CHAPTER SUGAR ‘The sweetest thing that ever grew Reside a human door. Wonpswort—Luey Gray—1799 The last chapter in this boak has the same title “ SUGAR” as does this first one. In the last chapter same af the properties of sugar are described in more detail as well as its behaviour in the human bed. The main text of this chapter contains no reference to the illustrations which carry their own explanations, printed in italics. 1. SUGAR Sugar is one of the large group of substances which are called by the chemists * carbohydrates", ‘There is no need to worry about the chemical composition of sugar nor about the hundred or so different sugars known to the chemist. There are only two kinds of sugar that we are primarily concerned with in sugar refining, namely “Sucrose”, the white sugar that we use in our feod and drink, and “Invert sugar that we find in fruits and honey. Tavert sugar comes to us in small quantities in all raw cane sugars and itis formed in spite of all our precautions in certain parts of our process, Invert sugar is partly destroyed and turns brown very easily in many of our processes. It is very difficult to produce invert sugar in a quite dry state, so that, although it is a lite sweeter than sucrose, we look upon itas one of our enemies. Bur it is an essential ingredient af golden syrup and of the syrup which is left adhering to solt sugars such as pieces, Sucrose will turn into invert sugar very easily and we can make invert whenever we like, but it is impossible for us to do what many plants and trees can do, namely, turn invert sugar into sucrose. As a food sucrose is very readily and casily absorbed by our ive organs. 1 is an energy-producing food and is a necessary rtof the diet of growing children and of those doing hard muscular work, Owing to its small bulk and easy gnick absorption it is very useful to those about to uadergo an ordeal—athletes before a race ; hospital patients before an operation. Experiments have shown that, on an empty stomach in cases of exhaustion, impravement occurs as quickly as five minutes after cating sucrose—see Chapter 24. dig 13§§ 2-3 TECHNOLOGY FOR SUGAR REFINERY WORKERS cH, | 2. THE CONFUSED NAMES OF THE SUGARS “Cane Sugar” is the non-technical chemical name for the substance whose technical name is ‘* Sucrose ''—the white crystalline sugar of the table, It was called “cane” sugar because it was first isolated from the sugar canc. When sucrose was first extracted from beet it was called ‘ Beet Sugar ”, although it was in fact sucrose or cane sugar. Beet sugar is generally looked upon by the public, and by part of the medical profession, as inferior to cane sugar. Perfectly refined bect sugar is identical with the pure product obtained from the cane, Until recently no scientist had discovered any test which would determine whether a sample of pure sucrose originated from cané or from beet. In spite of the strong opinion to the con- trary held by most apiarists, no bee can tell the difference cither, The reason why beet sugar has a bad name is that in the past much. imperfectly refined beet sugar was sold, The potash salts in impure beet sugar reduce the sweetening power and give bees diarrhoca. By means of paper chromatography—Section 76—we believe we can now say whether a refined sagar has been produced from raw sugar con- sisting of more than half beet sugar, When a solution of * Cane Sugar " is treated with acid, a mixture of equal parts of two simpler sugars results, This mixture is called “Invert Sugar”, and the two sugars composing it are ‘‘ Dextrose and “ Lavulose, Unfortunately these sugars have cach got two other names, Dextrose is called ‘* Grape Sugar " or “ d-glucose * and levulose is called “ Fruit Sugar" or “* d-fructose ”. “The mysterious “d-” in front is a chemical symbol indicating the arrangement of the atoms in the molecule, There are sugars known to the chemists called “ /-glucose ” and “ {-fructose ", The “d=” and the “J. do not refer to the right- or left-handed polarisations of the sugars— Sections 66 and 67—but to the right or left-handed arrangement of the atoms in the molecules. 3. THE OCCURRENCE OF SUGAR IN NATURE Sucrose, the ordinary sugar of the houschold, occurs widely dis- tributed in the vegetable kingdom, It is found in the roots and stems of all grasses, in such roots as parsnip, carrot, turnip and beet, and in the sap of many trees, notably the sugar maple and many palm trees. ‘The juices of most fruits contain sugar, the amount present varying with the ripeness In all these plants the presence of sugar is due to an action in the leaves brought about by sunlight in the presence of the green colouring matter of the plant, chlorophyll, by which carbon dioxide— CO,—from the air combines with water to form sugar, The sugar travels in the sap of the plant from the leaves to other parts where it is stored for use in future growth. In the sugar cane it is stored 14SUGAR §4 in the stem and in the sugar beet in the root. Although many plants contain quite a lot of sugar, the commercial production in large quantities is only possible at reasonable cost from the sugar cane and the sugar beet. Sugar cane is grown in hot countries ; sugar beet in temperate countries. Raw cane sugar comes to Great Britain from the Caribbean islands, Cuba, British West Indies, San Domingo, Maiti, Puerto Rico, and from Australia, Fiji, Mauritius, Natal, Peru and Brazil. Other cane- growing countries are India, Java, Formosa, China, U.S.A., Central America, Ecuador, Venezuela, the Philippines and Hawaii. 