficiently diluted to the safe limit.
Vent to Safe
Location
Acid
Supply
LI
Acid Acid Pump
Tank
Figure 4.4 - Local Vent to Safe Location
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3. Flame Arresters
Flame arresters are commonly installed on the vent outlet of tanks containing liquids with
flashpoints below 210C, generally where pressure-vacuum vent valves are not in use.
Their prime function is to prevent the unrestricted propagation of flame through flammable
gas or vapour mixtures, and secondly to absorb heat from unburnt gas Flame arresters
are designed for each specific application, and due to the likelihood of progressive
blockage a rigorous inspection and maintenance schedule should be in place.
Vent
Burners
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The general purpose of filters and strainers is to remove solid particles from piping
systems that carry fluids. Solid particles may enter a piping system in the fluid that is being
carried, or they may be formed within the system as the insides of pipe walls corrode.
Pipes that carry water are particularly susceptible to corrosion. As the inside walls of the
pipes corrode, some corrosion products break off and are carried along by the fluid.
In general, solid contaminants cause two major problems, excessive wear and equipment
malfunctions. A buildup of solid particles can block pipes so that fluid cannot flow through
them. Solid particles can erode the walls of pipes and piping connections, creating thin
spots that might break open under pressure and cause leakage. In a high-pressure line,
solid particles can block valves so that they cannot close tightly and they can wear away
closely machined valve parts. The solution to these problems is to install filters and/or
strainers into piping systems to trap solid particles before they can cause damage.
Strainers and filters are similar components that accomplish the same basic function i.e.
to remove solid contaminants from the fluid passing through a piping system. Strainers
typically contain screens (Figure 4.7) made of metal or wire mesh, but other materials may
be used. Filters typically use a cloth or heavy paper element (Figure 4.8) to trap
contaminants, but the element may be made of other materials.
The terms "filter" and "strainer" are often used interchangeably, because the differences
between the two types of components are not always clear. A few typical differences can
be noted, but it should be remembered that there are exceptions.
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1- Y Strainer
Figure 4.11 shows a cross-sectional view of a typical y-type strainer commonly found
in pump suctions. This prevents debris from damaging pump impellers and other
downstream equipment.
During normal operation, fluid enters through the inlet, passes through the strainer screen
and is discharged through the outlet. Solid particles are trapped inside the strainer screen.
The blow down outlet can be used to clean out the strainer. In some cases, it may be
plugged and not used, but if it is connected to piping and a valve, the strainer can be
blown down and thus cleaned of trapped particles. Use of the blow down outlet is usually
controlled by the blow down valve.
The y-type strainer shown in the figure has a screen made from a metal cartridge with
holes drilled in it. It is a surface-type medium. Other y-type strainers may have strainer
screens made of wire mesh screen - also a surface- type medium. The term mesh refers
to the number of openings in each square inch of the screen. A 100-mesh screen, for
example, has 100 openings per square inch, while a 50-mesh screen has only 50
openings per square inch. Therefore, a 100-mesh screen filters out smaller particles than
a 50-mesh screen.
2- Cone Strainer
Figure 4.12 represents a cone strainer installed in a pipe. Most strainers and filters are
visible as separate components in plant systems, but cone strainers are enclosed inside
piping systems. As shown in the figure, a spool piece is provided in the pipe to allow the
cone strainer to be removed. These are typically used during the commissioning of new
plant to remove the debris of construction.
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4- Duplex Filter
In the filtering systems discussed thus far, the filter or strainer has been a single
component, called a simplex filter, or a simplex strainer. If the screen or element in a
simplex unit has to be cleaned or replaced, the system that contains it must be shut down
until the simplex unit has been replaced. To avoid this situation, a duplex filter (Figures
4.15 & 4.16) can be used. A duplex filter is two screens or elements arranged so that flow
can be directed through one or the other. Either of the two screens or elements can be
cleaned or replaced while the system is operating.
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This is done when the pressure drop across the online element reaches a certain limit
specified by the manufacturer. Depending on the design, the offline filter is first filled and
pressurized. It is then checked for leaks before the inlet and outlet valves are fully opened.
The used element is then slowly isolated ensuring that the pressure-drop of the new
online element is within limits. The used element is then depressurized and drained ready
for cleaning/replacing by maintenance department.
Figure 4.15 - Typical Lever - Type with Basket A in use and Basket B on
Standby
Figure 4.16 - Typical Lever - Type Strainer with Basket B in use and
Basket A isolated
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5- Backwash Filters
Many different types of backwash filters are available, but they all operate on the same
basic principle: flow through the filter element can be reversed to dislodge trapped
particles and flush them from the filter. Backwash filters are commonly found in water
treatment systems, as shown in Figure 4.17
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Coarse Filtration is used to remove the larger solids that may enter the water injection
feed.
Pressure filters have many of the characteristics of the rapid gravity type used for potable
water filtering but are enclosed in steel pressure vessels and are normally used where
hydraulic conditions in the system make their adoption desirable. They can be installed,
for instance, at any point in a pressure pipeline without unduly interfering with the
hydraulic gradient, and often eliminate the need for double pumping.
The mixed media filter is a refinement of the rapid gravity sand type. Instead of a bed of
sand supported on gravel with particles of somewhat similar density but greater size,
various layers consisting of media of different densities are used. As a result, a very
coarse upper layer of lightweight material (anthracite or pumice) can provide increased
void space to store the impurities removed from the incoming water. (See figure 4.18)
This type of filter lends itself to the use of air scouring before a back wash cycle.
Compressed air is injected into the filter for a short period to fluidise the bed; during this
phase the layers of different media (of different density) are agitated and mixed. The
backwash is then started and the aeration continues for a short period. This ensures that
the maximum amount of debris is removed from the filter media during each wash cycle.
Following backwash, the media settles out into layers according to density (sand, garnet,
and anthracite).
The use of filter aid chemicals is essential with this type of filter. Normally a coagulant is
injected first into the filter feed well upstream of the polyelectrolyte. The hydroxide floc is
then captured by the polyelectrolyte before it hits the filter media. Failure to use coagulant
generally results in poor filter performance as the filtered debris is not removed properly
if just polyelectrolyte is used. This eventually results in a problem called “mud balling”
where large balls of debris are formed within the filter drastically reducing the efficiency.
Boilers are devices where usually water is heated to produce saturated or superheated
steam. Typical boilers for steam generation are fire-tube types where saturated steam is
produced
Steam is preferably generated in multiple steam generators instead of one or two large-
capacity boilers. Boilers generally have a total installed capacity no less than 133% of
normal requirements. All steam boilers are considered to be operating at partial load to
supply normal plant requirements. Multiple boiler units have more flexibility to match
demand with supply of steam in the plant due to variations in throughput or shutdown of
any processing unit. (See figure 4.19 and 4.20)
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Most systems are dual fuel or capable of working with either gas or liquid fuels.
2- Gas Turbine Power Generation
Gas turbines are used as prime movers where large scale power plants are not practical,
for example desert locations where water is a premium or where construction critical route
for the project makes more economical to select a system that requires a lower installation
effort, since most gas turbine packages are quite portable.
Gas turbine power is usually used in packages under 30 MW where scale of steam is not
economical; also they are selected when efficiency is not a critical decision issue in the
project.
Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases to directly operate the
turbine so they are considered internal combustion machines. In some cases, gas
turbines operate in the Brayton cycle.
Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle. Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn
into the compressor, where its temperature and pressure are raised. The high-pressure
air proceeds into the combustion chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant pressure.
The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine, where they expand to
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atmospheric pressure through a row of nozzle vanes. This expansion causes the turbine
blade to spin, which then turns a shaft that can be used for power generation or as a
prime mover for a gas compressor. (See figure 4.21).
Exhaust
Load
Generator or
Compressor
Gearbox
Compressor Turbine
Combustion Chamber
Fuel Supply
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Chapter Five
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CONTENTS
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5.1 INTRODUTION
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pressure safety valve relieves it recycles defoamer to the pump suction header. A
pulsation dampener located on each pump discharge line ensures a constant flow of
defoamer to the respective separators.
3. Demulsifier
Wet crude oil coming into the production plants contains different amounts of water and
salts. Large droplets of water are heavy and quickly sink to the bottom of separators.
However, small droplets of water mixed up with the crude oil make an emulsion. An oil
film surrounds these water droplets, keeping them separate. The oil film can be removed
chemically using a demulsifier.
Demulsifier is a chemical that breaks down the oil film around the water droplets in the
crude.
Demulsifier is injected into the production header upstream of the production separators
and into the test header upstream of the test separators (look Fig. (5.5)) . After the
demulsifier breaks down the oil film round the water, the water droplets join together to
make bigger droplets, which sink to the bottom of the separators.
The chemical dosing rate depends on the water cut (content) and the type of demulsifier
used.
The dosing rate is normally decided by the production chemical engineering department.
Sometimes the normal demulsifier system is not enough. When the crude oil coming from
the separators is 'off specification' other injection points may also be used. If this is
necessary demulsifier can be injected at other places in the production plant process.
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4. Flocculent
Even though demulsifier is secondary assisting the produced water as and when the
quality of the produced water decreases due to oil contaminant. To assist the system and
lower the load flocculent may be injected to the produced water outlet of the separator.
Flocculent makes the oil molecules more attractive to each other and therefore they join
making larger molecules. The larger the molecule the easier for it to separate naturally by
gravity such as in a settlement tank or within the hydro cyclone system
5. Scale Inhibitor
Crude oil and formation water contain many impurities. Some of these are very small
particles of different types of minerals. These minerals can build up inside a pipe or vessel
and cause a condition known as 'scaling'. Scale (a mass of insoluble salts) is a name
given to a coating, like a skin which can build up inside pipes and vessels and cause them
to become clogged. Scale build-up can block pipes and damage equipment.
Once scale builds up in the pipes and equipment, it is very difficult to remove. Scale
inhibitor is a chemical that is used to prevent this. It is injected into crude oil production
headers, into wash water systems and back-up wash water systems to prevent scale
buildup. (See Fig. 5.6)
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Chlorine solution is the most widely used inorganic biocide for treating waste water before
it is disposed of.
Chemicals used to control bacteria are extremely dangerous to handle and proper training
of persons charged with their handling is required. The required personal protective
equipment must be used when handling these chemicals or when maintaining chemical
injection equipment
8. Methanol
Methanol is a liquid desiccant used to prevent formation of hydrates
Injection only required when glycol unit is offline as it can cause operational problems in
the glycolunit
Injection will not be continuous, and only used when necessary
Hydrates are a common problem in pipelines and measures must be taken during design
to avoid formation – resemble dirty ice, consisting of a water lattice with light hydrocarbons
embedded.
Can cause flow lines, chokes, valves and instrumentation to plug.
