Chemistry SSC-1

BAHRIA FOUNDATION COLLEGES (NORTH)

Centralized Notes of Short Questions
(RWP, Mardan, Abbottabad, Gujranwala, Sargodha) Boards
Chemistry SSC-I

Short questions and answers (quick response questions)

1. What is the difference between organic and inorganic chemistry?

Organic Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry

1. Organic chemistry is the
study of covalent compounds of
Carbon (C) and Hydrogen
(H) and their derivatives
2. The compounds whose
structure and properties are
studied are called organic
compounds. For example:
C6H12O6 (Glucose),
C6H6(Benzene).
3. Organic compound are
naturally occurring i.e. obtained
from living things. Or
synthesized.
4. Scope of this branch covers
petroleum, petrochemical and
pharmaceutical
industries.
1. Inorganic chemistry is the study
of all elements and their compounds
except the
compounds of carbon.
2. The structure and properties of
inorganic compounds are studied.
For example: H2O (water), CO2
(carbon
dioxide), SiO2 (silicon dioxide)
3. Inorganic compounds are naturally
occurring i.e. obtained from non living
sources o commercially
synthesized.
4. Scope of this branch include
cement Ceramics, glass industry and
metallurgy.

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2. In which branch of chemistry behavior of gases and liquid is studies.

Physical chemistry:
Physical chemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that deals with the
relationship between the composition and physical properties of matter along with the
changes in them.
3. Define biochemistry.
Biochemistry:
It is the branch of chemistry in which we study the structure, composition, and
chemical reactions of the substances found in living organisms .It cover all chemical
processes taking the place in living organisms, such as synthesis and metabolism of
biomolecules like carbohydrates, protein and fats .Biochemistry emerged as a
separate discipline when scientist began study how living thing obtain energy from
food or how the fundamental biological changes occur during a disease.
4. Which branch of chemistry deals with preparation of paints and paper?
Industrial chemistry:
The branch of chemistry that deals with the manufacturing of chemical compounds on
commercial scale is called industrial chemistry. It deals with the manufacturing of basic
chemicals such as Oxygen, chlorine, ammonia, caustic soda etc. These chemicals provide
the raw material for many other industries such as fertilizers, soap, textiles, agricultural
products paints, paper etc.
5. In which branch of chemistry are the metabolic processes of
carbohydrates and proteins studied?
Biochemistry;
It is the branch of chemistry in which we study the structure, composition, and
chemical reactions of the substances found in living organisms .It cover all chemical
processes taking the place in living organisms, such as synthesis and metabolism of
biomolecules like carbohydrates, protein and fats .Biochemistry emerged as a
separate discipline when scientist began study how living thing obtain energy from
food or how the fundamental biological changes occur during a disease.
6. Which branch of chemistry deals with atomic energy and its uses in daily life?
Physical chemistry;
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Nuclear chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the radioactivity, nuclear
processes and properties. The main concern of this branch is with the atomic energy
and its uses in daily life.
7. Which branch of chemistry deals with the structure and properties of naturally
occurring molecules?
Physical chemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that deals with the
relationship between the composition and physical properties of matter along with the
changes in them. The properties such as, structure of atoms, atomic no and atomic
masses are studies in this field of chemistry.
8. What do you know about corpuscular nature of matter?
9. What is the ancient concept of elements?
An ancient Greek philosopher, Empedocles thought that all materials are made up of
four things called elements
1, Earth 2, Air 3, water 4 fire
Plato adopted Empedocles theory and coined the term element to describe these
four substances .his successor, Aristotle also adopted the concept of four elements
.He introduced the idea that elements can be differentiated on the basis of properties
such as hot versus cold and wet versus dry .For Example, heating clay in an oven
could be thought of as driving of water and adding fire ,transforming clay into a pot
,similarly water (cold &wet ) falls from the sky as rain ,when air (hot and wet) cools
down .The Greek concept of four elements existed for more than thousands years.
10. What is the composition of Air?
11. Justify air is a homogenous mixture. Identify substances present in it.
Air consists of many elements and compounds; all existing in molecular form and
have uniform composition. It has only one phase, therefore air is a homogenous
mixture .For instance air consists of O2, N2, CO2, H2O and the noble gases.

12. Atomic number of an elements is 17 and mass number is 35 .How many

protons and neutrons are in the nucleus of an atom of this element?
Number of protons are equal to atomic number and Number of
neutrons =mass number –atomic number Number of neutrons= 35-
17
Number of neutrons= 18
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13. Why C-12 is chosen by scientist?

By international agreement in 1961, light isotopes of Carbon C-12 has been chosen
as a standard .This isotope of carbon (C-12)has been assigned a mass of exactly 12
atomic mass unit .This value has been determined accurately using mass
spectrometer. The mass of atoms of all atoms of all other elements are compared to
the mass C-12. Thus the mass of an atom of an elements relative to the mass of
an atom of C- 12 is called its relative atomic mass:
One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one – twelfth the
mass of one C-12 atom.
Mass of one C-12 atom=12amu 1amu =mass of one C-12 atom
/12
14. What would be relative atomic mass of hydrogen, if it is 8.40% massive
than C-12?
A hydrogen atom is 8.40% as massive as the standard C-12 atom
.Therefore, relative atomic mass of hydrogen.
=8.40/100x12amu
=1.008amu
15. Why the term formula mass is used for ionic Compounds?
The term formula mass is used for ionic compounds .Ionic compounds consist
of arrays of oppositely charged ions rather than separate molecules. So we represent
an ionic compound by its formula unit .A formula unit indicates the simplest ratio
between cation and anions in an ionic compounds. For example ,the common salt
consist of Na + and Cl- ions .it has one Na+ ion for every Cl- ion. So formula unit for
common salt is NaCl.
16. What are ions? How are they formed?
Ions are charged species formed by an atom by removing or adding an electron or
electrons from the outer most shell.
17. What are cations? How cations are formed?
Positively charged ions are called cations. Cations are formed when an atom loses
its electron or electrons from its outer most shell. For example, Sodium is a metal, it
loses its electron from its outer most shell to form Na+, similarly Calcium losses two
electrons from its outer most shell to form Ca+2 ion.
18. Differentiate between homogenous and heterogeneous mixture.
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Homogenous mixture
Mixture that contains only one
phase is called a homogenous
mixture.
Homogenous mixture has uniform
composition.
Solutions are homogenous mixture.
Examples are water + salt, (saline
and Brine) air, sugar + water.
19. Differentiate between physical and chemical properties.
Physical properties
The properties associated with physical
state of matter are called physical
properties.
Physical properties such as smell, taste,
hardness, shape of crystal and solubity,
melting and boiling points etc.
The chemical composition of remains
same.
Example:
When ice is heated, it melts to water
form. When water is further heated it
boils to give steam. In this entire
process only the
physical state of matter changes but its
chemical composition remains changes.
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heterogeneous mixture
A mixture that contains two or more
visibly different components is called
heterogeneous mixture.
Heterogeneous mixture do not have
uniform composition.
Colloids and suspensions are
heterogeneous mixture.
Examples are fog, smog, sand + water,
milk.
chemical properties
The chemical properties depend upon
the chemical composition of a
substance.
When a substance undergoes a
chemical change, its composition
changes and a
new substances are formed.
The chemical composition of a
substance
changes and hence formed a new
substance.
Example:
Decomposition of water is a chemical
change as it produces hydrogen and
oxygen gases.
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20. Write a note on chemical spices.

