CHAP2. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES.

The molecules of life include

1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Fats/lipids

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CARBOHYDRATES. Organic compounds which have carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as common make
up elements. These are divided into three classes.

i) MONOSACCHARIDES
ii) DISACCHARIDES
iii) POLYSACCHARIDES

MONOSACCHARIDES.. Those which have only one sugar unit.

- Soluble
- Sweet in taste and called sugars
- Simplest
- General formula is Cn H2nOn (mcq)

EXAMPLES..

Glucose C6H12O6

Fructose

Galactose.

Structure of glucose.
It is a hexose sugar (6C) that has six carbon atoms.

-Glucose is not stable in its straight chain and it forms two rings.

1. Alpha glucose. In this ring OH group is present below the ring on C1.

2. Beta glucose. In this ring OH is present above the ring on C1.

Note.. Due to its long chain of six carbon atoms its ends tend to coil that results in the formation of
bond b/w C1 and C5. Due to this glucose adopts two ring forms. C6 goes out of the ring.

1. Alpha ring
2. Beta ring.
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USES..(2 MARKS)

1. INSTANT SOURCE OF ENERGY

2. USED TO MAKE DISACCHARIDES AND POLYSACCHARIDES.
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GLUCOSE /RERUCING SUGAR/ BENEDICTS TEST. ( 4 MARKS).

- TAKE 2ml OF UNKNOWN FOOD SAMPLE SOULTION

- ADD 2ml OF BENEDICTS REAGENT
Page | 3 - HEAT IN WATER BATH AT BOILING TEMP.80-100
-
-
- OBSERVATION

IF BLUE…. SUGAR ABSENT

IF GREEN… LITTLE
IF YELLOW… MODERATE
IF ORNAGE/BRICK RED… HIGH AMOUNT OF SUGAR

DISACCHARIDES... These have two sugar units in their structure.

- Soluble
- Sweet
- Called sugars.
- Formed by condensation reaction.

EXAMPLES..

1. MALTOSE is the disaccharide of two rings of alpha glucose

2. SUCROSE is the disaccharide of alpha glucose and fructose.

FORMATION..

-A disaccharide is formed when two monosaccharaides are joined by the removal of water during
condensation reaction.

CONDENSATION REACTION.. A reaction in which water is eliminated.

- It involves the formation of bonds (mcq).

- It is opposite to hydrolysis.
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MALTOSE…it is formed when –OH group of C1 and C4 come close and water is eliminated. This
results in the formation of 1, 4 glycosidic bond b/w two rings of alpha glucose.

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GLYCOSIDIC BOND…it is a bond formed in carbohydrates when water is eliminated.

SUCROSE… it is formed when alpha glucose and fructose are linked by a glycosidic bond during
condensation reaction.
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HYDROLYSIS REACTION.. A reaction in which compounds are broken due to the addition of water.

-it involves the breaking of bonds.(mcq).

It is opposite to condensation.

- As a result of hydrolysis disaccharides are converted into monosaccharaides.

-
-
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POLYSACCHARIDES… those which have many sugar units attached in their structure.
- Insoluble
- Not sweet in taste
- Complex
- Not called sugars.

EXAMPLES..
1. STARCH
2. GLYCOGEN
3. CELLULOSE

STARCH. IT IS POLY SACCHARIDE found in seeds, fruits, stems.and roots.

-acts as storage compound

-it has two sub-forms
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i) AMYLOSE
ii) AMYLOPECTIN

Page | 7 AMYLOSE (2,3 marks).

- It is the polymer of alpha glucose

- Has only straight chain with 1,4 glycosidic bonds.

- No side branches
- Coiled and curled
- Acts as energy storage compound.( 1 mark)
-

- AMYLOPECTIN…
- POLYMER OF alpha glucose
- Has straight chain with 1,4 glycosidic bonds.
- Has side branches with 1,6 glycosidic bonds.
- Not coiled and curled
- Acts as storage compound.
-
-
-
-
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-
- GLYCOGEN…
- Present in animal liver and muscles when excess glucose is converted into glycogen by
insulin.
Page | 8 - Polymer of alpha glucose
- Has straight chain with 1, 4 and side branches with 1,6 glycosidic bonds.
- It has more side branches than amylopectin of starch.
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CELLULOSE
Page | 9 - IT IS PRESENT IN PLANT CELL WALL AND MAKES IT HARD AND
RIGID.
- It is the polymer of beta glucose.
- It has only straight chain with 1,4 glycosidic bonds
- No side branches
- It has high tensile strength due to which it provides support to
plant cell wall. This strength is due to the extensive hydrogen
bonding b/w parallel fibres of cellulose.
- In cellulose every second ring is rotated at 180 degree to
make bond b/w C1 and C4.
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- .
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- FUNCTIONS OF POLYSACCHARIDES..
-
1. INSTANT SOURCE OF ENERGY
2. PROVIDE SUPPORT e.g. cellulose
3. Act as storage compounds e.g. starch and glycogen
4. Used to make new protoplasm.
5. Used to make glycoproteins and glycolipids present in cell membrane.
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PROTEINS. Organic compounds which have C, H, O, N as common make up