4. THE SUGAR CANE The sugar cane is a gigantic grass, and consists of roots, stalk and leaves. The stalk is made up of segments each from three to eight inches long and is like a bamboo. It reaches a height of cight to fifteen feet, though some kinds grow as tall as twenty feet. The stalk is from half an inch to two inches in diameter. Long narrow leaves grow in two rows from sheaths round the stem joints. As the cane grows the lower leaves die and fall off. The leaves are from three wo five feet long and two or more inches wide. The stalk is a tube of hard rind filled with softer fibre. The inner fibre contains the supar. When the cane is ripe it produces at the top of the stalk a feathery plume of grey flowers, the " arrow °” or" tassel”, from two to four feet long. ‘The length of time required for the cane to ripen and the time or harvesting vary with the different kinds of cane and the different countries in which it is grown. ‘The usual time for ripening is from nine to fourtcen months, and harvesting is going on at all times in the year somewhere in the world. As far as the cane planter is concerned the cane is ripe when it contains the greatest amount of sucrose. Before ripening there quite a lot of invert sugar present, and if the ripe cane is Jefe standing for long the sucrose changes into invert, It has been explained in. Section | that invert sugar is undesirable, so it is important that the cane should be harvested when the invert is as low as possible, which is also when the sucrose is as high as possible. In some countries, such as Brazil, the cane always contains a lot of invert which some- times makes Brazilian sugars troublesome in the refinery, In some countries, such as Natal, the climate does not suit ordinary cane. These countries have long, hot, dry spells and a particular kind of cane—the Uba cane—has been found to be specially suitable to withstand these dry periods. As a protection against drying up the Uba cane has a coating of natural wax on it, and itis this wax which is partly responsible for making sugars from the Uba cane difficult to refine. ‘The Uba cane has nowadays been largely replaced by canes specially bred, but the difficulty of refining sugar from these 15§4 TECHNOLOGY FOR SUGAT RETINERY WORKERS cH oG@e Fig. 1 Growing Cane The sugar cane grows from ten to twenty feet high, depending on the variety and on the country in thick it is growing, The stems vary from half an inch to nearly tua inches in thickness. The stems, which are encased tna hard rind, contain the sugar, Leaves about three or four feet lang grow in two rows from the stem joints. As the cane grows the lower leaves die and fail off. The canes take from eight to twenty months to riper. The roots left in the ground after the canes have been cut will gre times before replanting is required, ) nem canes severalSUGAR Fig. 2 Bourbon Cane vy a S This picture shaws, full stze, a ptece of cane of the variety called Bourbon. The Bourbon bee cultioated for 450) sears and has proh- ably produced more sugar than any other variety, dt was ine taduced inta the West Indies from the Indian Ocean Island of Bourbon, ‘The Bourbon ¢ will raw in great prafustan. Ht hes in favourable conditions produced quer 12 tons af sugas Jrom one acre, The juice f the Bourbon cane is very pute and fas a high sugar content, but the cane ts sery sensitive to draught and is Hable te catch easily. Most of the disasters in cane craps dne to disease have ocersred in Honrbon cane, For this reasos it is rapidly being replaced by some of the net canes which have been produced by crass breeding in which a high sugar coment and a pure juice are combined with a much greater resistance to exceptional weather a ogreater immunt diseases, grea aTECHNOLOGY FOR SUGAR REFINERY WORKERS cu. 1 "'Y Fig. Uba Cane aos 1a This picture of a prece of Uba cane is full sige. The Uba cane ts very robust and hardy. It has a coating of wax on the rind which helps it to with- Stand long dry periods. Jt is very healthy and does not catch diseases easily, but the sugar content ty low, and rate sugars made from tt are difficult to refine. Uba cane tr being rapidly replaced by some of the nea ctoss-bred canes which combine hardiness with good sugar content, The little buds at the joints wil! be nattced. Tt is from these buds that new) canes grow when a piece of cane is planted, Nowadays