High pressure drops and cold temperatures are particularly good conditions for hydrate
formation
9. Oxygen Scavengers
Oxygen Scavenger is continuously injected into the feed water stream in order to reduce
the amount of O2 remaining downstream the de aeration treatment of feed water.
Removes oxygen to prevent corrosion of mild steel pipes, valves and well completions
10. Pipeline – Drag Reducing Agent (DRA)
The purpose of the chemical injection system is to inject drag reducing agent into the
Pipeline
Drag reducing agents are additives in pipelines that reduce turbulence in a pipe. Usually
used in petroleum pipelines, they increase the pipeline capacity by reducing turbulence
and therefore allowing the oil to flow more efficiently. (See Fig. 5.7 & 5.8)
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Figure 5.8 - chemical injection system is to inject drag reducing agent into the Pipeline
The storage tank (1) , as shown in Fig.( Fig. (5.8) stores the drag reducing agent (DRA).
The storage tank is a horizontal vessel with low pressure working pressure.
Recirculating pump (2) circulates DRA in the storage tank. The recirculating pump is a
screw spindle type pump for use in viscous fluids.
Feed pump (3) feeds the high pressure injection pump during chemical injection. The feed
pump is a positive displacement lobe type booster pump to control the volume of DRA
supplied to the high-pressure injection pump.
High-pressure injection pump (4) injects drag reducing agent DRA into the main oil export
pipeline
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Figure 5.9 - Chemicals for Crude Oil Streams and Typical Injection Points
Figure 5.10 - Chemical for Water Injection Streams and Typical Injection Points
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If the water flow changes, we have to make suitable changes in chemical injection
proportionally.
This is generally expressed in ppm as the rate of chemical is small (parts of Chemical per
million parts of water)
To calculate the injection rate you can use the following equation
flow rate ( BBL / day ) ∗ dosage ( ppm )
injection rate (L/Hr) =
151000
Case study: Calculation of Injection Rate from ppm
Required chemical injection is 15 ppm
Liquid flow rate is 10000 bpd. (Barrels per day) Water cut 50%
Calculate chemical injection rate Lit /hr.
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The pulsation dampener is a pressurized chamber partly filled with gas contained in a
bag, or bladder, when the pump completes its discharge stroke and starts on its suction
stroke, no liquid is being discharged to the discharge pipeline.
The compressed gas now forces the liquid out of the pulsation dampener and into the
discharge pipeline. In this way, the pressure in the discharge pipeline remains the same
during the suction stroke of the pump.
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The necessary safety precautions to be taken during receiving and unloading chemicals
are:
Check the cargo manifest and ensure the correct type and quantities of chemical
drums are delivered.
Ensure all eyewash stations, safety showers etc. are operable.
Ensure the area is tidy and free of debris etc.
Ensure personnel not involved in offloading are clear of the area.
Use one signalman only to control drum offloading and handling.
Ensure chemicals are stored tidily in the designated area.
Under dosage
The chemical will not perform effectively when used at a lower rate.
The equipment will be seriously affected by e.g. Scale deposits, corrosion etc.
The product will not be on specification and expensive customer penalties applied.
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Make sure that maintenance personnel working on chemical systems wear the same
safety clothing as you do.
Make sure that the safety shower and eyewash station near the chemical handling area
is working properly.
Clean up all chemical spills immediately
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Chapter 6
Water Treatment
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CONTENTS
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Production of crude oil and natural gas is usually associated with the production of water.
During the early life of the petroleum fields, water-free production of oil and gas is normally
experienced. However, water will eventually be produced later.
The produced water may be water that exists within the petroleum reservoir as bottom
water. Alternatively, water may be produced as a result of water-flooding operations,
where water is injected into the reservoir to enhance the recovery.
Water production presents serious operating, economic, and environmental problems.
Production of water with the crude oil or natural gas reduces the productivity of the well
due to the increased pressure losses throughout the production system.
This may either result in reduced production or necessitate the installation of costly
artificial lifting systems to maintain the desired production levels. Production of water also
results in serious corrosion problems, which add to the cost of the operation. It requires
the use of three- phase separators, emulsion treatment, and desalting systems, which
further add to the cost of the operation.
In most situations, the produced water has no value and should be disposed of. In other
situations, the produced water may be used for water flooding or reservoir pressure
maintenance. The produced water, collected from the separation, emulsion treatment,
and desalting systems, contains hydrocarbon concentrations that are too high for
environmentally safe disposal
The presence of the hydrocarbon droplets in the water makes it difficult to inject the water
into disposal wells or into water-injection wells for enhanced recovery operations.
This is because the hydrocarbon droplets cause severe plugging of the formation. In all
cases, the produced water must be treated to lower its hydrocarbon content to acceptable
limits.
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1- Water analysis
The analysis of the oil field waters must determine the ions and the physical properties
which are important to prevent plugging and corrosion problems in water operation. The
list of ions and properties to be determined by analysis is summarized as shown in table
below
2- Suspended solids
Calcium: The calcium ion is a major constituent of oil field waters, calcium ion combines
with carbonate and sulphate ions and precipitates to form adherent scales and solids
Magnesium: Magnesium ion combines with carbonate ion give scaling and plugging.
Problems as Mg CO3
Sodium: Sodium is a major constituent in oil field waters but does not normally cause any
problem only the precipitation of NaCl for extremely salty brine
Iron: The natural ion content of formation waters normally is quite low and its presence is
usually indicative of corrosion.
Barium: Barium is of importance primarily because of its ability to combine with sulphate
which is extremely insoluble, even small quantities can cause severe problems
Carbonate: Carbonate (CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3) are important because they can
form insoluble scales.
Sulphate: The sulphate ion is a problem because of its ability to react with calcium, barium
and strontium to form insoluble scale. It also serves as “food substance” for sulphate
reducing bacteria (SRB).
Chloride: Chloride ion is nearly always the major anion in produced brines and is usually
present as a major constituent in fresh water. The major source of chloride ion is NaCl so
the chloride ion concentration is used as a measure of water salinity. The primary problem
associated with chloride ion is that the corrosively of the water increases as it gets saltier
(conductivity).
High chloride concentrations make corrosion more likely salt deposition can also be a
problem.
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3- Dissolved gas
Dissolved oxygen: Increase the corrosively of the water, consequently increase the
corrosion rate, form insoluble iron oxides which can contribute to plugging
Dissolved carbon dioxide: Increase the water corrosively and formation of calcium
carbonates scaling.
Dissolved hydrogen sulphide: Increase water corrosively, produce iron sulphate which
can cause formation Plugging.
4- Oil content
Oil in water can cause decreased injectivity in several ways: It can cause “emulsion
blocks” in the formation.
It is excellent glue for certain solids such as iron sulphide thereby increasing the plugging
efficiency
5- Water PH
Figure (6.2) PH
The pH is extremely important for several reasons:
Acidic water increases the corrosion and decrease scaling tendency Most oil field waters
have a pH between 4 and 7.as shown in Figure (6.1) .
Sea water has a pH rather constant around 8.0 to 8.1
Both H2S and CO2 are “acid” gases as they tend to lower the pH of water when they
dissolve in water.
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Bacteria grow rapidly, forming a bio-film on water pipe work if left untreated; these films
can range from a few micrometers in thickness to up to half a meter in depth.
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A CPI (Corrugated plate interceptor) or TPI (Tilted plate interceptor) separators are
predominantly used in separation of free oil from effluent water or suspended solids for
oily water treatment in an Oily Water System (OWS).
The basic principle of difference in gravity between the phases (liquid – liquid or solid –
liquid) is employed in an OWS in separation of the two phases. This phenomenon is
defined as “Gravity Separation”.
It is therefore apparent that the phase with high density will settle and with lower density
float to the surface of fluid. In an OWS, the effectiveness of this technique is subjected to
various factors such as difference in the density, viscosity, factors of the medium,
temperature, turbulence, and also the nature of impurity etc.
In Oily water treatment, tilted (placed in predetermined angles) plate packs are used in
CPI/ TPI separators to improve the size and economy of the separator system. As
corrugated plate pack are predominantly used, the tilted plate pack type separators are
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There will be a settling zone followed by the plate packs. Each plate pack section will
have 2 sets of tilted corrugated plates with gap between. This will ensure maximum
efficiency and settling. There will be a further settling area after the plate packs before the
outlet.
As water passes through the pack, oil droplets stick to its surface, accumulate,
agglomerate, coalesce and as larger droplets eventually float out to the liquid surface.
The solids will impact upon the plates and fall to the bottom where they are collected and
removed.
The design of the plate packs is an essential part of this separation system. They will be
designed with the consideration of the high efficiency removal requirement, while
ensuring that the plates are not too close that will result in blockage. After the plate pack,
there is the settling zone. Most of the larger solids will have settled out by this stage, so
its primary function is to ensure that the coalesced oil droplets have sufficient time to rise
to the top of the vessel before passing into the outlet. The outlet will be covered with a
specially designed tilted diverter plate to avoid any short-circuiting within this final settling
zone and any suspended solids carry over.
Since the water is coming from a lower pressure source therefore there will be no gas
break out. This separator operates flooded and will not require any level control on the
water side. The flow control through the vessel will be performed by the control valves
downstream of the IGF.
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the separator, a significant degree of re-entrainment will occur if the separator is allowed
to build up an oil layer. Provision is therefore made to concentrate and remove the
separated oil without any risk of re-entrainment.
Coalesced oil will migrate by gravity to an oil dome, or collection pot, located at the top
and towards the end of the vessel. An oily layer will build up in the dome, which is then
removed by level control.
As the oil quantities are relatively low, the oil will be skimmed from the dome on an on/off
basis on level. If required this can be adjusted to continuous flow, or timed skimming
during commissioning or operation. Skimmed oil from the dome is sent to off spec Crude
Oil Tank.
CPI is designed to handle a high level of suspended solids to provide a stable flow with
low levels of solids and oil, to the IGF (Induced Gas Flotation ) .
6.2.2 - Induced Gas Floatation (IGF)
Induced gas flotation is a process which introduces small bubbles of gas, or air, into an
oily water stream to accelerate the separation of the oil droplets from the water phase.
The small bubbles adhere to the small oil droplets, decrease the overall specific gravity
of the oil droplets and result in a rapid rise of the oil droplets to the surface of the water.
The oil droplets and gas bubbles accumulate on the surface in the form of an oily froth
which is skimmed from the water surface, either by mechanical skimmers, or by an
overflow type weir.
Several types of gasses can be used for gas flotation, including air, natural gas, nitrogen
or carbon dioxide. The free oil in water content of the effluent will vary depending on the
operating conditions. Generally, it may be expected to run between 1 and 10% of the inlet
oil concentration under normal operating conditions.