Ion is an atom or group of atoms having charge on it. The change maybe positive or
negative. There are two types of ions i.e. cations and onion.
Cations:
The atoms or group of atoms having positive charge on it is called cation. A cation is
formed by losing the electrons from outermost shell. The following equations shows
formation of cations of an atom.
𝐻 → 𝐻+ + 𝐿𝑒−
𝑁𝑎 → 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐿𝑒
𝐶𝑎 → 𝐶𝑎+2 + 2𝑒−

Anions:
An atom or group of atoms having negative charge on it is called anions. An anion is
formed by gaing or addition of electrons to an atom.
Example:
Cl- and O2-
Following examples shows the formation of anion by addition on gaining of electrons:

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𝐶𝑙 + 𝑙𝑒− → 𝐶𝑙−
𝑂 + 2𝑒− → 𝑂2−
21. Differentiate between atom and ion.

Atom Ion
It is the smallest particle of an It is the smallest unit of ionic
element. compound.
It can or cannot exist It cannot exist independently and
independently is
and can take part in a chemical surrounded by oppositely charged
reaction. ions.
It is electrically neural. It has net charge (either negative
or
positive) on it.
Example: Example:
Chlorine and sodium are Sodium loses electron to form Na+
examples of atom. and chlorine gains an electron to
form Cl- ion.

22. Differentiate between compound and mixture.

Compound Mixture
It is formed by a chemical combination Mixture is formed by the simple
of atoms of the mixing up of the substances.
elements.
The constituents lose their identity Mixture shows the properties of the
and from a new substance having constituents.
entirely different properties from
them.
Compounds always have fixed Mixtures do not have fixed
composition by mass. composition.
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The components cannot be
separated by physical means.
Every compound is represented by a
chemical formula.
Compounds have homogeneous
composition.
Compounds have sharp and fixed
melting points.
For example: H2O, Glucose
(C6H12O6)
23. Differentiate between Molecule and Molecular Ion.
Molecule
1. It is the smallest particle of an
element or compound which can
exist independently and shows all
the properties of that compound.
2 It is always neutral.
3.It is formed by the combination of
atoms .
4 It is a stable unit.
5. For example: CO2, H2O are molecule
of carbon dioxide
and water respectively.
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The components can be separated
by simple physical methods.
It consist of two or more
components and does not have any
chemical formula.
They may be homogeneous or
heterogeneous in composition.
Mixtures do not have sharp and fixed
melting point.
For example: Air, Sand + Salt etc.
Molecular Ion
It is formed by gain or loss of
electrons by a molecule.
It can have negative or positive charge
It is formed by the ionization of a
molecule.
It is a reactive specie.
-2 -1
For example: CO3 and H3O
are
molecular ions.
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24. Differentiates between Ions and Free Redicals.

Ions Free Radicals

These are the atoms which bear some These are the atoms that have odd
charges . number of electron .
They exist in solution or in crystal lattice They can exist in solutions as well in air

Their formation is not affected by the They may form in the presence of light.
presence of light
Cl-1 and Br-1 are the ions of chlorine and
Cl. And Br . are the radicals of
bromine.
Chlorine and bromine.

25. What is alchemy? How it developed and handicapped the growth of science?
During 600 – 1600 AD, chemical history was dominated by a pseudo – science
called alchemy. Earlier alchemists were obsessed with the searched for ways to
change less valued metals such as lead into gold. They could not succeed and
wasted their time and money. Therefore, the works of earlier alchemist handicapped
progress of science. However, during that period they discovered many new
processes such as distillation, sublimation and extraction. These processes are
contributing a lot in the progress of science. This means the works of different
scientists at the same time handicap or promotes the growth of science.
26. Differentiate between the terms gram atomic mass, gram molecular mass and
gram formula mass.
(i) Gram atomic mass represents one mole of atoms of an element, gram molecular
mass represents one mole of molecules of a compound or an element that exists in
molecular state whereas gram formula mass represents one mole of ionic formula
units of a compound.
(ii) Gram atomic mass contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms, gram molecular mass contains
6.022 x 1023 molecules where as gram formula mass contain 6.022 x 1023 formula
units.
(iii) All of these quantities represent molar mass.

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27. How can you define a mole in terms of mass of a substance? What is the
relationship between mole and mass of a substance.
A mole can be defined as the atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass
expressed in grams.
Relationship between mass and mole is represented by:
No. of moles= Known mass of the substance/molar mass of the substance
28. Identify mixture elements or compound out of the followings. Coca cola,
petroleum, sugar, table salt, blood, gun powder, urine, aluminium, silicon,
tin, lime, ice cream.
Elements: Aluminium, Silicon, tin.
Compounds: Sugar, Table salt, Lime.
Mixture: Coca cola, petroleum, blood, gun powder, urine, ice cream.
29. Why atomic mass of an atom is defined as relative atomic mass? Atomic
mass of an atom is defined as relative atomic mass, because atomic mass of an
atom is the mass which compares or relates with 1/12th mass of carbon 12
isotope.
30. What is the relationship between empirical formula and formula unit. All the
organic compounds are represented by formula unit. Formula unit is also an
empirical formula of Ionic compounds.
31. 1 mole of different substances has different masses but same no. of particles.
Why?
Mole of a substance always has 6.022 x 1023 no. particles in it but 1 mole of any
substance have different gram atomic mass, gram molecular masses and gram
formula masses.
32. What is the significance of the symbol of an element ?
Symbol means identification , in chemistry it is used for the representation of chemical
name of an element . In chemical equation whole name of an element is difficult to
write , because the formula or chemical equation becomes too lengthy . Thus symbol
makes an easy representation and understanding in this case
33. An element with A = 39 , Z = 19 .Calculate the number of electrons and
protons in one atom of this element.
Atomic mass of an element = A = 39 Atomic number of element Z=19
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Atomic number is the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom so ,

proton and electron always equal in any atom ,so:
Number of protons =19 Number of electrons = 19
34. What is the difference between molecular mass and formula mass? Molecular
mass is the term used for mass of the molecules of compounds, whereas formula unit
is the mass of an ionic compound. It is also the empirical formula of that compound.
35. Identify following as diatomic tri-atomic and poly atomic molecules: H2SO4,
H2, CO2,HCl, CO, C6H6, H2O
Diatomic molecules: H2, HCl, CO
Tri-atomic molecules: CO2, H2O
Poly atomic molecules: H2SO4, C6H6
36. 16g of oxygen atom and 1g of hydrogen have same no. of atoms why?
16g of oxygen atom and 1g of hydrogen atom represents their molar masses, which
is mass of 1 mole of the substance and 1 mole of any substance is always equals to
6.022 x 1023 particles. So 16g of oxygen atom and 1g of hydrogen have same no. of
atoms.
37. Justify the difference between 1 atom of C and 1g atom of C.
1 atom of carbon represents the exact no. of carbon atom i.e. 1. Whereas 1g of
carbon atom represents the no. of atoms present in 1g of carbon.
That is.
No. of particles= mass in grams/ molar mass XNA
38. State three reasons why air is a mixture and water a compound?
Air is impure substance composed of several elements and molecules. Each of them
has their individual characteristic. And the components can be separated by physical
methods, whereas water is a compound composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio
of 2:1. It’s a pure substance and the constituents do not retain their individual
properties.
Formulae for Chemical calculations
No. of moles= Mass in grams/Molar mass

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Chapter # 2 Structure of Atoms

1. Differentiate between shell and sub-shell.

Shell Subshell
The electron in an atom revolves A shell or energy level is sub divided
around into sub shells or sub energy levels.
the nucleus in one of the circular paths
called shells.
Each shell is described by an n A sub shell is representing by putting
value. n can have values 1,2,3,…. n value of a shell before its symbol
When as, n=1, K shell has only one sub
n=1, it is K shell which is designed as 1s. n=2, L
shell n=2, it shell has two sub shells which are
is L shell designed as 2s, 2p. n=3, M shell has
n=3, it is M three sub shells called
shell 3s, 3p and 3d

2. An atom is electrically neutral, why?

Atom is composed of electrons protons and neutrons. Neutrons are neutral electrons
have negative charge and protons have positive charge. An atom is electrically
neutral because it has equal no. of electrons and protons.
3. The electronic configuration listed incorrect. Explain what mistake has been
made in each and write correct electronic configuration.
a) X = 1s22s22p43p2
X = 1s22s22p6
b) y = 1s22s12p53s1
Y = 1s22s2
c) Z = 1s22s22p53s1
Z = 1s22s22p6

According to Auf Bau principle electrons fill the lowest energy sub-shell available first.
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In the above given electronic configurations the lower energy subshells were
incompletely filled.