names are seldom used for cane varieties ; canes are given code numbers referring to the time and place where they were bred.SUGAR 65 countries still persists. The new trouble-maker seems to be starch instead of wax. When ripe, the canes are cut down near the ground and the green tops and the leaves are cut off. ‘The canes are cut up into lengths of about four feet and sent to the factory by bullock-cart, mule wagon, tractor or railway. Part of the cane stalk near the top is cut off at harvest and used for planting for new canes. There is a litthe bud or cye at each joint which throws out new canes when the piece is planted. In many parts of the world the old stumps which are left in the ground will grow new canes, called ratoons, a number of times before it is necessary to plant afresh, ‘The sugar content of ripe cane is about 14% to 17% and the yield of sugar per acre of land is from 3 to 6 tons, depending on the country and the amount of moncy spent on irrigation, etc. 5. EXTRACTION OF THE CANE JUICE When the canes reach the factory—sometimes called ‘mi or ‘central they are tipped on to a conveyor or elevator wi takes them to the cane-crushing mill where the juice is squeezed out. ‘The cane mill consists of two parts: the crushing rollers and the squeezing rollers, ‘The crushing rollers are sometimes preceded by revolving knives. The crushing rollers are arranged in pairs and the squeezing rollers in threes—one at the top and two at the bottom. ‘The rollers are about three feet in diameter and up to seven feet wide. ‘The crushing rollers are provided with zig-zag corrugations roughly diamond shaped to break up the rind, The squeezing rollers are grooved to grip the cane and to allow passageways for the juice. The bearings which carry the rollers are able to slide and the rollers are pressed together by hydraulic pressure so that cach top roller exerts a pressure of about 500 tons on the lower rollers, There are often two sets of crushing rollers and sometimes as many as five or six sets of squeezing rollers, The whole mill is called a “tandem”. Many modern tandems give good results with only three sets of squeezing rollers In order to extract as much sugar as possible, water is sprayed on to the crushed cane as it passes into the Jast set of rollers. ‘The sweet water squeezed out in this set is pumped back on to the cane entering the last but one set and soon. ‘The amount of water sprayed on must be adjusted to be the least possible as it all has to be evaporated later. ‘The amount must be a balance between the value of the extra sugar extracted and the cost of evaporation. ‘The juice from the tandem contains about 12%, of sugar, about 5% of impurities and the rest is water. 19§5 TECHNOLOGY FOR SUGAR REFINERY WORKERS cu. | ooo consists first of crushing rollers which break in this picture has two. patrs of crushing rollers, which are provided with zig-zay corrugations to help to dreak up the rind, The uncrushed cane, which has been already cut into lenaths of about four feet, can be seen in the picture ente the first pair of rollers al the far end of the tandem, After passing through the second pair af. crashing rollers the cane goes an ta the squeezing rollers which are arranged in threes, Ho at The cane mill or ** tandem” up the hard cane rind. The tand Fig. ¢ Electrically Driven Tandem the bottom and one at the top. There are stx sets af squeezing rollers ix this tandem. The top roller of each set can be clearly seen driving motors and the triple reduction gears are on the right, A tandem such as this can erush over 3,000 tons of cane in tiventy-four hours, uses about 1,500 horse power and can extract about 17% of the sugar in the cane. After the biggest paper- making machines or steel strip mills, a big tandem is about the next largest machine in use in industry“S25 appar ay] op wo yong pagiuind st way; {gyno paraanbs ayy 2 ySnoug st ay “qaaf smaf ynogn fo sysSuay 42001 PINS AE PUD SPs any JSoP 24) $44} 240/34 3uD) ajquyNs ojur ama waeg ApuaeyD svY YE wepUDZ ayy sayoTEL peysniey ayy oj uo padbads 51 uae gy saveu 24d oy Saeqpos aun ayy aaafage suv ays fo yind ayy saroys aury uayoug fo ae aio woul auv7 paysuas ayy asfiuon se ‘uspuny ouvs su fo ueFvip vs 220go Fy *Skayjos Sutzambs fo spar vue ySnouyy s90F y aye “Saappoe ayy yBrioayy passe sup? ayy sauBvaf ppv ‘punt ays du ne ayy fo yom dia moys qos jou pip yy youg 07 payednusv2 aun youyar saxyjos Surysnes fo syas omy ‘wapuny 20 jus 9uvd aBayy w pamoys aanpad 10) 24. yao sossod wy yo yy8us suauxs ayy we sojnazp sespiin gr. fo aon 9 ay w on aoinr SUGAR oo 2i§§ 6-7 TECHNOLOGY FOR SUGAR REFINERY WORKERS cu. 1 6, THE PRODUCTION OF RAW CANE SUGAR ‘The juice is limed and heated which causes many of the impurities to collect together when they can be skimmed off as a scum or allowed to settle as a sediment, his process is usually carried out in large vessels called clarifiers. ‘The juice then goes to the evaporators ta be thickened up. The thin