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The Nutshell Filters receive produced water from the upstream Induced Gas Flotation
Unit. The Nutshell Filters are designed to remove 95% in particles in inlet water that are
greater than 5 microns. The package comprises 2 units operating in parallel, which are
down-flow, nutshell media filters, supported on a coarse garnet bed.
The fluid enters the filter vessel and flow into the inlet distribution header located in the
upper dished end. The flow is distributed evenly onto the media and flow through the
media at a low flux rate. The filtration duty is provided by granular walnut shell filter media.
This is specifically designed to remove the solid impurities in the water and the majority
of the remaining oil. The removed solids will fill the bed as the filtration run that causes its
porosity to diminish. Pressure drop across the media increase steadily as the media get
fouled by the filtered particles.
The filter media is supported by coarse garnet. The functions of this support bed are:
To provide an open distribution flow area for water to flow to the outlet laterals.
To prevent the finer media from collapsing through to the base of the vessel.
To provide a distribution of the gas scour and backwash to prevent channelling.
The outlet collection laterals made from SS316 are located at the lower dished end. The
outlet collection laterals also act as the feed and initial distributors for the backwash gas
and water.
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6.3.1 Deaerators
Usually deaerators are located after the circulation pumps in a steam power plant.
There are two main types of deaerator:
1-Trayed Deaerator: Low pressure steam is injected to the drum and trays for non-
condensable extraction. (See Fig. 6.11)
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Oxygen may cause corrosion to the boiler tubes, so oxygen scavenging chemicals are
added to the deaerated boiler feed water to remove any last traces of oxygen that were
not removed by the deaerator.
The most commonly used oxygen scavenger is sodium sulphite (Na 2 SO3). It is very
effective and rapidly reacts with traces of oxygen to form sodium sulphate (Na 2SO4) which
is non-scaling. Another widely used oxygen scavenger is hydrazine. (N2 H4).
De-Mineralised water refers to water with a low level of minerals for process use.
De-Ionised Water refers to water with an ultra-low level of mineral ions suitable for boiler
feed water
Oil and water by their nature are immiscible (describes two or more liquids that will not
mix together to form a single homogeneous substance).
This fact, along with the difference in density that exists between oil and water, leads to
the oil, lower density, rising to the top of the tank. The oil separates
The oil will form a layer above the water surface that can be separated from the water by
skimming action.
According to Stoke’s Law, this defines the terminal rise velocity of a given size of oil
droplet
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1. Weir Skimmers
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The produced water is routed overboard into the sea via the oily water treatment facilities,
as shown in Figure (6.23)
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The produced water is routed from an appropriate treatment facility to evaporation pit, will
be more efficient if a large shallow area is used.
Produced water reinjection: Water routed into an aquifer. See Fig.(6.25 &6.26).
6.5.4 Desalination
Desalination is a separation process used to reduce the dissolved salt content of saline
water to a usable level
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Reverse Osmosis is process by which particles as 0.1 nanometre’s can be removed from
a solution, used to purify water and remove salts and other impurities in order to improve
the color, taste or properties of the fluid, as shown in Fig(6.28).
API separator and Gas flotation unit are explained in this chapter.
1- API SKIMMER
The API skimmer generally consists of a basin divided into communicating compartments
in which the oily water flows slowly. As shown in Fig.(6.29) & Fig.(6.30).
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2- Watch Tank
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.
Figure 6.34 - how the hydrocyclone operates
Incoming produced water stream enters the top cylindrical feed chamber tangentially at
a velocity up to 5 meters per second conical section.
Vortex slowly sinks into the conical section.
Denser water thrown to the outer wall, leaving the lighter oil in the centre Bottom exist of
the unit is restricted.
Inner vortex flows up and out via a central vortex finder outlet in the top of the unit.
Produced water in the primary section vortex reaches bottom apex of conical section
virtually free from the lighter oil frictionwater is discharged through an adjustable orifice
or nozzle that can be set to control pressure and water discharge rate.
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Cleaned water passes into the sea through the open bottom as more produced water
enters.
5- Slop Oil Tank
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Chapter 7
Pigging
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CONTENTS
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
The original cleaning devices were made from straw wrapped in wires used for cleaning
pipes. They made a squealing noise while traveling through the pipe, sounding like a pig
squealing, which gave the name ‘pig’. 'PIG' is an acronym derived from the initial letters
of the term 'Pipeline Inspection Gauge' or 'Pipeline Inspection Gadget'.
This is accomplished by inserting the device into a 'launcher' - a funnel shaped
Ysectioninthepipeline.Thelauncheristhenclosedandthepressureoftheproduct in the
pipeline is used to push it along down the pipe until it reaches the receiving trap - the
'catcher'.
If the pipeline contains globe valves, butterfly valves or check valves, the pipeline cannot
be cleaned by pigging. Ball valves cause no problems because the diameter of the ball is
always the same as that of the pipe. Pipeline cleaning by pig has been used for many
years to clean larger diameter pipelines in the oil industry, as shown in Fig.(7.1) . Today,
however, the use of smaller diameter pigging systems is now increasing in many
continuous and batch process plants as plant operators search for increased efficiencies.
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5. Pigging is done for oil pipelines at regular intervals to remove wax, scale, sediment
and water from the lines to prevent plugging or corrosion
6. Periodically Pigging is done for Gas pipelines to remove sediment, scale, salts and
water from the line to prevent internal corrosion.
7. Pigs are also used to coat pipeline internals with inhibitors and biocides for the
prevention of corrosion
There are several equipment’s such as Pig Launcher, Pig Receivers, Barred Tees, Pig
Signalers and Pig Trackers etc. used for carrying out pigging operation. As shown in
Figure (7.2).
Various types of pigs are used. Pigs are constructed of various materials. They vary in
solid consistency from soft rubber balls or bullets, to hard cups of inert plastics with steel
mandrels to hold the cups together, the latter being referred to as super pigs.
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Pipeline pigs are devices that are inserted into and travel throughout the length of a
pipeline driven by the product flow. They were originally developed to remove deposits
which could obstruct or retard flow through a pipeline. Today pigs are used during all
phases in the life of a pipeline for different reasons.
Pigs used today can be divided into three categories:
1. Utility Pigs: They are used to perform functions such as cleaning, separating or
dewatering.
2. In Line Inspection (ILI) Tools/Pigs: They provide information on the condition of the
line, as well as extent and location of any problems.
3. Gel Pigs: They are used in conjunction with conventional pigs to optimize pipeline
dewatering, cleaning and drying tasks.
1- Utility Pig
Utility pipeline pigs can be divided into two groups based upon their fundamental purpose:
Cleaning Pigs: These are used to remove solid or semi-solid deposits or debris
from the pipeline.
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Sealing Pigs: These are used to provide a good seal in order to either sweep liquids
from the line, or provide an interface between two dissimilar products within the
pipeline.
Within these two groups, a further subdivision can be made to differentiate among
the various types or forms of pigs:
Solid cast pigs, which are molded in one piece, usually from polyurethane
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Mandrel pigs, which have a central body tube, or mandrel, and various
components which can be assembled onto the mandrel to configure a pig for a
specific duty, see Fig.(7.7).
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Although the two most common requirements are for geometry/diameter measurement
and for metal-loss/corrosion devices, the information which can be provided by these
intelligent pigs covers a much wider range of inspection and troubleshooting needs which
include:
Diameter / geometry measurements
Curvature monitoring
Pipeline profile
Temperature / pressure recording
Bend measurement
Metal-loss / corrosion detection
Photographic inspection
Crack detection
Wax deposition measurement
Leak detection
Product sampling
Mapping
3- Gel Pig
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PLUGS
A plug is a specialist pig that can be used to isolate a section of pipeline at pressure while
some remedial work is undertaken. see Fig.(7.10).
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Swab Valve
SSV
Choke Valve
Upper master
Valve
Lower master Valve
PT TT
FT
Flowlineto
RGMS
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On the other end the pig tool is received by a pig receiver. Pig receiver is also a vessel
used for receiving the pig tool. Pig launchers and receivers are designed to meet the
specific requirements of the pipeline.
Pig traps can be of horizontal, vertical or inclined type. For ease of operation, horizontal
pig traps are preferred. When space constraints become critical, vertical or inclined pig
traps are installed instead of horizontal.
The schematic shown here (Fig.7.16) is for a horizontal pig launcher. A horizontal pig
receiver would be almost identical to this schematic, except for the position and size of
certain nozzles such as drain, kicker line and Pressure Safety Valve nozzle.
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trap is still connected to these pressurized lines. This safety precaution can also be
accomplished by interlocking the door with vent or depressurizing line, so that the door
can be opened only when the pig trap is fully depressurized
A pig launcher is a device which uses a pressurized container to shoot a cleaning device
("pig") through the pipeline to perform a variety of functions including cleaning, monitoring
and maintaining of the pipe.
Pig launchers are installed whenever pipeline specifications call for routine cleaning or
monitoring of the interior pipe surface.
A pig receiver is a device that "catches" the cleaning device ("pig") after it has passed
through the pipeline. Figure 7.17.
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It is a tee with several metal plates (called bars) that are welded at the branch opening of
the tee. The plates have the flat sides along a plane that is parallel to branch. This is to
allow the passage of the liquid into the branch but not the pig. The pig travels along the
run to the receiver.
These tees are used as branch fittings, on a piggable pipeline section. Even in a piggable
section, if the branch size is below 30% of the main line size, ordinary tees can be used.
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For pig receiver, see figure (7.20) below for references to numbered valves,
pressure gauges and pig signals. Complete the following to prepare for receiving
a pig:
Check that drain valves V14, V15, V16 and V17 on the receiver are closed.
Check that vent valves V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5 on the receiver are closed.
Check that drain valves V9 and V10 between the receiver valves V11 and V12 are
closed.
Check that globe valve V6 and double block valves V7 and V8 are closed.
Check that valve V13 on the bypass line is opened.
Check that the receiver valves V11 and V12 are closed.
Check that the electro-magnetic pig signals ZI1 and ZI2 are installed and working
correctly with serviceable batteries.
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The type of pig selected for use varies with what unwanted materials are required to be
removed from the pipelines. The pig selection is generally determined by corrosion
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engineer and material selection is critical. If the wrong materials are used, normally two
unwanted situations can occur:
The pig will swell up and stick in the pipeline
The pig will disintegrate in the pipeline
Removal of either pig or pig particles can be difficult, costly and incur significant increase
in safety risks. With the advancement of pig construction technology, most companies
are using pigs that do not contain the steel mandrels. The important criteria to remember
is that the pigs used must be designed and manufactured of materials that are compatible
with the products being transported in the pipelines, such as sour gas or hydrocarbons.