elements.
-proteins are long chain of amino acids also known as polypeptides.

STRUCTURE…

The basic unit of protein structure is an amino acid. There are 21 different types of amino
acids which differ only due to –R group (alkyl group). This is the general formula of an
amino acid.
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R group represents a chain of carbon atoms. R group could be polar or non-polar.

The simplest amino acid GLYCINE in which R is replaced by H atom.( 1 mark).

NH2- C- COOH

PEPTIDE BOND… A BOND B/W carboxylic carbon of one amino acid and nitrogen of the amino
group of another amino acid.(2 marks).

-it is formed by condensation reaction with the removal of water.

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-when two amino acids are linked in a chain it is called dipeptide.

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PROTEIN STRUCTURE… IT HOLDS THE ARRANGMENT OF DIFFERENT POLYPEPTIDES.

- IT SHOWS DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ORGANISATION OF PROTEIN MOLECULES.

-
1. PRIMARY STRUCTURE… it shows
i) Type of amino acids in polypeptide
ii) Sequence of amino acids
iii) Peptide bonds b/w amino acids.
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2. Secondary structure… it shows

i) Alpha helix of polypeptide
ii) Beta pleated sheets
iii) Hydrogen bonds b/w polypeptides.

Note… secondary structure holds the primary structure. It is the primary structure that determines
the secondary and tertiary structure of proteins.( mcq).
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TERTIARY STRUCTURE…

- IT GIVES HIGHLY COILED FORM TO THE POLYPEPTIDE

- 3D-SHAPE OF PROTEIN/ENZYMES IS FORMED DUE TO TERTIARY structure.
- It is the most stable form of protein structure
- It holds
i) Ionic bonds
ii) Covalent
iii) Disulphide
iv) Hydrogen
v) Hydrophobic interactions.
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Note… it contains primary and secondary structures in it.

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QUARTENARY STRUCTURE…

- Not present in all proteins. Present only in those proteins which contain more than one
polypeptide.(mcq)
- It gives globular/spherical shape to the protein
- It shows the arrangement/association of different polypeptides.(mcq)
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e.g. haemoglobin has four polypeptides and has quaternary structure.

Types of proteins on the basis of structure..

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Note… S-shape graph explains the change in shape when 1st haem atom binds with O2.
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FATS/LIPIDS... organic compounds which have C,H,O as common

make up elements but the proportion of hydrogen to oxygen is less
than carbohydrates.
C6H12O6 (carbohydrate) C17H35O5 (fat)
H: O H: O
2:1 7:1

- Liquid fats are called lipids.

Types.
- 1. SATURATED FATS.. Those which have only C-C single bonds.
- Exist in solid form
- Example… cholesterol
3. UNSATURATED FATS… those which have at least one C=C double or triple bond.
- Exist in liquid form
- Example vegetable oils.
CLASSES…
i) Triglycerides
ii) Phospholipids
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Note... Triglycerides are best energy storage compounds because (3 marks).

1. They are insoluble
2. They have large no of C-C bonds in fatty acid tails
3. Contain ester linkages
4. Contain large no. of C-H bonds.
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Roles of water…( 4 marks)

1. Water has high specific heat due to which it prevents frequent fluctuations
in temperature.
2. Water has high heat of vaporisation due to which it gives cooling effect
when evaporates from skin surface.
3. Water is a universal solvent due to its polarity.
4. Water has highest density at 4 degree Celsius and when changes into ice it
floats on the surface. Ice acts as insulator and prevents the heat exchange
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due to which water remains in liquid form on the bottom and marine life
remains normal.
5. Water forms cohesive and adhesive forces due to which it forms column in
xylem vessels and helps in transpiration pull.
6. Water has high surface tension due to which it flows in the form of layers
Page | 25 and insects and small animals could walk on water surface.