juice is thickened up, that is to say much of the water is boiled off it, in multiple effect evaporators. A description of muldple effect evaporation will be found later on in the book. Tt is then sent to the vacuum pans—which are also described further on—where the sugar is boiled out in the form of crystals, The mixture of crystals and syrup which is dropped from the pans is called a “ massecuite ” (French for “ cooked mass” and usually abbreviated to “‘ masse ") and is put into centrifugal machines where the syrup is spun off the sugar crystals. ‘The syrup from the centrifugal machines is returned to the vacuum pans where another crop of sugar is boiled from it. The resulting massecuite is also put through centrifugal machines and the syrup thrown off is again returned to the pans for a third and last crop of sugar to be boiled off it. The syrup thrown from this third massecuite is “‘ molasses ’—that is a syrup from which it is impossible or uneconomical to obtain further sugar by boiling. The three boilings in cane factories are called A, B and C, ‘The sugar from the centrifugal machines is sent to a port to awail shipment to a refiner. The exhausted cane fibre, called " bagasse ” or ‘ megasse ", is burnt in special furnaces under the boilers to make steam for genera- ting power and for pan boiling, evaporating and other process purposes. It is now possible with improved steam saving techniques, in many cane-growing countries, to get the necessary heat from the bagasse and have quite a lot to spare. Much research has been done in trying to find uses for this surplus bagasse. It has long been success- fully used for making Celotex wallboard and some promising results are being obtained in making paper. 7. THE DI LLOPMENT OF THE Bi SUGAR INDUSTRY The sugar beet is grown in the northern part of North America and in most European countri Beet sugar production has been almost entirely due to war or te the fear of war. Napoleon, unable to obtain sugar for Prance owing partly to the British blockade and to the fact that he had prohibited the import of products of the British Empire, forced the peasants to grow the white beet. By suitable fiscal manipulation he gave great assistance to the beet processors and virtually founded the industry. This was the beginning of a great wave of bect production on the Continent. After the Kaiser's 22SUGAR §8 War various British governments gave generous financial aid to the producers of bect sugar in Great Britain, with the result that by 1938 some 500,000 tons were produced in Great Britain, Beet sugar cannot compete with cane sugar on level terms. The basic reason why this must be so is simply that sugar is made in the plant by sun- light and a plant which will grow easily in the tropics must have a tremendous advantage ever one thathas to try to grow in our climate. The best yield of bect sugar per acre is 2 tons, whereas 3 to 6 tons per acre is normal for cane. The beet crop requires more attention than a cane crop, and the cost of labour in beet-growing countries is generally more than that of the cane labourers. There is no reason for beet sugar production in any country except to ensure a supply during war, The bect sugar industry in every beet-growing country reccives financial assistance in some form or other to enable it to operate, 8. THE SUGAR BEET Beet is grown from seed sown in the spring. When the young plants are a few weeks old they are thinned out until they are spaced about a foot apart. Constant hoeing is required to keep down weeds and to aerate the soil. The beets are ripe, that is to say, contain the greatest amount of sugar about the end of September. The beet does not deteriorate much if left in the ground, but the harvest must be gathered quickly lest frost prevent the bects being pulled at all. Th knowledge that shart days and bad weather lie ahead causes most farmers to gather their beets early, so that some have to be stored. Once beets are picked they do deteriorate. The factory therefore has to deal with its crop in the shortest possible time. A beet factory generally works for about three months, ‘This is another reason why beet sugar is more costly to produce than cane sugar, A cane mill usually works for about five months or more. Therefore for a given amount of sugar production a cane factory need only be a lithe more than half the size of a corresponding beet factory, ‘The sugar beet has a long tapering root. About six inches below the surface of the ground the main roots sends out long thin rootlets to gather nourishment from the surrounding soil. The main root and its subsidiary rootlets occupy a cylinder of soil about a foot in diameter and extending sometimes as much as five or six feet down into the ground. An average beet is about thi hes in diameter at the top end just below the leaves and its useful length is about seven or eight inches, At harvesting time the soil round the root is loosened and the root pulled