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Chapter 8
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CONTENTS
PROCESS & UTILITY START UP .............................................................................. 163
8.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 163
8.2 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS DURING THE START-UP OPERATION .................... 164
8.3 STAFFING AND EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS FOR PLANT
START-UP .................................................................................................................. 165
8.3.1 Staffing Requirements .................................................................................. 165
8.3.2 Typical Equipment and Material Requirements............................................. 165
8.4 GENERAL START-UP PREPARATION ............................................................... 166
8.4.1 Work Permits ................................................................................................ 166
8.4.2 Risk Assessment .......................................................................................... 167
8.2.3 Fire and Gas Detection ................................................................................. 167
8.4.4 Over- Rides ................................................................................................... 167
8.4.5 Start-Up Sequence for a New Plant .............................................................. 168
8.4.6 Record Keeping ........................................................................................ 169
8.5 MACHINERY START-UP OPERATION .......................................................... 169
8.5.1 Pumps ........................................................................................................... 169
8.5.2 Compressors................................................................................................. 172
8.5.3 Turbines and Turbo-expanders ..................................................................... 175
8.6 STATIC EQUIPMENT START-UP OPERATION ............................................... 177
8.6.1 Boilers ........................................................................................................... 177
8.6.2 Preparing a System that will contain Hydrocarbons for Start-Up .................. 179
8.6.3 Storage Tanks............................................................................................... 180
8.7 UTILITY START-UP OPERATION .................................................................... 181
8.7.1 Electrical Power ............................................................................................ 182
8.7.2 Water ............................................................................................................ 182
8.7.3 Compressed Air ............................................................................................ 183
8.7.4 Fuel Gas System .......................................................................................... 184
8.7.5 Drains and Flare System .............................................................................. 184
8.7.6 Diesel System ............................................................................................... 184
8.7.7 Steam system ............................................................................................... 184
8.8 PROCESS START-UP OPERATION ................................................................. 185
8.8.1 Process Systems Start-Up Operation ........................................................... 185
8.8.2 Start-Up Operating Sequence ....................................................................... 186
SHUT DOWN OPERATIONS FOR O&G PROCESS PLANT/EQUIPMENT .............. 191
8.9 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 191
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8.1 INTRODUCTION
The activities described in this module emphasise that the start-up operation is
undertaken following supervisory instructions, and operating procedures.
Plant commissioning is the first of many start-ups. It is potentially the most hazardous and
there are always unknown factors.
More care and attention goes into the first start-up than into subsequent shutdowns and
start-ups.
Experience and expertise gained during the first start-up is used again by plant operators.
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It has been estimated that the causes of delay at start-up can be attributed:
a. 75% due to equipment failure
b. 20% from inadequate equipment
c. 5% from process failure.
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The start-up phase of a new project is more labor intensive than normal operation. It
requires personnel with specialist skills. These personnel may not be readily available at
the time of start-up, so their services must be booked in advance ready for the projected
start-up date.
A start-up organization chart, called an Organigram, is created. The start-up team should
include, not just those with specialist skills, as mentioned above, but those who will
eventually manage, operate and maintain the plant. In this way operational experience
gained at start-up will be carried through to the normal operation phase.
Start Up
Manager
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During preparation for a plant start-up and during the start-up itself, various jobs, which
require a Work Permit to be issued, will have to be done on the plant.
A Work Permit is issued and signed by an authorized person, but others may also be
required to sign it e.g. the person carrying out gas tests in a confined space before entry.
Those supervising the execution of the work receive the Work Permit. The Work Permit
controls that work activity. Permits, when issued, serve as an official written record of
conditions and requirements agreed upon by the issuer and receiver.
A Work Permit is required for:
1. Major & minor maintenance work
2. Inspection
3. Construction
4. Alterations
5. Process equipment cleaning
6. Entry into confined space
7. Excavation
8. Vehicle entry into hazardous areas, etc.
The Operations Work Permit System does not normally cover work performed by
construction personnel during the construction phase
The introduction and use of Work Permits during the completion of construction / start-up
phase of any project, can be confusing if definite rules and responsibilities are not
established.
The Operations Work Permit System should be introduced as soon as portions of the
plant, systems, or sub-systems, are being prepared for start-up.
All work within an operational area is controlled by the Work Permit system, and the
relevant type of permit must be issued for specific activities. The rule is that if a permit is
required to carry out the job during normal operations, it will also be required during start-
up preparations. It is the responsibility of the personnel who will perform the work to obtain
a Work Permit, prior to starting the job.
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Preparations for start-up of a plant will involve work performed by start-up personnel while
the construction phase is still being completed. This can often lead to two different groups
of personnel working in the same locality, with the potential for serious accidents to occur.
It is the responsibility of the start-up operations group to ensure that conflicts between the
different work groups do not occur.
For example, controller loop checking and electrical work are potentially hazardous
activities and are areas where conflict might occur. If a conflict does occur, which cannot
be solved immediately, the existing work permits should be cancelled, the conflict
resolved, and new permits issued.
8.4.2 Risk Assessment
A risk assessment must be carried out before the application of any over-ride. An over-
ride should only be applied with the approval of the responsible person. If multiple over-
rides are involved another risk assessment must be carried out.
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Mechanical over-rides must be carried out using the Work Permit System and
countersigned by the approval authority for over-rides.
It is good practice to maintain an “over-ride register”, which provides an historical record
of all types of over-rides employed. Temporary over-rides should be highlighted and this
information included as part of every shift handover.
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The utilities are located in a distinctive area, which is far enough away from the
process units to permit operation of the utilities while construction is still taking
place in other areas.
Units 1 and 2 need to be separated from Units 3 and 4, so that Units 1 and 2 can
be operated while Units 3 and 4 are still being finished off.
The distribution of steam, electricity, instrument air, nitrogen, cooling water, etc
must be such that it can be provided to Units 1 and 2, without affecting
construction work on Units 3 and 4.
8.4.6 Record Keeping
1- Log Books
During the pre-start-up and start-up periods, a log book should be maintained to record
events and their timings. The log books should be completed on a shift basis and record
all commissioning events, production rates (when applicable), shut-downs, equipment
change-overs and failures.
2- Machinery Data
During the initial running and proving of individual items of equipment such as:
1. pumps
2. compressors
3. gas turbines
4. boilers
Data must be recorded for historical “benchmarking”. The data will be used to compare
running data obtained later in the life of the equipment, to determine if the performance
has deteriorated with time.
8.5.1 Pumps
Pump Pre-Start-Up Operations and Checks
It is assumed that the following mechanical checks have been carried out:
a. That the suction and discharge piping are properly supported and are not imposing
stresses on the pump
b. The pump/driver alignment has been checked and is satisfactory. If the pump is to
operate at high temperature, the alignment will have to be rechecked once working
temperature has been reached (obviously the pump will have to be shut down for
this procedure to be carried out)
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checked. Most electric motors have grease lubricated bearings that should be
checked as well
It is desirable to attempt to turn a pump over by hand before the initial start-up.
The pump should turn smoothly with little effort being required. If this is not the
case, the pump may need to be dismantled to determine the cause of the problem
Pumps must be checked by both operations and maintenance personnel prior to
start-up
It is advisable to use a checklist prior to starting a pump for the first time to ensure that
no checks are overlooked. A check list for a rotary pump is shown below.
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8.5.2 Compressors
Compressor Pre Start-Up Operations and Checks
It is assumed that the following mechanical checks have been carried out:
that the suction, discharge and inter-stage piping are properly supported and are not
imposing stresses on the compressor.
the compressor/driver alignment has been checked and is satisfactory.
The technical manuals and instructions supplied by the compressor manufacturer, as
well as those from the driver and auxiliary equipment suppliers should be thoroughly
read to appreciate the specific requirements of the equipment
Confirm that all piping, valves, instrumentation and other fittings, as indicated on the
P&ID, are in place and correctly fitted
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The oil pump in most compressors is driven directly by the compressor shaft. Clearly,
before start-up, this pump will not be operating, so oil must be circulated around the
system using the auxiliary pump, which is electrically driven. Once the compressor is
running and the oil pressure is high enough, the auxiliary pump will be shut-down
automatically and the main oil pump will continue alone to supply the lubricating oil to the
system. Start the auxiliary oil pump and check the lubrication system pressures
A compressor, whether reciprocating or centrifugal, is started with the recycle valve open
to limit the load on the driver.
Check that gas is available and that the user of the gas is ready to receive it. Open the
suction valve.
Open the discharge valve and start the driver. When the compressor has reached normal
operating speed, close the recycle valve slowly.
Check that operating conditions are not such that the compressor, if centrifugal, enters
the surge region. The machine will make a loud and characteristic noise when in surge.
Surge is a very dangerous condition for a centrifugal compressor and will rapidly cause
severe damage to the machine. Anti-surge control equipment will be fitted and should
prevent this happening, but if the control equipment fails to operate, the machine must be
shut down manually without delay.
Check the following operating parameters
Suction pressure
Speed of rotation (if turbine driven)
Inlet flowrate
Inter-stage and discharge pressures
Recycle flowrate
Recycle valve position
Bearing temperatures
Lube/seal oil temperature
Lube/seal oil pressure
Differential pressure across lube/seal oil filters
Vibration
Shaft axial displacement
Outlet temperatures on inter-stage coolers and after-coolers
Cooling water flows to inter-stage coolers and after-coolers, or the operation of
cooling fans if air coolers are fitted.
Levels in suction scrubbers.
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The machine will be protected by various devices, which will cause the machine to trip if
certain preset values are exceeded. Typically, these trips will be:
Low lube oil pressure
Low seal oil differential pressure
High vibration (2of3 voting)
Over-speed (if turbine driven)
High shaft axial displacement (2of3 voting)
High level in a suction scrubber.
All the checks on pipework, valves, fittings, instrumentation and other equipment
outlined in the section above on compressors must be carried out for the turbine
Confirm that all instrumentation has been calibrated and commissioned
The technical manuals and instructions supplied by the turbine manufacturer, as well
as those from the auxiliary equipment suppliers should be thoroughly read to
appreciate the specific requirements of the equipment
The turbine lubrication system is usually connected to the compressor lubrication
system and should be cleaned at the same time. If this is not the case, the cleaning
procedure to be adopted is the same as that outlined for a compressor
Clearly, the steam turbine requires steam to operate it, so the steam system will have
to be commissioned before the steam turbine. The gas turbine may use a liquid fuel,
but most commonly in the oil and gas industries, gas is used. The fuel gas system will
have to be commissioned before the gas turbine can be operated
With a steam turbine check that all casing drain valves and the inlet steam chest drain
valves are operable
With a gas turbine check that that the start-up device and ignition system is ready to
start
With a steam turbine, check that either the condenser is ready to operate, or if there
are users of the low pressure steam leaving the machine, that they are ready to
receive the steam
With a gas turbine, the hot exhaust gas may be passed through a waste heat boiler
before flowing to atmosphere. If this is the case, check that the boiler is ready to
operate and that there are users for the steam produced
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Start the auxiliary oil pump (electrically operated) and circulate oil around the system.