4. Write electronic configuration for first 18 elements.

𝟏i) 𝑯
𝟏
Atomic no = 1
No. of electron = 1
Electronic configuration of 𝟏𝑯 = 1s1𝟏

ii) 𝟒𝑯𝒆
𝟐

Atomic no = 2
No. of electron = 2
Electronic configuration of𝟒𝑯𝒆 = 1s𝟐 2

iii) 𝟕𝑳𝒊
𝟑

Atomic no = 3
No. of electron = 3
Electronic configuration of 𝟕𝑳𝒊 = 1s𝟑22s1

iv) 𝟗𝑩𝒆
𝟒

Atomic no = 4
No. of electron = 4
Electronic configuration of 𝟗𝑩𝒆 = 1s𝟒22s2

v) 𝟏𝟎𝑩
𝟓
Atomic no = 5
No. of electron = 5
Electronic configuration of 𝟏𝟎𝑩 = 1s2𝟓2s22p1

vi) 𝟏
𝟐
𝑪
𝟔
Atomic no = 6
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No. electron = 6
of Electronic configuration of 𝟏𝟐𝑪 = 1s22s22p2
𝟔

vii) 𝟏
𝟒
𝑵
𝟕
Atomic no = 7
No. of electron = 7
Electronic configuration of 𝟕𝟏𝟒𝑵 = 1s22s22p3

viii) 𝟏
𝟔
𝑶
𝟖
Atomic no = 8

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No. of electron = 8
Electronic configuration of 𝟏𝟔𝑶 = 1s2𝟖2s22p4

ix) 𝟏
𝟖
𝑭
𝟗
Atomic no = 9
No. of electron = 9
Electronic configuration of 𝟏𝟖𝑭
𝟗 = 1s22s22p5
𝟐𝟎
x) 𝑵𝒆
𝟏𝟎
Atomic no = 10
No. of electron = 10
𝟐𝟎𝑵𝒆 2 2 6
Electronic configuration of = 1s
𝟏𝟎 2s 2p

xi) 𝟐𝟑
𝑵𝒂
𝟏𝟏
Atomic no = 11
No. of electron = 11
𝟐𝟑𝑵𝒂 = 1s22s22p63s1
Electronic configuration of 𝟏𝟏

xii) 𝟐𝟒
𝑴𝒈
𝟏𝟐
Atomic no = 12
No. of electron = 12
Electronic configuration of𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟒𝑴𝒈 = 1s22s22p63s2

xiii) 𝟐𝟔
𝑨𝒍
𝟏𝟑
Atomic no = 13
No. of electron = 13
Electronic configuration of𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟔𝑨𝒍 = 1s22s22p63s23p1

xiv) 𝟐𝟖

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𝑺𝒊
𝟏𝟒 no = 14
Ato No. of electron = 14
mic Electronic configuration of𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟖𝑺𝒊 = 1s22s22p63s23p2

xv) 𝟑𝟏
𝑷
𝟏𝟓
Atomic no = 15
No. of electron = 15
Electronic configuration of𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟏𝑷 = 1s22s22p63s23p3

xvi) 𝟑𝟐
𝑺
𝟏𝟔
Atomic no = 16
No. of electron = 16
Electronic configuration of𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟐𝑺 = 1s22s22p63s23p4

xvii) 𝟑𝟓
𝑪𝒍
𝟏𝟕
Atomic no = 17
No. of electron = 17
2 2 6 2 5
𝟏𝟕 𝑪𝒍 = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Electronic configuration of 𝟑𝟓

xviii) 𝟒𝟎
𝑨𝒓
𝟏𝟖

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Atomic no = 18
No. of electron = 18
𝟒𝟎𝑨𝒓 2 2 6 2 6
Electronic configuration of = 1s
𝟏𝟖 2s 2p 3s 3p

5. What are orbits? Why orbits are called energy level?

The electron in an atom revolves around the nucleus in one of the circular orbits.
Each orbit has a fixed energy. So each orbit is also called energy level.
6. What are the conclusions of Rutherford experiment?
Rutherford drew the following conclusion:
1. Since majority of the α-particles passed through the foil undefelected, most of the
space occupied by an atom must be empty.
2. The deflection of a few a – particles through angles greater than 900 shows that
these particles are deflected by electrostatic repulsion between the positively
charged a- particles and positively charged of atom.
3. Massive a- particles are not deflected by electrons.
7. How Rutherford proposed a planetary model for atoms.
He proposed a planetary model (similar to solar system) for an atom. An atom is a
neutral particle. The mass of an atom is concentrated in a very small dense positively
charged region. He named his region as nucleus. The electrons are revolving around
the nucleus in circles. These circles are called orbits. The centripetal force due to the
revolution of electrons balances the electrostatic force of attraction between the
nucleus and the electrons.
8. What are defects in Rutherford`s atomic model?
Rutherford`s model of an atom resembles our solar system. It has following defects:
1. Classical physics suggests that electron being charged particle will emit energy
continuously while revolving around nucleus. Thus the orbit of the revolving
electron becomes smaller and smaller unit it would fall into nucleus. This would
collapse atomic structure.
2. If revolving electron emits energy continuously it should form a continuous
spectrum for an atom but a line spectrum is obtained.

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9. How Bohr atomic model was able to remove the defects from Ratherford`s
atmoic model?
Ratherford suggested the energy occupied by the orbits without considering the
angular momemtum of orbits. The model represented an unstable atom butform a
line spectrum rather than a continuous spectrum. Bohr represented orbits as energy
levels having fix energy explained their momentum by using quantum theory (plank`s
constant: h/2Π). This theory explained nicely the stability of an atom and how a line
spectrum is observed.
10. How prevailing theories bring about changes in them?
Dalton`s atomic theory explained data from many experiments. So it was widely
accepted. Discovery of sub – atomic particles and isotopes proved that some of the
Dalton`s ideas about atoms were not correct. Scientists did not discard his theory. Instead,
they revised the theory to take into account new discoveries. This shows how prevailing
theories bring about changes in them.
11. How discovery of isotopes contradicted Dalton`s atomic theory?
Dalton atomic theory explained atoms as identical particles however discovery of
isotopes reveals that atoms may have same atomic number but different atomic
masses due the presence of different number of neutrons in them this show the
discovery of isotopes contradicted Dalton`s atomic theory.
12. Compare ordinary water and heavy water.
Property Ordinary water Heavy water
Melting point 0.000C 3.810C
Boiling point 1000C 101.20C
Density at 250C 0.99701 g/cm3 1.1044 g/cm3
13. Isotopes are chemically alike and differ in their physical properties why?
Chemical properties of an element depend upon on the number of protons and
electrons, whereas the physical properties depend upon the mass of an element. As
atomic number of an element is always same (number of proton and electrons does
not change). So the chemical properties of an element are same. The physical
properties may differ because of different atomic masses (isotopes) of an element.