out. The long tap root contains very little sugar and is Jeft in the ground where it decomposes and acts as a useful manure for future crops, The top of the beet near the leaves is also poor in sugar and is cut off in the field. The tops and leaves are collected and used for feeding cattle or they may be ploughed into 23§8 TECHNOLOGY FOR SUGAR REFINERY WORKERS cH. | ofa The sugar beet grows in temperate climates. If cannot compete on level terms with the sugar cane as for as cost of sugar production ts cancerned because sugar is made in plants by sunlight. The root of the beet ty about six to erght inches long and about three inches across. The average root contains about } th. of sugar. The green tops are eut off and used for cattle food ar they Fig. G The Sugar Beet contain very little sugar. The beet crop requires a great deal of agricultural work, and is therefore of benefit to subsequent crops because beet cannot be grown mare than once every three or four years an the same and. ‘The long roatlets, often three times as lang as shown in Fig. 6, ave left in the ground where they decay and act as manure for the following crop. 500 24SUGAR §9 the ground. The beet as delivered to the fa and contains about } Ib. of sugar. Ground that has been growing beet one year cannot grow a satisfactory second crop of beet for three or four years, but must be sown with some other crops which derive much benefit from the deep ploughing, manuring, ete., which has been expended on the beet crop. ctory weighs about 14 Ib. 9, THE EXTRACTION OF SUGAR FROM THE BEET The beets on arrival at the factory are weighed and sampled and tipped into large concrete silos which have a “ flume”’, or narrow channel of running water at the bottom, The running water conveys the beets to the clevator at the factory wall. The water, in addition to conveying, does good service in washing stones and mud off the beets, At the discharge of the elevator the beets pass through weed catchers and bect washers to the picking tables where stones, bits of wood, etc., are removed by hand. ‘They then pass to the slicing machines where corrugated knives cut them into shreds or “ cossettes about three inches long, a quarter of an inch wide and an eighth of an inch thick. The slices or cossettes arc filled into tanks, ten to sixteen of which form a “diffusion battery”. Water passes through these tanks, being added fresh to the oldest—that is the tank containing the oldest slices, Tt then passes through a heater and on through the next tank and soon through the whole bawery until it finally passes through the Jast or newest tank which contains the fresh slices, By this arrange- ment the slices which are richest in sugar come first in contact with the water which is richest in sugar, while the slices which have had nearly all their sugar extracted receive pure water which will remove almost the last trace of sugar. When the extraction of the sugar in the beet slices in the first tank is complete the water is shut off this tank and ig put on to the next. The exhausted slices (or pulp") are emptied out and the tank is filled with fresh slices. This tank now becomes the last in the battery receiving juice from the tank which had hitherto been the last. In this way the greatest amount of sugar is extracted with the least amount of water, Continuous diffusers of various designs have now been in use for a number of years and are rapidly displacing diffusion batter ‘This “ diffusion” process has one great advantage over the canes crushing process, namely that by its ns many undesirable im- purities are left behind in the pulp instead of being brought into the juice. The reason for this is that the thin walls of the cells which make up the root will readily pass water in one direction in exchange for erystallisalle solids, for example sugar, which pass out ; whercas gums and waxes and other impurities do not readily pass through the cell walls butremain in the pulp. ‘This exchange through the membrane 25 Se§§ 10-11 TECHNOLOGY FOR SUGAR REFINERY WORKERS = cH. 1 of the cell is called ‘ osmosis”. Were the beet juice extracted by squeezing, the cells would have their walls broken and there would be no beneficial discrimination in favour of sugar. Squeezing is done in some factories. The squeezed juice contains less water than diffusion juice, The advantages of the lower water content must be set against the disadvantages of more impurities, The exhausted pulp from the diffusion battery is squeezed to remove much of the surplus water and is either sold wet as cattle food or dried and stored and sold later for the same purpose when it is often mixed with molasses. 