Check the oil pressure.
If a steam turbine is being used, the steam feed line and the turbine itself must be
warmed up thoroughly before any attempt is made to start the machine. To do this,
steam is passed through the equipment at a low rate and any condensate formed
drained off. If this step is not carried out, damage to the machine may result due to the
impingement of high speed water droplets on the blades.
When the machine is warm, close down the drain valves so that they are just a few
turns open and increase the steam pressure and flow rate to the machine. The turbine
shaft will start to turn. Slowly increase the steam pressure to increase the speed in line
with the manufacturer’s instructions. Usually a graph of the turbine speed against time
is provided to allow the speed to be brought up at a rate to suitable to ensure thorough
and uniform heating of the machine as the steam temperature increases.
As the steam pressure and temperature rise and condensate is no longer a problem,
the casing drain valves can be fully closed.
If a gas turbine is to be used, operate the starting device and rotate the machine for
the specified period at low speed in order for air to flow through and purge combustible
gases from the combustion chamber(s).
Introduce fuel and operate the igniter. Start to increase the fuel flow-rate to raise the
speed of the machine. This must be done slowly so that the rate of rise of temperature
in the machine is not greater than that allowed by the manufacturer.
During the run-up to working speed check the machine for excessive vibration or noise.
At working speed, check the normal operating parameters:
- Steam pressure and temperature in inlet chest
- Steam pressure at turbine outlet
- Speed of rotation
- Fuel gas pressure (gas turbine)
- Combustion chamber temperature (gas turbine)
- Exhaust gas temperature (gas turbine)
- Bearing temperatures
- Lube oil temperature
- Lube oil pressure
- Differential pressure across lube oil filters
- Vibration
- Shaft axial displacement
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8.6.1 Boilers
Boiler Pre-Start-Up Operations and Checks.
It will be assumed that the boiler is a forced circulation water tube unit.
Carefully read the boiler manufacturer’s technical data and instruction sheets for the
boiler as well as that of the auxiliary equipment manufacturers
Check that all piping, valves, instrumentation and other equipment and fittings shown
on the P&ID are in place and correctly fitted
Confirm that all instrumentation has been calibrated and commissioned
Check that the steam main has been commissioned and that the users are ready to
receive steam
Check all thermal insulation is in place
Check that the boiler feed pumps and circulation pumps are ready to operate
Check that the treated water plant is operable and capable of producing boiler feed
water of the correct quality
Check that the water deaeration system is operable
Check that the boiler water chemical dosing pumps are operable and sufficient
supplies of chemicals are available
Check that the boiler water sample cooler is operational
Check that pipework, valves and instrumentation associated with the economiser (if
fitted) are in place
Check that the fuel burners are in place and that the fuel supply system has been
commissioned
Check that any refractory material necessary in the combustion chamber is in place
by viewing through an inspection port
Check that pipework, valves and instrumentation associated with the combustion air
pre-heater (if fitted) are in place
Check all combustion air dampers (valves) and exhaust gas dampers are operable
Check that the combustion air fans are ready to operate
Check that the exhaust gas fans (if fitted) are ready to operate
Boiler Start-Up Operation
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should be the same as the metal of the boiler. Note, space must be left in the drum
for the water to expand as it is heated.
Blow-down the level gauge and observe the return of liquid to ensure that the gauge
is clear and functioning properly.
Start the boiler water circulation pump.
Start the combustion air fan and run it in order to purge any combustible gases from
the combustion chamber. The boiler manufacturer will specify how long this process
should take
Start the exhaust gas fan, if fitted, and control the pressure in the combustion
chamber to the specified value
Start to fire the boiler, but do this at a low rate to avoid cracking the refractory
insulation inside the boiler and/or thermally overstressing the tubes and drums due
to non-uniform temperatures. The boiler manufacturer will specify the maximum
allowable rate of temperature rise.
When the water reaches the boiling point, steam will be produced, which should
initially be vented through the steam drum vent valve in order to remove air from the
system. At a steam drum pressure of about 1barg close the vent valve
Check that all instrumentation is working
Start the boiler feed pump and feed more water into the boiler to maintain the level
in the steam drum
Start to dose chemicals into the boiler
When the steam pressure has reached the desired value slowly open the boiler
steam outlet valve to the steam main and users.
When the boiler is operating steadily take a sample of water from the steam drum.
Note, exercise caution during this operation and wear the specified PPE. A sample
cooler is normally provided, make sure that this is operating, otherwise some of the
very hot water will flash to steam as the sample leaves the boiler
Have the sample analysed for dissolved oxygen concentration, total dissolved solids
concentration (TDS) and concentration of corrosion inhibitor
Adjust the chemical dosing pumps to give the desired corrosion inhibitor
concentration and a zero concentration of dissolved oxygen.
Adjust the continuous blow-down valve to control the TDS in the boiler water to the
desired value
Adjust the combustion air flow dependent on the CO2 and oxygen concentrations in
the exhaust gas from the boiler.
Check the combustion process by observation through an inspection port
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1. Displace the air, with its 20.8% oxygen, by sweeping the vessels/ equipment/ pipework
with a constant flow of nitrogen gas until the oxygen content is below 2% by vol.
2. Pressure-Cycle the systems with nitrogen gas until the oxygen content is below 2%
by vol. In this method the plant is pressurised with nitrogen, then depressurised to
flare. This procedure is repeated a number of times until the gas being vented has an
oxygen concentration of less than 2%.
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Prior to purging the system with nitrogen, it is usual to pressurize the plant to about 4barg
with compressed air, then carrying out a leak test at each flange or joint using soap
solution. To carry out this leak test, masking tape is stuck around each flanged joint and
a hole made in the tape at the top. Soap solution is squirted into the hole from a plastic
bottle and if there is a leak, the soap solution will produce bubbles. Carrying out the leak
test first, then rectifying the leaks, saves valuable nitrogen which otherwise would have
to be vented to allow the leak to be rectified.
Having tightened up the bolts on the leaking flanges, or replaced the gaskets, the plant is
re-pressurized with compressed air to confirm that all the leaks have been rectified. It is
then depressurized and the air it contains replaced by nitrogen. Once the oxygen content
of the gas in the plant is 2% by volume or less, hydrocarbons can be introduced. Initially,
the process gas passing through the plant would be vented to the flare, because it would
be rich in nitrogen, but after a short time the vent would be closed and the plant pressure
steadily increased to the working value.
Check that the bund wall around the tank(s) is of the specified height
Check that the bunded area sump pumps are in place and operational
Check all tank equipment shown on the P&ID and tank data sheets is in place
Check all pipework, valves and instrumentation shown on the P&ID are in place and
operational
Confirm that all instrumentation has been calibrated and commissioned
Check that the vent pipe on the roof is free
Check that the inside of the tank is free from constructional debris
Check that the inert gas injection system, if fitted, is operational
Check that a vacuum breaker, if fitted, is correctly installed
Check that tank heaters, if fitted, are in place and operational
Check that if the tank is thermally insulated, all the insulation has been installed
Check that all inspection manhole doors are in place and tightened up
Check that the tank and the incoming and outgoing pipework is electrically earthed
Check that any pumps associated with the tank are operational
Check that adequate access and hand railing has been provided to the top of the tank
so that dips and sampling can be carried out safely
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Check that the bund wall around the tank(s) is of the specified height
Check that the bunded area sump pumps are in place and operational
Check all tank equipment shown on the P&ID and tank data sheets is in place
Check all pipework, valves and instrumentation shown on the P&ID are in place
and operational
Confirm that all instrumentation has been calibrated and commissioned
Check that the inside of the tank is free from constructional debris
Check that the roof support legs are all in place
Check that tank heaters, if fitted, are in place and operational
Check that if the tank is thermally insulated, all the insulation has been installed
Check that the seal between the floating roof and the wall of the tank has been
fitted correctly
Check that all inspection manhole doors are in place and tightened up
Check that the tank and the incoming and outgoing pipework is electrically earthed
Check that any pumps associated with the tank are operational
Check that adequate access and hand railing has been provided to the top of the
tank and that access to the tank roof from the top of the tank is in place and free
to move
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Utilities are usually brought on line at a time determined by the requirements of the
process. The order that each of the utilities units will be brought on line is decided at the
start-up planning stage. Very similar checks are carried out when bringing a utility plant
on-line as are carried out for a process plant.
8.7.2 Water
There are several types of water used on a process plant.
Potable Water
Potable water is water that is fit for human consumption. Water, which has already been
purified by desalination or de-ionization, is first treated to give it a taste by adding mineral
salts, then chemicals e.g. chlorine or sodium hypochlorite solution, are injected to kill
bacteria and viruses. Holding tanks are provided downstream of the chlorine injection
point to provide sufficient residence time for the chlorine to do its work. An activated
carbon adsorption unit is often employed to remove unpleasant tastes, smells or coloring
agents from the water. Quite often, as a final treatment, the water is exposed to strong
ultra-violet radiation inside special equipment in order to kill any residual bacteria or
viruses. The water produced initially, should be discarded until laboratory tests show that
it is of the required quality for human consumption. Prior to start-up check that:
purified water is available
all water treatment equipment and storage tanks have been scrupulously cleaned.
all chemical injection pumps are operational.
all treatment chemicals are available on site
analytical equipment has been calibrated and is operational.
Plant Water
Plant/service water is typically required for hose stations, wash down water or for vessel
flushing
The treatment that water destined to be plant water receives will depend on the source of
the water. Borehole water is typically filtered, and sterilized using an ultra-violet radiation
system, as described above.Prior to start-up,
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check that all pumps and filters are in place and that storage tanks are clean and
ready to receive the water
Cooling Water
Cooling water is produced in a similar way to plant water, except that corrosion inhibitors
are added to minimize corrosion of carbon steel equipment and biocide is injected to
prevent the buildup of algae on heat transfer surfaces.
Prior to start-up check that:
the cooling water circuit around the process plant is complete.
all cooling water circulation pumps are in place and operational.
all chemical injection systems are in place and operational.
sufficient treatment chemicals exist on site.
the cooling tower is complete and that the fans are operational.
Demineralized Water
Demineralized water is very pure water that is normally used as boiler feed water. It is
produced using an ion exchange process. Desalinated water is also very pure, but usually
not quite so pure as that produced by deionization.
Prior to start-up check that:
all ion exchange vessels have been filled with the correct ion exchange resin and that
each vessel contains the specified depth of resin bed
all equipment, pipework, valves and instrumentation shown on the P&ID are in place
all instruments have been calibrated and are commissioned
any pumps associated with the ion exchange system are operational
any automatic control equipment fitted is working correctly
demineralised water storage tanks are clean and ready to receive the water
ion exchange resin regeneration chemicals are available on site.