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14. Write down the correct energy order of the sub – shells belonging to different
shells.
The increasing order of energy of sub – shells belonging to different shells is given
below.
1s<2s<3s<3p<4s<3d……
15. Cl – 35 and Cl – 37 have same electronic configuration why?
35 2 2 6 2 5
17 𝐶𝑙 = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p . As atomic no. does not
Electronic configuration of chlorine is
change so the no. of electrons are same. Hence Cl – 35 and Cl – 37 have same
electronic configuration.

16. Give notation for sub – shell of K, L, M, and N shell.

K shell = 1s2
L shell = 2s22p6
M shell = 3s2 3p6 3d10
N shell = 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14
17. Can you identify an atom without knowing the number of neutrons in it?
An atom can be identified without knowing the no. of neutrons because atoms are
identified by their atomic no. , which always remain the same for an element.
However elements may have different no. of neutrons.
𝑨𝒍. What information do you get
18. The atomic symbol of aluminum is written as𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟑
from it?
The symbol represents the mass no. and atomic no. of aluminum atom. Through this
information we can predict the no. of electrons, protons and neutron as well as the
arrangement of electron =s in shells and sub-shells.
19. How was it proved that the whole mass of an atom is located at its centre?

According Rutherford experiment, most of the alpha particles passed through the foil
undeflected. This means most of the part of the atom is empty, and the rebounce of a
few particles represents that the center of atom is very dense and whole mass of the
atom located here.

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20. How was it shown that atomic nuclei are positively charged?
Deflection of few alpha particles represents that the center of atom has positive
charges, which is called nucleus of an atom.
21. How many electrons of an atom having atomic no. 15 would be accommodated
in M shell?
An atom having atomic no. 15 would have electronic configuration of
1s22s22p63s23p3. The 3rd shell is M shell and according to its electronic configuration
the no. of electrons this shell would accommodate are 5.
22. What is the maximum capacity of shell?
The maximum capacity of each shell is given by 2n2, where n is the no of shell. For
instance:
If n=1 then 2(1)2=2
Similarly if n=2 then 2(2)2=8,
Which means 1st shell can accommodate maximum of 2 electrons, and 2 nd shells can
accommodate 8 electrons. Similarly by using this simple method we can find out the
electrons in each shell.
23. If for an atom it K and L shell are fully accommodated. What would be the
atomic no. of the atom?
K shell can accommodate 2 electrons whereas L shell can accommodate 8 electrons
which mean there are 10 electrons in total. As no. of electrons for an atom is equal to
no. of protons, hence the atomic no. of the atom would be 10.
24. What is carbon dating?
The method of age determination of dead organisms (fossils) by measuring
radioactivity of C-14 in them is called radio- carbon dating or carbon dating. Carbon-
14 is used to estimate the age of carbon-containing substances. Carbon atoms
circulate between the oceans, and living organism at a rate very much faster than
they decay. As a result the concentration of C-14 in all living things keeps on
increasing. After death organisms no longer pick up C-14. By comparing the activity
of a sample of skull or jaw bones, with the activity of living tissues, we can estimate
how long it has been since the organism died. This process is called dating.

20
Chemistry SSC-1

25. Write two ways in which isotopes of an element differ and two ways in which
they are similar.
Isotopes of an element differ by:
a) Mass number (no. of neutrons are different)
b) Physical properties (these depend upon the mass no. as mass no. is different
physical properties are also different.)
Isotopes of an element are similar by:

a) Atomic no. (number of protons)

b) Chemical properties (these depend upon electronic configuration, which always
remain the same due to same atomic no.)
26. How energy of electrons in an atom changes?
What happens to the energy of election when it jumps from higher energy orbit
to lower energy orbit?

When an electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit, it absorbs energy and when
it jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit it radiates energy. This change in energy, E is
given by following equation:
∆𝐸 = 𝐸2−𝐸 1
27. What is the role of isotopes in treatment of cancer?
For the treatment of skin cancer, isotopes like P-32 and Sr-90 are used because
they emit less penetrating beta radiations. For cancer, Co-60, affecting within the
body, is used because it emits strongly penetrating gamma rays
28. How isotopes are used for the diagnosis of disease?

The radioactive isotopes are used as tracers in medicine to diagnose the presence of
tumor in the human body. Isotopes of Iodine-131 are used for diagnosis of goiter in
thyroid gland. Similarly technetium is used to monitor the bone growth.
29. How the pathway of a certain chemical reaction is determined?
The radioisotopes are used in a chemical reaction to follow a radioactive element
during the reaction and ultimately to determine the structure. For example: C-14 is
used to label CO 2. As CO2 is used by the plants for photosynthesis to form glucose,
its movement is detected through the various intermediate steps up to glucose.

21
Chemistry SSC-1

30. When U-235 breaks it produces a huge amount of energy, how this energy is
utilized?
Radioactive isotopes are used to generate electricity by carrying out controlled
nuclear fission reactions in nuclear reactors. For example, when U-235 is bombarded
with slow moving neutrons, the uranium nucleus breaks up to produce Barium-139
and Krypton- 94 and three neutrons.
1 94
235𝑈 + 𝑛 → 𝐾𝑟 + 31𝑛 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
139
𝐵𝑎 +

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Chemistry SSC-1

Chapter # 3 Periodicity and Periodicity of Properties

1. Which atom has higher shielding effect, Li or Na?

The reduction in force of attraction between nucleus and the valence electrons by no.
of electrons present in sub-shells is called shielding effect.
As we move from top to bottom in a group the no. of electronic shell increases. So the
no. of electron in inner – sub shell also increases. As a result shielding effect
increases. Thus, Na has higher shielding effect.
Explain why Na has higher ionization energy than K?
"Ionization energy is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to remove
the outermost electron from an isolated gaseous atom."
𝑀(𝑔) + 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑀+(𝑔) + 𝑒
Na has higher ionization energy than K because ionization energy value decreases
from top to bottom in a group. Due to shielding effect in atoms increases as we
descend. Greater shielding effect results in a weaker attraction of the nucleus for the
valence electrons. So, they are easier to remove. This leads to decrease in ionization
energy from top to bottom in a group.
2. Alkali metals belong to S- block in a periodic table, why?
Alkali metals belong to s – block in a periodic table because their valence electronic
configuration is ns.
3. What types of elements have the highest ionization energies and what
types of elements have the lowest ionization energies.
"Ionization energy is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to remove
the outermost electron from an isolated gaseous atom."
The elements with the large atomic sizes have greater shielding effect which results
in the weaker force of attraction between the nucleus and the valence – shell
electrons have low ionization energy.
For example:
Group IA and IIA elements have low ionization energy.
The elements with the small relatively small atomic sizes with greater nuclear charge

23
Chemistry SSC-1

which results in the stranger force of attraction between the nucleus and valence -
shell electrons have high ionization energies.
For example:
Group VII A element has high ionization energy.
4. Two atoms have electronic configuration 1s22s22p6 and 1s22s22p63s1 . The
ionization energy of one is 2080kJ/mole and that of the other is 496kJ/mole.
Match ionization energies with one of the given electronic configuration.
Give reason for wer choice.
The element with the electronic configuration 1s2 2s23p6would have the ionization
energy 200 KJ/mole because the electronic configuration suggest that it belongs to
VIII A, as the ionization energy increases from left to right in a period due to the
increase in the nuclear charge and the stronger force of attraction between the
nucleus and the valence shell electron. This is why this element would have high
ionization energy. The element with electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 3p6have
ionization energy 496KJlmole because the electronic configuration suggest that it
belongs to group IA as the ionization energy increases from left to right in a period
and the given element belongs to group IA. So it will have low ionization energy.