10. THE MANUFACTURE OF RAW BEET SUGAR ‘The beet juice is a dark grey-brown liquid containing about 13%, to 15% sugar, about 3% of impurities and the rest water, Milk of lime is added to the juice and carbon dioxide gas—CO,— is bubbled through. The gas is obtained from the lime kiln where limestone, a hard form of chalk, is burnt to make the lime used for adding to the juice. The gas combines with the lime to form a precipitate or powder of chalk which entangles most of the gummy matters and some of the colour. ‘This process is called “ carbonata- tion” 5 and is described in more detail in Sections 55 and 311-313. The juice is then filtered so that the chalk with the entangled impurities is removed. After filtering, the juice is again limed and gassed with a further removal of impurities by a second filtration. The clear juice then goes to a multiple effect evaporator where it is thickened up. The thick juice is boiled in yacuum pans and the sugar is separated from the syrup in centrifugal machines. The syrup from the machines is reboiled until a molasses is made which will yield no more sugar. 11, COMPARISON OF CANE AND BEET EXTRACTION METHODS The diffusion process used for extracting the sugar from the beet can also be used for extracting sugar from cane. ‘The diffusion method extracts the sugar with the least amount of impurities. On the other hand it does not extract quite so much sugar and the juice contains more water. ‘There are also two other reasons why it is not used for cane. The first is that great difficulty is found in keeping the knives sharp when they have to cut the very hard eane rind. The other is that the cane factory is generally dependent on bagasse for fuel. The milled bagasse is a geod fairly dry fuel which burns well. Bagasse from a difiusion battery is saturated with water and requires drying, after which it powders easily and does not burn well. The beet factory docs not generally use the squeezing process because the beet contains more undesirable impurities than the cane and these would be squeezed into the juice. The beet pulp has a very poor fuel value 26SUGAR §§ 12-13 and cannot compare with coal which can usually be obtained by a beet factory at not too high a cost as beet factories, unlike cance factories, are generally situated near coalfields. 12, DIRECT CONSUMPTION FACTORY WHITE SUGAR Most cane and beet factories make a white sugar for direct local consumption, In order to get a passable sugar they offen use decolorising carbons or sulphur bleaching processes. If these simple processes were satisfactory or economic the refiners would use them instead of the complex expensive processes that experience has shown to be necessary, It may be very economical for a factory to turn out 30%, or 50% of its output for direct local consumption provided an adequate quality can be got either by simply washing the first boiling sugar generously or by remelting the raw sugar and boiling a white sugar from the remelt liquor, possibly after carbonatation. 13, SUGAR REFINING ‘The first process is called * affination ", a French word meaning, refining. The process consists of mixing the sugar with a syrup to soften the adhering film of molasses (the mixture of sugar and syrup is called a magma”) and then washing off as much of this adhering impure molasses as possible in centrifugal machines. We call cent fugal machines either “‘ machines " or “ centrifugals ”. ‘The syrup which is thrown off contains a good deal of sugar, which, was dissolved by the wash water, and is boiled in vacuum pans to recover as much of this sugar as possible. This requires three boil- ings before the final syrup is molasses, that is a syrup from which no further sugar can be economically extracted his process is called “recovery in Britain. ‘The washed raw sugar and the several sugars from the recovery process are dissolved or “melted ” in water and filtered to take out sand, mud, bacteria, insects, cane fragments, gums, waxes, etc. The filtration process is in two parts, carbonatation and filtration. The carbonatation is similar to that used in the beet factories except that rauch less lime is used, which does not make it worth while having a lime kiln, so that the CQ, is obtained from the boiler flue gases after they have been washed, The bright filtered liquor is then passed over chi a charcoal made by partly burning bones—to remove the colour and much of the dissolved impurities. The fine colourless liquor from the char is thickened up in evaporators and then boiled im vacuum pans to make white sugar which is washed jn centrifugal machines. The sugar is dried in granulators and sieved to remove lumps and dust and th packed. ‘The syrup from the white sugar centrifugals is again run over char 27TECHNOLOGY FOR SUGAR REFINERY WORKERS Fig. 7 The Refining Process as carried out at Plaistow Wharf 20 cH.SUGAR §13 and reboiled for white sugar several times until the impurities in the syrup have become so concentrated that a white sugar can no longer be produced, Yellow sugar or picces is then boiled out of it, or it is partly inverted and turned into golden syrup. The final syrup from the pieces boiling is sent to the recovery house where the last available sugar is boiled out of it leaving molasses, 2