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on dryer duty, and one on regeneration. In periods when both compressors are running,
both dryer sets are required for duty.
Prior to start-up check that:
all pipework, valves, other equipment and instrumentation shown on the P&ID is in
place.
all instruments have been calibrated and are commissioned
power is available to drive the compressors
the compressed air coolers are operational
the air dryers have been filled with desiccant
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the steam mains are complete, fully insulated and the steam users ready to receive
steam
all instrumentation, pressure reducing valves, manual valves and other equipment
shown on the P&ID are in place
all instruments have been calibrated and are commissioned
the systems for the removal of condensate from the mains are in place and
operational
the condensate return system from steam users is in place and operational
When the pre-start-up checks have been carried out, it is essential that the steam is
admitted into the mains at a low flow rate. This because, initially, the mains will be cold
and the first steam will condense on the cold metal surface of the pipes.
The condensate formed must be able to drain off from the main otherwise it may cause
water hammer. Consider the situation when steam enters a cold main at a high flow rate.
Initially, a substantial amount of condensate will be formed in the main and this
condensate will be pushed quickly along it by the following steam. If there is a restriction
in the pipeline, such as a partly closed valve or bend, the condensate will be slowed down.
The kinetic energy lost by the condensate will be converted into pressure energy,
resulting in a very high instantaneous pressure which can cause serious damage to the
main and its fittings. This phenomena, which is accompanied by loud bangs within the
pipework, is called water hammer.
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Preliminary checks
A fundamental condition for starting up is that maintenance works have been completed
(instrumental, electrical and mechanical) and all Permit to Work (PTW) are closed out.
Operational Checks
The operation personnel have to make several checks:
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Review the blind list and ensure that the blinds and
4. Operator flanges are removed and documented.
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Maintenance Checks
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The reality of the start-up of process units is that it is impracticable for individual
systems to be brought on line independently of the adjacent and related systems.
Flare
TIC
HP
Scrubber
Heater
Flare Header
PSV on Process
Equipment
It is assumed that at the point of start-up of the flare system, the plant status is as
follows:
All parts of the system including vessels, equipment, piping, valves and instruments
have previously been fully tested and commissioned, and have been proven safe and
operable
All headers, vessels and pipework have been purged of O2 to remove the potential for
an explosive mixture to exist
The HP and LP flare scrubber vessels have been filled with potable water to provide a
liquid seal and to assist in establishing level control
The flare snuffing skid CO2 bottles are fully charged and tested
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All isolation valves are in their safe starting positions. All vent and drain valves are
closed. All instrument-tapping valves are open
All required utility systems are fully functional and available
The pilots have been previously lit for test purposes and closely inspected to ensure
there are no leaks and are burning correctly.
In a hydrocarbon production and processing plant, the high-pressure flare system is one
of the first systems to be started up in advance of the other production systems, with only
utility systems already running.
The flares must be available to act as a depressurization route, before gas can be brought
into the facilities for the initial start-up of production separation and the fuel gas systems.
When fuel gas is available the flare pilots and flare can be lit. For test purposes and initial
pilot lighting, a temporary gas supply from propane bottles may be used. The flare system
start-up procedure commences from the point at which gas is first available at production
separation and is being fed into the fuel gas system. The procedure shown next is an
example of the general type of procedure used to start a flare system.
SHUT DOWN OPERATIONS FOR O&G PROCESS PLANT/EQUIPMENT
8.9 INTRODUCTION
Process and Utility Shutdown Preparation covers a wide range of different types of
shutdown for various operational, maintenance or inspection reasons. This booklet and
associated Module does not cover shutdowns occurring during normal operations, for
example shutdowns caused by process upsets or emergency situations.
The emphasis is on preparation and planning so that a planned shutdown is carried out
in a safe, efficient and cost effective manner.
The range of shutdowns covered are those required for normal production planning where
equipment is not required to be operated due to the current production and planning
requirements through to major shutdowns required for plant inspection purposes.
Shutdown preparation is considerably more problematic than routine operation and
maintenance because of the need to keep business disruption to a minimum. Shutdown
durations are extremely short compared with other projects and the compressed time
allowed
The day-to-day difficulties are greatly amplified during shutdowns and the effects of any
miscalculation in preparation are significantly increased at this time.
The prime goal of shutdown preparation is to produce a detailed, overall time-based plan
and not just a work list.
Because of the compressed time, an almost minute-by-minute schedule of tasks is
produced even though planned job sequences and timings are likely to change on the
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day, achieving a detailed schedule is essential. The process of producing a schedule will
always ensure the best shutdown outcome, even when circumstances force changes.
It must be emphasised that no matter which type of shutdown is being planned the same
consideration must be given to the preparation, safety and environmental aspects of the
work.
Where production targets are less than the capacity of the Process Plant.
Sales outlets are restricted
Availability of Feed Stock is reduced.
Seasonal swings in production requirements.
Utilities are not currently required.
Planned rotation of equipment / machinery
There is a plant restriction, blockage or other malfunction
These shutdowns can range from individual pieces of equipment through to complete
process trains or modules.
Preparation requirements for this type of shutdown need to consider the following:
The routine maintenance is a planned activity and the preparation for shutdown can be
planned well in advance with all the HSE, and operations procedures prepared prior to
the activity taking place.
While this type of maintenance is considered routine it is important that the preparation
for carrying out the work takes into account:
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A risk assessment and hazard identification must be carried out as part of the preparation
for all the work to be performed during a shut-down.
This risk assessment and hazard identification will be carried out within the framework for
risk management.
8.11.2 Permits to Work
Permits to Work (PTW) will be raised as part of the preparation for all the work to be
carried out during a shut-down.
A PTW is a written document used to authorise work, other than routine operational work,
which has been identified as potentially hazardous. The document specifies the work to
be done and the precautions to be taken.
The Permit to Work system covers work activities performed by the Company and
contractor personnel while working at a location controlled by the Company. It provides a
written method of ensuring that work carried out is strictly controlled by defined work
practices and safety precautions.
The work content to be undertaken by a workforce shall be discussed with the appropriate
supervisor(s) to determine the type of permit required and Work Place Risk Assessment
(WRAP) that will be applicable.
Venting of hydrocarbons.
Draining of process liquids.
Removal of materials.
Draining of lubricating oils from rotating equipment.
Part of the preparation for shutdown must include the following considerations in regard
to these liquids and materials.
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If there are gases, liquids or materials that cannot be recovered or re-cycled then
consents and approvals for disposal from the relevant authorities must be obtained prior
to the shutdown.
The approval for disposal must include the procurement and setting up of an accredited
approved contract for the disposal of the materials.
Failure to obtain the necessary consents and the use of an accredited contractor could
result in delays to the shutdown, prohibition orders on plant operations and eventual
prosecution.
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Once the equipment or plant has been isolated from the process, preparation for
maintenance can begin. Ensure a Permit to Work is available stating the isolations and
the final status of the equipment for the work to be carried out safely. A separate Permit
to Work may be raised to carry out isolations if they are extensive and involve heavy lifting
and line break.
De-pressurise, vent and drain the plant giving consideration to:
The limits on vent and flare systems
Dde-pressurisation rates
Plant cooling due to depressurisation
Relief systems
Limits on the drain systems
Composition and properties of the plant inventory i.e. toxicity, flammability, and
specific gravity
Purging media available
Once the equipment and plant has been tested with appropriate test equipment, and
confirmed safe from any ingress of hydrocarbons, final isolations can be made and the
equipment handed over for maintenance.
During the period of the shut-down, the area should be checked for cleanliness and
freedom from hazards, with periodic checks carried out to ensure all isolations are in place
and secure.
8.13.1 Isolations
Prior to the shutdown of any equipment for maintenance, the isolations required need to
be identified and the work activity inputted into the shutdown plan and onto the Permits
to Work.
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Type of equipment e.g. wells, process vessels, pumps, compressors, tanks etc.
Type of work to be carried out.
Working pressure and temperature
Composition of Process Inventories
To isolate process equipment P&ID’s will be required to identify the isolation points.
The type of maintenance work to be carried out will determine the isolations necessary
and this will be agreed after a risk assessment has been done.
Where isolations form part of the preparations for work there must be a clear description
of the isolation procedure, including a detailed list of all items used in the isolation. These
are typically:
Valves.
Spades.
Blinds.
Pipe-work removed.
Blank flanges fitted.
Vents and Drains opened.
Electrical Breakers racked out or fuses removed.
When the isolation is complete, an Isolation Certificate should be issued. The Isolation
Certificate should indicate the location and the type of isolation that has been carried out.
Alternatively, this information can be given on an Isolation Detail Sheet and/or marked up
on a P&ID, which is crossed referenced to the Isolation Certificate and attached to it.
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A Major isolation may be used to establish isolation boundaries for major maintenance
tasks. This is so that a number of tasks can be controlled within a single boundary. The
number of Master Isolations applied should be kept to a minimum.
A separate Isolation Certificate is used for recording electrical isolation and de-isolation
operations, for the purpose of the PTW System.
A copy of a typical Electrical Isolation Detail Sheet and Electrical Isolation Certificate is
shown in Figure 8.11 and Figure 8.12 respectively.
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Fuses
Safety Padlock Equipment Tails
Isolation Point Placed Cable Disconnected
No. Disconnected
At
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MaintenanceManager:
MaintenanceManager:
Man
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EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN
8.14 INTRODUCTION
Emergency Shutdown (ESD) systems are safeguarding systems. They are systems,
which are designed to protect operating plants and personnel from serious injury.
Hydrocarbon processing systems are designed to operate automatically. Plant
operating personnel have only to start up a process, adjust the set points, and then
allow the instrument loops to control the process. This is fine as long as everything
operates and behaves, as it should. But no system will operate forever without a
problem.
Alarm systems and emergency shutdown (ESD) systems are necessary because things
will go wrong in plant processes occasionally.
• Alarm systems WARN
• ESD systems PROTECT
In this course delegates will learn about some of the devices used in Alarm and
Shutdown systems. Their two main functions are to:
• Warn plant operators that a process or a machine is not operating correctly.
• Shut down a machine, a process or an entire plant to protect people and equipment
from injury or damage if a hazardous condition develops.
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1. Shutdown and isolation of rotating equipment to remove a source of ignition and stop
a leak that may be located in the equipment, but still allow the process to remain
pressurized
2. Shutdown, isolation, and depressurization of process equipment in the event of fire
or gas leakage to lower the risk created by the compressed material Sometimes it is
only necessary to shut down and isolated a particular piece of equipment or process,
and the remainder of the process may be kept pressurized. There are also times when
it is not advisable to depressurize because that would present a greater hazard. An
example of this would be the release of combustible vapour to atmosphere when there
is a fire already burning in the immediate area.