5. Use the second member of each group from Group IA, IIA and VIIA to judge that
the number of valence electron in an atom of the element is the same as its
group number.
Second number of group IA 𝟔𝐋𝐢 𝟑

1s22p1 has 1 electronic configuration suggest that lithium have one electron in its
valence shell, so it belongs to group IA. Hence proved that the no. of electrons in the
valence shell determine the group no.
Second number of group IIA: 𝟐𝟒𝐌𝐠
𝟏𝟐
2 2 6 2
1s 2s 3p 3s
as electronic configuration suggest that Mg have 2 electrons in its valence shell. So
it belongs to group IIA. Hence proved that the no. of electrons in the valence shell
determine group no.
Second number of group VIIA: = 𝟑𝟓𝐂𝐥
𝟏𝟕

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Chemistry SSC-1

1s2 2s2 3p63s2 3p5

As electronic configuration suggest that Cl has electrons in its valence shell, so it
belongs to group VIIA. Hence proved that the no. of electrons determine group no.
6. Argue in what region of the periodic ….
a) High ionization energy:
"Ionization energy is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to
remove the outermost electron from an isolated gaseous atom."
𝑀(𝑔) + 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → 𝑀+(𝑔) + 𝑒
b) High ionization:
the right region of the periodic table would have high ionization energy as ionization
energy increases from left to right in periodic due to increase in the charge and
relatively small atom sizes, the force of attraction between the nucleus and valence
shell electrons increases. This increases their ionization energy.
c) Low ionization energy:
The left region of the periodic table would have low ionization energy as ionization
energy increases from left to right in a periodic table so left region would.
7. Define periodic Law.
A table showing systematic arrangement of elements is called periodic table. It is
based on the Periodic law that states if the elements are arranged in the order of their
increasing atomic numbers, their properties are repeated in a periodic manner.
8. What is the most fundamental property of any atom?
Why atomic number is considered as most the fundamental property of elements.
How is periodicity of properties dependent upon number of protons in an
atom?
Atomic number is a more fundamental property than atomic mass because atomic
number of every element is fixed and it increases regularly by 1 from element to
element. No two elements can have the same atomic number.
9. What was the contribution of Dobereiner towards classification of
elements?
Dobereiner's Triads:
A German chemist Dobereiner observed relationship between atomic masses of
25
Chemistry SSC-1

several groups of three elements called triads. In these groups, the central or middle
element had atomic mass average of the other two elements. One triad group
example is that of calcium (40), strontium(88) and barium (137). The atomic mass of
strontium is the average of the atomic masses of calcium and barium. Only a few
elements could be arranged in this way. This classification did not get wide
acceptance.
10. How Newlands arranged the elements?
After successful determination of correct atomic masses of elements by Cannizzaro
in 1860, attempts were again initiated to organize elements. In 1864 British chemist
Newlands put forward his observations in the form of 'law of octaves'. He noted that
there was a repetition in chemical properties of every eighth element if they were
arranged by their increasing atomic masses. He compared it with musical notes. His
work could not get much recognition as no space was left for undiscovered element.
The noble gases were also not known at that time.

11. What were the drawbacks of Newland’s octaves?

Newland’s scheme however, failed because many elements were found out of place in his
arrangement. For instance Ti does not resemble C and Si, Mn does not resemble N and P
and Fe does not resemble O and S. However his arrangement of elements in order of
increasing atomic masses formed basis for later classification of elements.
12. Who introduced the name Periodic Table?
Mendeleev introduced the term periodic table. He put forward the results of his work

26
Chemistry SSC-1

in the form of periodic law, which is stated as "properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic masses"
13. What was the contribution of Mendeleev in arrangements of elements? In
1869, Mendeleev, a Russian chemist developed a classification scheme of
elements. He recognized that if elements were placed in order of increasing
atomic masses, the properties of elements repeated at regular intervals. He
arranged 65 elements in periods and groups.
14. What were the drawbacks in Mendeleev periodic table?
Mendeleev periodic table was the first ever attempt to arrange the elements, yet it
has a few demerits in it. His failure to explain the position of isotopes and wrong
order of the atomic masses of some elements suggested that atomic mass of an
element cannot serve as the basis for the arrangement of elements.
15. Explain how scientist can build on one another’s work?
In 1864, John Newland, an English chemist arranged 24 elements in order of
increasing atomic masses. He noticed that every eighth element, starting from any
point, has similar properties. Few rows of his arrangement are shown below:

His scheme however, failed because many elements were found out of place in his
arrangement. For instance Ti does not resemble C and Si, Mn does not resemble N
and P and Fe does not resemble O and S. However his arrangement of elements in
order of increasing atomic masses formed basis for later classification of elements.
In 1869, Mendeleev, a Russian chemist developed a classification scheme of
elements. He recognized that if elements were placed in order of increasing atomic
masses, the properties of elements repeated at regular intervals. He arranged 65
elements in periods and groups. Development of the periodic table nicely explains
how scientist can build on one another’s work.

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Chemistry SSC-1

16. Explain the principle of fireworks.

Beautiful fireworks display is common on celebrations like Pakistan Day or even on
marriages. A technology invented in China is used all over the world. It is dangerous
but careful use of various elements and particularly metal salts of different
composition give beauty and colors to the fireworks. Elements like magnesium,
aluminium are used in powdered form. Salts of sodium give yellow color, calcium -
red; strontium-scarlet; barium-green and copper-bluish green.
Usually nitrates and chlorates are used. Other chemicals are added to give brilliance
and different shades. Because of fire hazard and risk to life and property, only skilled
professionals use them.
17. How the properties of elements repeat after regular intervals?
18. Describe the periodicity of chemical properties of elements. *
19. Describe the periodicity of physical properties. **
The electronic configuration of elements shows a periodic variation with the
increasing atomic number. Therefore, the elements also show periodic variation in
their physical and chemical properties.
*Chemical properties:
Elements having similar valence shell electronic configuration have been placed in
the same group, one below the other. Chemical properties depend on the valence
shell electronic configuration. Because all the elements of a particular group have
similar valence shell electronic configuration, they possess similar chemical
characteristics.
**Physical properties:
Physical properties depend on the sizes of atoms. Since sizes of atoms change
gradually from top to bottom in a group. Therefore, elements show gradation in
physical properties in the same group. In a period of periodic table the number of
electrons present in the valance shell increase gradually from left to right. Their
chemical and physical properties also show variation in the same manner. In this
section we will learn variation in some of the physical properties of elements in a
group and across a period

28
Chemistry SSC-1

20. Why elements in the same group have similar chemical properties?
Chemical properties depend on the valence shell electronic configuration.
Because all the elements of a particular group have similar valence shell
electronic configuration, they possess similar chemical characteristics.

Determination of position of elements in the periodic table:

Group no. of an element= no. of electron in the valence shell
Period no. = no. of valence shell
Block= valence sub shell.
For the determination of position of elements
 Must write electronic configuration
 Check no of electrons in valence shell (group no.)
 Check no. of valence shell (period no.)
 Check the valence sub shell (block)

Question no. 22-28 would be solved according to above mentioned information.

One is done for you.

21. Write valence shell electronic configuration of the following elements and
determine the position of these element.
a)
Phosphorus (atomic
no= 15), b) Neon (atomic no. 10)
Electronic configuration of Phosphorus: 1s 2s 2p63s23p3
2 2

No. of electrons in valence shell are 5 hence group no=VA

No. of valence shell is 3 hence period no= 3
Valence sub-shell is p hence it belongs to p-block of the periodic table.

Electronic configuration of Neon: 1s22s22p6

29
Chemistry SSC-1

No. of electrons in valence shell are 8, hence group no. =VIII A

No. of valence shell is 2, hence period no. = 2
Valence sub-shell is p hence it belongs to p-block of the periodic table.