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Figure 8.15
Filling might normally be achieved by means of a pump under operator control and
supervision. Using level gauge, the operator would normally turn the pump off at a point
safely below the true full point of the tank. However, due to instrument failure or human
error, this safe full point could easily be exceeded, whereupon the rising liquid would be
detected by a high liquid level sensor (H). This would initiate an alarm at the pump/tank
and in the control room, alerting the operator to the condition, enabling corrective action
to be taken in good time before the rising liquid could reach a dangerous level.
If, for any reason, no action was to be taken as a result of the alarm, a high- high liquid
level sensor (HH) would detect the now dangerously rising liquid and pass a signal to
the ESD logic system. The logic would equate the signal with other system parameters
and initiate a local system shutdown. In this case, this would probably involve nothing
more than shutting down the pump, although activation (automatic closure) of an ESD
valve on the discharge side of the pump could also be an option as a backup measure.
An ‘ESD Operated’ alarm would also be activated in the control room CCR.
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A similar system is also used to protect equipment in the event of tank liquid levels
falling too low. This arrangement protects the export pump should the tank liquid level
fall below the export pump suction line level (centrifugal pumps must never run dry).
When emptying the tank, the operator would normally turn the pump off at a point safely
above the normal lowest level of the product being pumped. As with over-high levels,
however, this point could easily be exceeded, whereupon the falling liquid level would
be detected by a low liquid level sensor (L). This would initiate an alarm at the pump/tank
and in the control room, alerting the operator to the condition, enabling corrective action
to be taken before the liquid level could fall below the product level.
If, for any reason, no action was to be taken as a result of the alarm, a low- low liquid
level sensor (LL) would detect the dangerously falling liquid and pass a signal to the
ESD system. The logic would equate the signal with other system parameters and
initiate a local system shutdown by stopping the export pump. An ‘ESD operated’ alarm
would also be activated in the control room.
It should be noted that, for this level of ESD, shutdown of the export pump would not
affect the operation of the filling pump or the status of any ESD valve in the filling line
as these would still need to be operational to correct the level anomalies in the tank.
Figure 8.16 - Pressure Activated ESD System Process with High Pressure
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will set of the emergency shutdown system. When the relay opens, the contact of the
relay armature is broken. This broken contact breaks the AC circuit.
F. There is a 3-way solenoid operated pilot valve in the instrument air supply for each of
the valves in the gas pipelines.
Look at the air failure action abbreviations next to the valves: AC/AFO and
AO/AFC.
G. AO/AFC. When the current to the three-way pilot valve is cut off, the air supply to the
pressure control valve will be cut off, the air in the actuator will be vented, and the
valve will close.
H. AC/AFO. Look at the three-way pilot valve for the valve on the pipeline to the flare.
When current to this solenoid valve is cut off, the pressure control valve will open.
All the gas in the production trap will go to the flare where it is safely burned.
Most plant ESD systems are much more complicated than the system just described. But
plant ESD systems have many things in common.
One of a number of types of switch will trigger the ESD. In the above example, it is the
pressure switch.
Relays are the heart of most ESD systems. Notice that the relay R2 is in a low voltage
circuit, 24 volts DC. Low voltage keeps the relay contacts closed. When the pressure
switch trip, the 24-volt circuit opens and releases the relay contacts.
The movement of the relay armature opens and closes a higher voltage AC circuit. This
has the advantage of keeping higher voltages away from process vessels. The relay is
usually located far away from the process.
Most process control valves that are parts of ESD systems have pilot valves in the lines.
The pilot valves supply air to the control valves. Simply cutting off the air supply to the
control valves causes them to fail in the correct position. Simple solenoids are used to
operate most pilot valves.
Relays are also used to start or stop electric motors.
Remember these points:
• Switches are the triggers for ESD systems.
• Electrical relays are used to start or stop other electrical devices.
• You can use low voltages in a relay control circuit to control a
high voltage device
Protective devices prevent individual pieces of equipment from being damaged by
extreme process conditions, or faults within the equipment itself.
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ESD’s are intended to safely shutdown whole facilities (or portions of a facility) when
operating conditions are threatened from an external source, or become unstable and
out of control.
8.17 INTERLOCKS
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Chapter 9
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CONTENTS
9.1 SITE PREPARATIONS………………………………………………..……….……216
9.1.1 Planning ..................................................................................................... 216
9.1.2 Worksite Preparation.................................................................................. 216
9.1.3 Required Activities Prior to Mechanical Isolation ....................................... 217
9.1.4 Requirements for Blinds / Spades and Blank Flanges ............................... 217
9.1.5 Mechanical isolation of Process Piping, Vessels and Equipment .............. 217
9.1.6 Process / Utility Area Considerations ......................................................... 218
9.1.7 Operator Maintenance Tasks. .................................................................... 219
9.2 ISOLATIONS ………………………………………………………………………220
9.2.1 Positive Isolation ..................................................................................... 220
9.2.2 Double Block and Bleed ............................................................................. 221
9.2.3 Single Valve Isolation ................................................................................. 222
9.2.4 Other Isolation Methods ............................................................................. 222
9.3 DEPRESSURISING / DRAINING ………………………………………………224
9.3.1 Depressurising ........................................................................................... 224
9.3.2 Draining...................................................................................................... 224
9.4 CLEANING AND GAS FREEING…………………………………………………..225
9.4.1 Water Flooding ........................................................................................... 225
9.4.2 Inert Gas .................................................................................................... 225
9.4.3 Steam......................................................................................................... 226
9.4.4 Air............................................................................................................... 227
9.5 DOCUMENTATION……………………………………………………………….. 228
9.5.1 Permit to Work ........................................................................................... 228
9.5.2 Cold Work Permit ....................................................................................... 230
9.5.3 Hot Work Certificate ................................................................................... 231
9.5.4 Electric Permit to Work............................................................................... 232
9.5.5 Break in Containment................................................................................. 233
9.5.6 Electrical Isolation Certificate ..................................................................... 234
9.5.7 Mechanical Isolation Certificate ................................................................. 235
9.5.8 Confined Space Entry Certificate ............................................................... 236
9.5.9 Gas Test Certificate ................................................................................... 237
9.5.10 Heavy Lift Certificate ................................................................................ 237
9.5.11 Sanction to Test Certificate .................................................................... 237
9.5.12 Valve List ................................................................................................. 237
9.5.13 Spade List ................................................................................................ 237
9.5.14 Isolation Register ..................................................................................... 237
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1. Planning
2. Worksite Preparation
3. Required Activities Prior to Mechanical Isolation
4. Requirements for Blinds / Spades and Blank Flanges
5. Mechanical isolation of Process Piping, Vessels and Equipment
9.1.1 Planning
Planning is the scheduling of events to ensure the economical use of resources available
in order to achieve a defined objective.
The planned work shall be discussed with all departments, contractors and personnel
who are to be involved in the work. These discussions shall include, but not be limited to:
All work activities involving the mechanical and electrical isolation, opening and closing
of process piping, vessels and equipment shall be administered under the control of the
PTW system.
It is the responsibility of the Permit Controller to ensure the safe preparation of the
worksite. He may assign the application for process isolations to a nominated person: but
he still retains overall responsibility.
Based upon the detailed description of the work to be performed, hazards shall be
assessed. The possible impact of the work on the surrounding area shall also be
assessed to ensure that it does not impact on adjacent work.
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Prior to commencing mechanical isolation, the authorised personnel shall ensure that:
Adequate valve isolation is in place and all are locked and tagged
Successful integrity tests have been carried out on all block valves in the isolated system
The equipment is proved to be depressurised and free from hazardous materials
Isolation devices and new gaskets selected for use are of the correct rating to withstand
full operating line pressure and are suitable for corrosive/ sour service if required
Workers are instructed where the isolation devices are to be placed
All pumps and electrically driven equipment associated with the system shall be isolated
(locked off) and tagged by authorised electrical personnel. AlI requirements of the
relevant procedure shall be met
Instrumentation associated with the isolated system shall be disconnected, removed and
capped.A record shall be maintained in the Isolation Register of all disconnections. If the
instrumentation is a safety device, this isolation shall also be recorded in the Override
Logbook.
An alternative action plan shall be implemented when over-riding flammable gas and toxic
gas detection systems, fire detection and deluge systems (e.g. check work areas with
portable detection equipment).
Note: Where a safety system is over-ridden, ensure that adjacent systems are not
affected.
The area in the vicinity of the work activity shall be barriered-off and warning notices
posted
9.1.4 Requirements for Blinds / Spades and Blank Flanges
Blinds and spades shall always be of the same pressure rating specification as the line
into which they will be installed and the appropriate new gaskets shall be used.
Flanges at mechanical isolation points shall have all bolts re-installed and tightened to
withstand system working pressure
Wherever possible, blank flanges shall be drilled and tapped to accommodate a ½-inch
threaded needle valve (used to vent any residual pressure from the line).
Mechanical isolations shall be installed and tagged with identifying tags as per the work
scope and the P&IDs
The location and other required data of all installed blinds / spades or blank flanges and
identifying tags must be identified on drawings, attached to the relevant work permit, and
entered in the Isolation Register
A ‘Spading / End Blinding List' shall be completed for all spades and blanks fitted and
must be attached to the certificate to which it refers. Although this list is not classified as
a certificate, it is mandatory for all vessel or tank entry activities
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The effectiveness of all mechanical isolations shall be verified by pressure readings taken
on the depressurised equipment.
In preparation for maintenance there are always specific process / utility plant and
equipment considerations.
The wide range and variety of plant and equipment that will be present at complex O&G
plant is too great to deal with in detail in this module.
However, a number of typical examples are discussed below:
1- Furnaces / Fired Equipment.
These systems must also be shut-down in a controlled manner, with pressures being
reduced in stages over a period of time. A rapid depressurisation will cause the low boiling
point hydrocarbons to ‘boil’ and significantly reduce the operating temperature. In a worst
case scenario, the process temperature can drop sufficiently to cause a catastrophic
failure of pipework / equipment.
All blow-down facilities are normally provided with low temperature measuring and alarm
devices
3- High-pressure plant using catalyst / molecular sieves etc.
These systems must also be shut-down in a controlled manner, with pressures being
reduced in stages over a period of time.
A rapid depressurisation can cause the media to disintegrate resulting in future loss of
performance and possible plugging of pipework and equipment with media fines
4- Hydrogen Sulphide
Large concentrations of hydrogen sulphide are present in many areas of the plant.
Particular care must be taken during preparation for maintenance to ensure that where
possible all areas of plant and equipment are purged to remove the hydrogen sulphide.
5- Pyrophoric Scale
Usually present as finely divided Ferrous Sulphide, formed when hydrogen sulphide or
mercaptans come into contact with carbon steel pipework or equipment. It is capable of
rapid oxidation on exposure to air that heating to incandescence can occur. Pyrophoric
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scale is often found in pig launcher / receivers in sour gas service. Equipment must
always be nitrogen purged and wetted with water before opening up.