22. An element has its K and L shell completely filled. Determine the group and
period of this element.
23. Obtain the valence shell configuration of Al and S from their position in the
periodic table.
24. Find out the position of Ne (At. No 10) and Cl (At. No. 17) in the periodic
table.
25. Find out the position of the following elements in the periodic table from the
electronic configuration: (a) Nitrogen (atomic number: 7) (b) Oxygen (atomic
number: 8)
26. Obtaining the valence shell configuration
27. Obtaining the position of element in the periodic table from electronic
configuration.
(a) Nitrogen (atomic number: 7) (b) Oxygen (atomic number: 8)
28. Define shielding effect. Describe its trend in the periodic table.
The reduction in force of attraction between nucleus and the valence electrons by the
electrons present in the inner sub-shells is called shielding effect
Trends in peiod:
As we move from left to right in a period the number of electrons in the inner shells
remains constant, therefore, shielding effect remains constant.
For example: Li and Be have constant shielding effect.
Trends in group:
As we move from top to bottom in a group the number of electronic shells increase.
So the number of electrons in the inner shell also increases. As a result shielding
effect increases.
30. . Define normal or representative elements.
Elements belong to s and p blocks are called normal or representative element.
31. Define transition elements.
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Chemistry SSC-1

Those elements which belong to d and f blocks are called transition elements.
32. What is meant by the periodicity of properties?
Periodicity of properties:
The electronic configuration of the elements shows a periodic variation with the
increasing atomic number. Therefore, the elements also show periodic variation in
their physical and chemical properties. Elements having similarvalence shell
electronic configuration have been placed in the same group, one below the other.
33. How shielding effect influence the atomic radius?
Greater is the atomic size, greater will be the shielding effect. The force of attraction
between the nucleus and outer electron decreases with the increase in distance. The
electron can be removed more easily with less energy. Moreover, the force of
attraction also decreases with the increasing shielding effect of the intervening
electron.
34. What is the influence of shielding effect on ionization energy?
Shielding effect depends upon the inner shell electrons the inner shell electrons are
greater shielding effect will be high and force of attraction between valence shell and
nucleus will be low. In a group number of shells increases from top to bottom and
shielding effect also increases. The atoms with high shielding effect have low
ionization energies.
35. How shielding effect influence the electron affinity?
In groups, the atomic radius increases with the increase in the proton number due to
successive increase of electronic shell which is exert a shielding effect on the force of
attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons. Thus, the electron affinities
usually decrease from top to bottom.
36. Which atom has greater shielding effect, Be or Mg?
Mg atom will have greater number of shells (Be has two shells whereas Mg has three
shells). Mg atom will have greater number of valence electrons (Be has two electrons
between nucleus and valence shell whereas Mg has ten electrons).
Therefore, Mg has greater shielding effect as compare to Be due to greater number
of inner shell electrons.
37. Which atom has greater shielding effect, Li or Be?
31
Chemistry SSC-1

Li and Be atoms have the same number of shells (Be has two shells whereas Li has
also two shells). Li and Be atoms have the same number of electrons between
nucleus and valance electron (Be has two electrons whereas Li has also two
electrons). As we move from left to right in a period the number of electrons in the
inner shells remains constant. Therefore, shielding effect remains constant.
Therefore, Li and Be have the same shielding effect because both belong to 2 nd
period.
38. Define atomic size. How atomic size show variation in the periodic table? The
size of an atom is the average distance between the nucleus of an atom and the
outer electronic shell.
Along the Period: The atomic radius decreases in any given period as we move
across the period. This is because as we move from one element to the next on its
right in a period. Another electron is added to the same valence shell. At the same
time positive charge on the nucleus also increases by 1. The attractive force of the
nucleus for the valence shell electron increases. Therefore, the shell size and atomic
radius decreases. For example, in going from lithium to beryllium, atomic size
decreases. This we can understand from the valence shell electronic configuration of
Li (2s1) and B (2s2). In going from Li to Be, there is no change in the shell number n,
but atomic number increases from 3 to 4. Due to this the force of the nucleus for the
valence shell electron increases. Therefore, atomic radius decreases.
Down the group:
The atomic radius increases in any given main group as we move down the group of
elements. This is because the size of an atom is determined by the size of its valence
shell. As we move to the next lower element in the group, the atom has an additional
shell of electrons. This increases atomic radius. For example, Na has grater atomic
size than Li, because Na lies below Li in the group, hence have an additional shell.
39. Define ionization energy. Explain how ionization energy is related to cation
formation?
40. Ionization energy is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to
remove the outermost electron from an isolated gaseous atom”.
M(g) + ionization energy M+ (g) + e-

32
Chemistry SSC-1

Ionization energy is a measure of the extent to which the nucleus attracts the
outermost electron. A high value of ionization energy means stronger attraction
between the nucleus and the outermost electron. Low ionization energy indicates a
weaker force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron.
Values of ionization energy are given in units of kJ/mole-1 or kJ/mole.
41. Explain the trend of ionization energy in a group?
The ionization energy value decreases from top to bottom in a group. This is
because the shielding effect in atoms increases as we descend. Greater shielding
effects results in a weaker attraction of the nucleus for the valence electrons. So,
they are easier to remove. This leads to decrease in ionization energy from top to
bottom in a group. For example Na has low ionization energy than Li due to greater
shielding effect.
42. How ionization energy show variation along the period?
As we move from left to right in a period, the shielding effect remains constant. But
progressively nuclear charge increases. A stronger force of attraction between
nucleus and the valence electron increases. This leads to increase in ionization
energy from left to right in a period. Hence Mg has relatively high ionization energy
than Na, due to increase in its nuclear charge.
43. Compare first ionization energy and second ionization energy.
The amount of energy needed to remove successive electrons present in an atom
increases. If there is only 1 electron in the valence shell, the energy required to
remove it will be called first ionization energy. For example, the first ionization energy
of sodium atom
Na + ionization energy Na+ + 1e- is + 496 kJmol .
But when there is more than one electron in the valence shell, they can be removed
one by one by providing more and more energy. Such as group 2 and 3 elements
have more than one electron in their shells. Therefore, they will have more than one
ionization energy values.
44. Why second ionization energy is higher than first ionization energy? Second
ionization energy is higher than first ionization energy because as the first electron is
removed from the outer most shell, total nuclear charge increases by the formation of

33
Chemistry SSC-1

cation. This increases the attractive force between the nucleus and the valence shell
electrons. Hence more energy is required to remove the second electron. Therefore
second ionization energy is higher than the first ionization energy.
45. Define electron affinity. How electron affinity explains the anion formation?
Electron affinity is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron adds
up in the valence shell of an isolated atom to form a uninegative gaseous ion. X(g) +
e X- (g) + electron affinity