6- Naturally Occurring Radio-Active material (NORM)
This is often present in well fluids and may accumulate in production separators. The
levels of radiation are not normally high, an awareness of this phenomena is advisable.
7- Mercury
Traces of Mercury (Hg) may be present in the incoming gas from the reservoir. Low-
temperature plant downstream of the incoming gas reception area often use brazed
aluminium plate heat exchangers, which are susceptible to damage from the Mercury.
Disposal of accumulated Mercury has environmental implications. If designated Mercury
filters are not present, the likely place to find Mercury will be in the gas inlet
filter/separator.
Maintenance personnel must be made aware of the possibility of Mercury being present,
and make provision for its retention and safe disposal.
Note: It is not usually for large amounts to be present
8- Chemical Injection Systems
Although mainly small in size, these systems operate at high pressures. Ensure that in
preparation for maintenance, all chemical injection systems are fully isolated and
depressurised.
9-Nitrogen
This module discusses preparation for maintenance. However, during a shut-down, there
are many tasks carried out by operating personnel.
The scope of this module does not lend itself to discuss these in great detail, but it would
be advisable for operating personnel to be aware of some of the tasks that might come
their way.
Removal / replacement of ion-exchange resins
Removal / replacement of molecular sieves / desiccants
Removal / replacement of random packed columns
Removal / replacement of catalysts
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Each of these tasks has its own risks, and hazards associated with it
As these tasks are non-standard, usually done infrequently, it is important for an operator
to fully understand the procedure, and ask questions if they are unsure
Each task will require different PPE.
Each task will require a Permit to Work. The associated paperwork may be different.
Always check the permit. Always check the job site.
Familiarise yourself with the task, ensure that it is safe to proceed.
9.2 ISOLATIONS
Isolations are an important aspect of preparing plant and equipment for maintenance.
The various aspects of isolating are listed below:
Isolation Planning
Isolation Methods
Isolation Standards
Precautions When Breaking Containment
Risk Assessment of Non-Compliant Isolations
Isolation for Confined Space Entry
Isolation of any item of equipment must be planned to minimize the time removing and
installing the blind,The highest quality of isolation which is reasonably practicable must
be applied to every isolation point
Mechanical Isolation is the physical separation of equipment from a source of hazardous
energy.
In this document, valve closure, spade insertion and physical disconnection are all
described as mechanical isolation
The main categories of mechanical isolation are:
1. Positive Isolation
2. Double Block & Bleed
3. Single Valve Isolation
9.2.1 Positive Isolation
Removal of a section of pipework and bolting of a full-face flange on the open ends.
Live Side
Spool-piece Removed
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Live Side
Live Side
V1 V2
B
Figure 9.3 - Double Block and Bleed
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Break
Point
Live Side
SVI
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With this method, a refrigerant bag surrounds the pipeline, which is filled with water.
Refrigerant is circulated through the bag and freezes a plug of ice in the pipeline,
effectively sealing the pipeline and allowing work to commence. This method is for
atmospheric or very low pressure systems. And a full risk assessment / method statement
must be taken into account.
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Another method of isolating atmospheric / low pressure (LP) systems. This time a
mechanically expandable plug or inflatable bag is inserted into the pipeline then expanded
to form the isolation.
Figure 9.7 - Mechanically Expandable Sewer Plug Figure 9.8 - Inflatable Bag
9.3.1 Depressurising
This is the removal of the bulk of the vapour / gas phase from the system.
Preferred depressurisation route is to flare, secondary depressurisation route to a vent
stack. Atmospheric depressurisation can only occur under strictly controlled procedures.
Precautions when depressurising plant / equipment.
The rate of depressurisation is important.
It is possible to over-load the flare system, especially if depressurising multiple areas of
the plant. Select which areas are to be depressurised and depressurise sequentially.
When depressurising low boiling point systems, it is possible to reduce the temperature
of the plant to below design conditions. This must be avoided at all costs as in the worst
possible outcome pipework can fracture. Therefore, reduce pressures slowly and monitor
temperatures.
9.3.2 Draining
This is the removal of the bulk of the liquid phase from the system.
Preferred draining route is to a closed system, alternate draining can be to a road tanker.
Draining to atmosphere to a container or bund can only occur under strictly controlled
procedures.
Precautions when draining plant / equipment.
Check that the volume of material to be drained can be accommodated in the drain
system. It is easy to over-load the drain system, especially if draining multiple areas of
the plant. Select which areas are to be drained and drain sequentially.
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Check temperature of material to be drained is not too hot / too cold for the drain system.
Too hot material may flash-off lighter material already in the drain system. Too cold
material may solidify heavier material already in the drain system.
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Following displacement of hydrocarbon vapour with inert gas, the vessel or tank should
normally be purged again with air to displace the inert gas in its turn.
This must always be done in cases where man-entry is planned, regardless of any
intended use of PPE.
There are three methods of purging with inert gas:
1. Displacement Purging
2. Pressurisation Purging
3. Dilution Purging
1- Displacement Purging
This method is used for equipment with simple cross sections such as pipelines or tanks.
The volume of nitrogen required corresponds to the physical volume of the pipe or tank.
In many pipelines, a "pig," is introduced and propelled through the pipe by the nitrogen
pressure to clean the line.
Tanks can be filled with water to displace air, then nitrogen introduced into the tank as
the water is drained out. This leaves the tank inerted.
2- Pressurisation Purging
This method is used when conditions do not permit a sweeping action of nitrogen through
the vessel. The vessel is repeatedly pressurised and mixed with nitrogen gas and then
the mixture is exhausted.
3- Dilution Purging
This method is used for equipment cross sections such as distillation columns, kilns,
reactors, etc.
Nitrogen partially mixes with the gas to be purged out, and then the mixture exits through
an outlet located as far as possible from the inlet.
9.4.3 Steam
At on-shore sites, steam may be available in sufficient quantities to permit its use for
purging and cleaning vessels, tanks and pipework.
Steam is the most effective of the common media for this purpose. It should be used at
low pressure, not exceeding 1.0 barg maximum.
Two methods of steaming may be employed; open-steaming or closed-steaming:
Open-steaming is used where the tank or vessel and its associated pipework is fully open
to atmosphere.
Closed-steaming is used for closed vessels and their associated equipment. During this
operation, the temperature is raised allowing volatile liquids to vaporise and disperse
together with the bulk of the steam via the condensing system. The heavy constituents
can flow freely and be drained off with condensed steam from the base of the system.
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For all but the largest of vessels and tanks, sufficient steam should be available to raise
the external surface temperature to at least 95oC. Steaming should continue until the
condensate flowing from the vessel is substantially free of hydrocarbon.
Steam may be used in the case of process vessels, small storage tanks and medium
sized insulated tanks.
It is essential that following a period of closed-steaming, adequate provision is made to
prevent vacuum damage caused by the condensation of steam. In large tanks the rate of
condensation is such that adequate purging is not possible.
After steaming, it is normal practice to cool down the equipment with of water, this gives
an additional wash to help remove residual hydrocarbons
Where residual material is left in the tank or vessel surface after prolonged steaming,
such residual material may still vaporize on application of heat, eg burning or welding. In
such cases, cold-cutting may be employed or the internal surface kept thoroughly wet
during the heating operation. All temporary steam hoses used must be electrically bonded
and earthed.
9.4.4 Air
Where it is not possible or practicable to use any of the foregoing methods, it may be
necessary to use air to ventilate equipment and remove hydrocarbon vapour
When a decision is made to use this technique, every effort must be made to pump out
as much liquid and sludge as possible before opening the tank or vessel, where
practicable. Forced ventilation must be used so that the flammable vapour is cleared in
the shortest possible time.
During this operation, the flammable range will be passed through, presenting an
explosion hazard if an ignition source is nearby.
All electrical equipment used must be suitable for use in a Zone 1 Hazardous Area. Other
equipment within the hazard range of flammable vapour must be effectively isolated.
Air movers must be fitted at the roof or top manhole so as to pull air in at low level.
Temporary trunking may be needed to achieve high-level disposal. In order to minimise
the emission of gas/vapour when the lower manhole door is opened, the air movers must
be started up first to obtain a slightly negative pressure before the lower manhole is
opened.
Vapour issuing from shell manholes may give rise to dangerous concentrations in a
bunded or confined area and, under such conditions, no kind of ignition source is
permitted. Removal of vapour by air movers attached to the roof manhole is the
recommended safe practice.
Care must be taken when using natural draft ventilation during periods of calm weather,
since vapour released from tanks can travel considerable distances without being
dispersed. Due regard must be given to wind direction and the risks to adjacent premises
and the public.
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Owing to the possible presence of pyrophoric scale within tanks or vessels that have
contained sour crude or products, provision must be made for continuous wetting of the
internal surfaces by means of water from one or more fog nozzles inserted into the roof
opening. The nozzles must be turned on first and the air movers opened immediately
afterwards.
A shell manhole must be opened after approximately 5 minutes of operation, when the
internals are thoroughly wetted. With the air movers still in operation, the fog nozzles
should be removed and loose scale dislodged with high pressure water streams.
CAUTION: When this method is employed, the water nozzles must be earthed.
9.5 DOCUMENTATION
The Permit to Work System and a selection of typical supporting documents are
described below.
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This certificate issued by Operations in association with a PTW and is used to control hot
work that produces an open flame or spark
It includes, but is not limited to, welding, burning, grinding, heat treatment, stress relieving,
any work involving naked flames, heat guns, electrically powered equipment used in
hazardous areas, and needle guns equipped with sparking tips
Hot Work Permits are usually coloured red for easy identification.
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This gives the permission for the electrical work to be undertaken. A typical example
is shown below.
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Note: A confined space entry certificate must always be accompanied by a gas test
certificate to verify the atmosphere in the space is hazard free immediately before entry
The entry and gas test certificates must be carried out under a PTW.
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This certificate issued by Operations indicates the levels of oxygen, toxic and
combustible materials in a confined space and must accompany a PTW and a
confined space entry certificate
This is a list that identifies the status of valves used in isolating equipment and sections
of plant
This is a list that identifies the status of spades / spectacle blinds / full-face flanges
used in isolating equipment and sections of plant
A written record of the location and description of all physical disconnections and
mechanical isolations (blanks / spades and blank flanges) installed in process piping,
vessels or equipment
This information includes the type of blind, tag number, date installed, date removed,
authorising signatures, and other required information
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RESOURCES
1- Modelling and Optimisation of Oil and Gas Production Systems by J.D. Jansen and
P.K.Currie – 2004
2- Petroleum Production Engineering by Boyun Guo, William C. Lyons and Ali
Ghalambor – 2007
3- Ejada project
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