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Chemistry SSC-1

Chapter # 4: Structure of Molecules

1. Why ionic bond is always formed between a nonmetal and a metal?
An ionic bond is produced between a metal and a nonmetal because metals such as
alkali metals and alkaline earth metals having low ionization energies tend to lose
their valence electron to form cation. Similarly the nonmetals such as the members of
group VI A and VII A having high electron affinities are more likely to gain an electron
to attain the nearest Noble gas configuration; as a result they would form an anion.
The cations and anions bearing opposite charges would attract each other to form
ionic bond.
2. Why non metals are more likely to form covalent bond?
Non metals are present at almost rightmost region of the periodic table, as this part of
the periodic table have highest ionization energies so non metals are unable to lose
electrons hence the tend to share their electrons among themselves and among the
other nonmetals.
3. How dipole di-pole interactions enhance the quality paints and resins? Paints
and dyes are used to protect solid surfaces from the atmospheric effects. They also
give visual appeal. Resins are used to coat materials that give toughness, flexibility,
adhesion and chemical resistance. For example, dams, bridges, floors, trains, buses,
cars etc are painted with resins. The synthetic resins are used where water
resistance is required. Chemically, resins are either adhesive or they form Bond
linkages with the material being bonded together. The resins Bond the surfaces with
the help of the attractive forces known as dipole-dipole forces.
4. Why hydrogen bonding is the most important attractive forces in the living
organisms?
The intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonding play a very important role in
determining the properties of major important biomolecules, for example; water
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Chemistry SSC-1

protein and DNA, the linkages between different molecules of amino acid in a protein
are mostly formed via hydrogen bonding hence determining the structure and
function of a protein. Similarly in DNA the hydrogen bonding plays important role in
the nucleotide linkages.
5. Why noble gasses do not react?
6. Why members of group VIII A are stable?
The noble gases have ns2np6 electronic configuration in the outer most shell. These
elements are sometimes called the inert gases. This is because they do not
participate in chemical reactions. Electronic configurations of first three noble gases
are shown below:

He = 1s2
Ne = 1s22s22p6
Ar = 1s22s22p63s23p6
These elements have completely filled outer most s and p sub-shells. Helium contains two
electrons and remaining noble gases contain 8 electrons in the valence shell. Because of
these configuration noble gases are stable and not active.
7. Why do atoms react?
Noble gasses are stable and inactive due to their completely filled valence shells. In
1916 a chemist G.N.Lewis explains that every atom tends to gain stability by attaining
the valence shell electronic configuration of noble gases. He called his explanations
as Octet Rule. An octet is a set of eight. It is stated as:
The tendency of atoms to acquire eight electron configuration in their valence
shell, when bonding, is called octet rule.
Helium has two electrons in its valence shell and is also chemically inert. Some
elements that are close to He on the periodic table tend to achieve two electron
configuration in their valence shell. For example hydrogen, lithium and beryllium etc
tend to achieve two electron configuration in the valence shell.
The tendency of some atoms to acquire two electron configuration in their
valence shell, when bonding, is called duplet rule.
8. How atoms react with each other to gain stability?
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Chemistry SSC-1

An atom can accommodate 8 electrons in its valence shell in three ways:

 By giving valence shell electrons (if they are less than three) to other atoms.
 By gaining electrons from other atoms (if the valence shell has five or
more electrons in it).
 By sharing valence electrons with other atoms.

Obtaining the no. of valence shell electrons

No. of valence shell can be obtained by:

 Checking the group no. of elements in the periodic table (group no. indicates
the no. of valence shell electronic configuration).

Question 9 and 10 would be solved according to the above mentioned

rule.Question 9 has been done for you.

9. Find the number of valence electrons in the following atoms using the
periodic table.
(a) Carbon (b) Magnesium (c) Phosphorus
a. Carbon belongs to Group IVA, so it contains four electrons in the valence shell.
b. Magnesium belongs to Group IIA, so it contains two electrons in the valence shell.
c. Phosphorus is present in Group VA, so it has five electrons in the valence shell.
10. Find the number of electrons in valence shell of the following atoms using the
periodic table.
(a) Silicon (b) Sulphur (c) Bromine (d) Argon (e) Potassium (f) Nitrogen
11. What is a chemical bond? What is the property of a chemical bond? Some
forces of attraction hold atoms together in substances. These forces are called
chemical bonds. The forces of attraction that lead to chemical bonding between
atoms are electrical in nature.
12. Name the types of chemical bonds.
Depending upon the way how these valence electrons are involved in bonding, they
result in following four types of chemical bonds:

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Chemistry SSC-1

 Ionic Bond
 Covalent Bond
 Dative Covalent or Coordinate Covalent Bond
 Metallic Bond
13. Define Ionic bond. Give one example.
The forces of attraction that bind oppositely charged ions are called ionic bonds. The
formation of NaCl is a good example of this type of bond.
2𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
14. Describe the formation of sodium chloride.
Na is metal and Cl is non-metal. Metal atom tends to lose electrons and non – metal
atoms tends to gain electrons to acquire electronic configuration of nearest noble gas.
Since Na atom has one electron in the outer most shell. It loses one electron to form
cation. Since Cl atom has seven electrons in outermost shell, it needs one electron to
complete octet. So it gains one electron to form anion. For every Na+ ion, there is a
Cl- ion.

15. Which electrons take part in chemical bonding?

The unpaired valence shell electrons of atoms take part in chemical bonding; these
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Chemistry SSC-1

electrons are known as bonding electrons.

Describing the formation of cations and anions:

 Metals form cations, non-metal form anions

 The no. of electrons an atom loses or gain would be according to the
group of no. of element.
 The cation or anion formation is represented by writing electronic
configuration of elements and showing the electron being deducted or
added in the valence shell, or by electron dot or cross structures.
Question 16 and 17 would be done upon above mentioned rules; question 16
has been done for you.

16. Describe the formation of Na+ and Mg+2 cations.

(a) Formation of Na+ ion
Na1s22s22p63s1 Na+ 1s22s22p6 + 1e- ,
(b) Formation of Mg+2 ions
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 Mg+2 1s22s22p6 + 2e-

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Chemistry SSC-1

By electron dot structures:

17. Describe the formation of anions for the following non-metal atoms:
(a) Oxygen (atomic no.8) (b) Fluorine (atomic no. 9)
Oxygen belongs to Group VIA on the periodic table. So it has six electrons in its
Valence shell. It needs two electrons to achieve noble gas configuration.

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Chemistry SSC-1

O 1s2 2s2 2p4 + 2e- O-2 1s2 2s2 2p6

(b) Formation of anion by fluorine atom

Fluorine belongs to Group VIIA on the periodic table. So it has seven electrons in
the valence shell. A fluorine atom therefore, requires only one electron to complete
octet. F1s2 2s 2p5 + 1e- F-1 1s2 2s2 2p6

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Representation of ionic bond formation

 Represent electron dot and cross structure for cation and anion formatiom
 Represent transfer of electron from metal to non metal atom or atoms
Question 18 to20 would be solved according to above mentioned method;
question 18 has been done for you.

18. Describe the formation ionic bond between Na and Cl.

Na is metal and Cl is non-metal.

Metal atom tends to lose electrons and non – metal atoms tends to gain electrons to
acquire electronic configuration of nearest noble gas. Since Na atom has one
electron in the outer most shell, it losses one electron to form Na+ ion. Since Cl- atom
has seven electrons in outermost shell, it needs one electron to complete octet. So it
gains one electron to form Cl- ion. For every Na+ ion, you need one Cl- ion.

19. Describe the formation of ionic bond between Na and F

20. For each of the following pairs of atoms, use electron dot and electron cross
structures to write the equation for the formation of ionic compound.
(a) Mg and O (b) Al and Cl
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(b) Describe the formation of ionic bond between Mg and F.

21. What is a Lewis structure diagram?
The electronic configuration of the valence shells of atoms is shown in small 'dots' or
'crosses' around the symbol of the element. Each dot or cross represents an
electron. This is a standard method of Lewis to describe the electronic configuration
of valence shell of an atom. It is called Lewis Structure Diagram.
22. Define covalent bond. How covalent bond is represented?
A Covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms. We can
represent the formation of a covalent bond between two atoms using electron dot and
electron-cross symbols for the atoms and the resulting molecule. Valence electrons are
represented by dots. Just to understand sharing, we represent valence electrons in one atom
by dots and in the other atom by crosses. A shared pair of electrons is also represented by a
dash (-) in a molecule.
23. Define coordinate covalent bond. Briefly explain it and describe how it is
represented?
Coordinate covalent or dative covalent bonding is a type of covalent bonding in
which the bond pair of electrons is donated by one bonded atom only. The atom
which donates the electron pair is called donor and the atom which accepts the
electron pair is called acceptor. A small arrow is usually used to indicate the atom
and pair of electron being donated. The head of arrow is towards the acceptor atom.
24. How ammonia forms co-ordinate covalent bond with H+?
The non-bonded electron pair available on an atom, like the one available on nitrogen
in ammonia,(NH ) is called a lone pair. When a proton (H+) approaches a molecule
with a lone pair of electrons, that lone pair is donated to H+ and a coordinate
covalent bond is formed, e.g. formation of ammonium radical
+1
(NH ). 4

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25. Explain how co-ordinate covalent bond id formd between NH3 and BF3? In
the formation of BF3 (boron trifluoride) molecule, three valence electrons of boron
atom (Z= 5) pair up with three electrons, one from each three fluorine
atoms. The boron atom even after sharing of electrons (covalent bond formation),
remains short or deficit of two electrons in its outermost shell. Now if a molecule with
a lone pair approaches this molecule, it accepts lone pair from that donor and forms a
coordinate covalent bond. The lone pair on nitrogen of ammonia molecule makes it a
good donor molecule to form a coordinate covalent bond

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Chapter # 5 Physical States of Matter

1. What is pressure? What are the units of pressure?

Force exerted by a gas on unit area of a container is called pressure. All gases exert
pressure. At any point a gas exerts an equal pressure in all directions.
At sea level at 0oC the atmosphere pressure is 760mm of Hg or 760 torr. This
pressure is referred as one atmosphere.
So, 1 atm = 760nm Hg
= 760 torr
The SI unit of pressure is pascal (Pa) which is very small unit, so kilopascal (Kpa) is
used fpr atmospheric under ordinary conditions. One pascal equals the force of one
Newton exerted on an area of one square meter.
1atm = 101.325KPa
=1.01325 x 105 Pa
2. What is the relation between pressure and volume?
There are large empty spaces between molecules. On increasing pressure on the
gas, the distance between molecules decreases. So the volume of the gas
decreases.

3. What is the relationship between volume and temperature?

When pressure of the gas kept constant and temperature is increased, the average
kinetic energy of molecules increases. So, the molecules of the gas hit the wall of
container more frequently and energetically. This increases internal pressure. As a
result the gas increases to store constant pressure.
4. Explain with a suitable example that air expands evenly.
When a balloon is filled with air, it expands. A scientist would explain it by saying that
air molecules are free to move inside their container. There is no attractive or
repulsive force between the molecules. As a result gas expands until it takes the
shape of its container. Therefore, air expands to fill the interior of the balloon evenly.
5. Why there is no life on moon?
Earth`s atmosphere consists of gases that provide the oxygen and pressure

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necessary to support life as we know it. Atmospheric gases moderate temperature

extremes and one of them (ozone) shields living things on the surface from harmful
ultraviolet radiations. In contrast the moon has no atmosphere.
𝟏
6. State Boyle’s law? How it can be verified. Or Prove that V∝ .
𝑷
Boyle` law states that,” the volume of a fixed amount of a gas at a given
temperature is inversely proportional to the applied pressure.”
1
V∝
𝑃
1
V= x constant
𝑃
V x P = constant
7. Prove that V x P= constant.
V x P= constant
1
V= x constant
𝑃
1
V∝
𝑃
8. State Charles law. Prove that V ∝T.
The law states that the volume of given mass of a gas varies directly with absolute
temperature at constant pressure.
𝑉 = constant
𝑇
V = T x constant
V∝T
9. Prove that V/T =constant.
V∝T
V = T x constant
𝑉 = constant
𝑇
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10. What is absolute temperature? Why absolute temperature is used for

verification of Charles law?
The absolute temperature is temperature measured with the Kelvin scale. The Kelvin
scale must be used because zero on the Kelvin scale corresponds to a complete
stop of molecular motion
11. What is absolute zero?
The lowest temperature that is theoretically possible, at which the motion of particles
which constitutes heat would be minimal. It is zero on the Kelvin scale, equivalent to
−273.15°C.
12. What is evaporation? What will happen to acetone if it is kept in open air?
The escape of liquid molecules from the surface of liquid in the form of vapors, at all
temperature is called evaporation.
If acetone is kept in open air, after some time the volume of the liquid will
lower which means most of the liquid is evaporated.
13. Describe the process of evaporation?
14. Is evaporation a cooling process? Justify.
15. How evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid?
In evaporation, the liquid molecules escape from the surface of liquid. Only those
molecules with greater kinetic energy will escape from the surface hence leaving the
molecules with relatively lower kinetic energy behind. This lowers the temperature of
liquid; hence evaporation is a cooling effect.
16. What is the effect of temperature on evaporation?
As the temperature increase now more of the molecules of the liquid would have greater
kinetic energy to leave the surface of the liquid. Hence increase in temperature increases the
rate of evaporation.
17. Why wet clothes dry more quickly in summers
In summers as the temperature in relatively high, more molecules of water present in
wet clothes would have greater kinetic energy, which will increases the rate of
evaporation, hence wet clothes dry more quickly than in winters.
18. When you put nail polish remover on your palm, you feel a sensation of
coldness. Why?
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Nail polish remover is made of acetone, which is a volatile liquid. It evaporates

quickly, as evaporation produces cooling effect; we feel cooling sensation in our
hands.
19. Define vapor pressure. Describe how liquid vapor exert pressure.
It is the pressure that is exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its phases either as
solid or liquid at a given temperature and in a closed system. The vapor pressure of a
liquid is the point at which equilibrium pressure is reached, in a closed container,
between molecules leaving the liquid and going into the gaseous phase and
molecules leaving the gaseous phase and entering the liquid phase.
20. What is the effect of temperature on vapor pressure?
Liquids have weak intermolecular forces. Heating the molecules of the liquid can
help change them to the vapor phase and thus increase the vapor pressure of the
liquid.
21. State boiling point. How boiling point is attained?
“Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes
equal to external more atmospheric pressure”
When a liquid is heated because of increased kinetic energy of
molecules the vapor pressure of the liquid would increases, it will go increasing and
at a particular temperature the vapor pressure of the liquid would become equal to
the atmospheric pressure. At this temperature the liquid boils.
22. What/ Explain is the effect of external pressure on boiling Point.
23. When a liquid does boil?
A liquid boils when its vapor pressure becomes equal to the external pressure.
Higher external pressure, the liquid will boil at higher temperature, similarly if the
external pressure is low the liquid will boil at lower temperature.
24. Why water boils at 70OC on the top of Mount Everest? How can
you boil water at 70oC?
“A liquid boils when its vapor pressure become equal to the external pressure”
As the atmospheric pressure decreases the vapor pressure becomes equal to
the atmospheric pressure is relatively low temperature and as we all know, as the
altitude increases the atmospheric pressure decreases, so as Mount Everest is at a
very high altitude, to be precise,
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8848 meters from sea level, so the atmospheric pressure is very less, therefore the
boiling point of water is also very less.
25. Why food is cooked more quickly in pressure cooker? How can
you boil water at 120oC?
Why water boils at 120oC in a pressure cooker?
Pressure cooker is equipped with valves to increase the pressure, hence with
increased external pressure the water boils at higher temperature, for instance in a
pressure cooker at 2atm external pressure water boils at 120℃, which means more
temperature is provided to the food to cook.
Hence food is cooked more quickly in a pressure cooker.
26. Differentiate between amorphous and crystalline solids.

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