Guidance and Control of Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles: Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Guidance and Control of Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles
Shashi Ranjan Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai- 400076
https://www.aero.iitb.ac.in/˜shashi
srk@aero.iitb.ac.in
Quadrotor: Attitude Control
• How to design overall controller for multicopters?

• Successive loop closure approach
• Outer loop controller provides the commands for inner loop controller.
• Outputs of horizontal position channel controller provides the reference
values for attitude control system.
• Attitude control objectives Design the torques of multirotors s.t.
lim ∥Θh (t) − Θhd (t)∥ = 0; lim ∥RR⊤

d − I3 ∥ = 0
t→∞ t→∞
• Constraints on convergence rate of inner loop

• Bandwidth of inner loop w.r.t outer loop
• Attitude control: Critical role in position control
⇒ Euler angle based approach
⇒ Rotation matrix based approach
Shashi Ranjan Kumar (IITB) Guidance and Control of Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles Quadrotor Lecture 15 1 / 34
Quadrotor: Euler angle based Approach
• Attitude control problem: Design control input τ s.t.

⊤
lim ∥eΘ (t)∥ = 0, eΘ ≜ Θ − Θd , Θ ≜ Θ⊤
hd ψd
t→∞
• Θ⊤
hd comes from the controller while ψd is the mission designer’s choice.
• Using Θ̇ = ω, desired angular velocity
ωd = −KΘ eΘ
• With assumption of Θ̇d = 0 and eω ≜ ω − ωd
lim ∥eω ∥ = 0 =⇒ lim ∥eΘ ∥ = 0

t→∞ t→∞
• Using J ω̇ = τ , desired torque to ensure ∥eω ∥ = 0, using PID controller

R
τd = −Kωp eω − Kωi eω − Kωd ėω
Quadrotor: Euler angle based Approach
• With assumption of ω̇d = 0,
lim ∥τ (t) − τd (t)∥ = 0 =⇒ lim ∥eω ∥ = 0 lim ∥eΘ ∥ = 0

t→∞ t→∞ t→∞
• Derivative term can be omitted for reduction of noise.

• Considering saturation effect, with both a10 , a11 ∈ R+
Z
eω = satgd (ω − ωd , a10 ) , τd = satgd −Kωp eω − Kωi eω − Kωd ėω , a11
• With symmetric thrust limit given by τmax , saturated attitude controller

Z
τd = satgd −Kωp eω − Kωi eω − Kωd ėω , τmax ∈ [−τmax , τmax ]
• How to design these controllers using rotation matrix approach?

• How to identify the necessary error in a matrix-based approach?
Quadrotor: Transformation matrix based Approach
• Attitude error matrix with desired rotation matrix as Rd
R̃ = R⊤ Rd
• When will this matrix be identity matrix? R = Rd

• Control objective of attitude controller: limt→∞ ∥R̃ − I3 ∥ = 0
• Attitude and angular velocity tracking errors
1
vex R⊤ ⊤ ⊤

eR ≜ d R − R Rd , eω ≜ ω − R Rd ωd
2
• For small angle assumption, ωd = Θ̇d ≈ 0, and thus eω = ω.
• PD controller: τd = −KR eR − Kω eω
• Nonlinear attitude controller, with all terms,
τd = −KR eR − Kω eω − J [ω]×R⊤ Rωd − R⊤ Rω̇d

• Necessary for aggressive maneuver flight of multirotors
Quadrotor: Control Allocation
• Control allocation: Allocate control command to the actuators, while

satisfying constraint condition of the actuators.
• A method to solve equations with constraints
• Given uv (t) ∈ Rn , find actuator inputs δ(t) that satisfy
uv (t) = g(δ)(t), g : Rm → Rn
• Linear control allocation problem
uv (t) = B(δ)(t)
• Actuator (position and rate) constraints
δmin,k ≤ δk ≤ δmax,k , δ̇min,k ≤ δ̇k ≤ δ̇max,k
• Control allocation module: Located after position and attitude control

modules, and before the propulsors.
• Inputs of control allocator: Total thrust and three-axis moments
• Outputs: Motion commands to propulsors.
• Benefits of using control allocator: Safer operation of multirotors even in

case of failure of some propellers, adapt to different flight conditions
• For quadrotor, control allocation is unique, P4 = M4−1 . Multrotors?
• For multirotors, this allocation is nonunique, and uses pseudo-inverse
−1
Pnr = Mn†r = Mn⊤r Mnr Mn⊤r
• Propeller’s angular speeds

2
 
ω̄d,1
2

 ω̄d,2
 = P nr f d


 ...  τd
2
ω̄d,n r
• In a particular allocation, some propeller angular speeds may exceed the

saturation value.
• Requirement of good allocation scheme.
• What would happen if some of the cT , cM coefficients are unknown?
Control effectiveness matrix

 
cT cT ··· cT
 −d1 cT sin φ1 −d2 cT sin φ2 ··· −dnr cT sin φnr 
Mnr (cT , cM , d) =  
 d1 cT cos φ1 d2 cT cos φ2 ··· dnr cT cos φnr 
cM δ1 cM δ2 ··· cM δnr
• One can write
Mnr (cT , cM , d) = Pa Mnr (1, 1, 1)
Pa = diag(cT , dcT , dcT , cM )

• Inverse of Mnr
Mn†r (cT , cM , d) = Mn†r (1, 1, 1)Pa−1
• For a hexacopter, control effectiveness matrix

" cT c c cT c cT
#
√ T √ T √ T √
0 − 3dcT /2 − 3dcT /2 0 3dcT /2 3dcT /2
M6 (cT , cM , d) =
dcT dcT /2 −dcT /2 −dcT −dcT /2 dcT /2
cM −cM cM −cM cM −cM
 
1 0 2 1
√
1 − 3 1 −1
√
† 1  1 − 3 −1 1

M6 (1, 1, 1) =  
6 1 0 −2 −1
 √ 
1 3 −1 1
√
1 3 1 −1
• Angular speeds of multirotors

2
   
ω̄d,1 fd /cT
2

 ω̄d,2 † −1 f d τ dx /(dcT ) 
= M6† (1, 1, 1) 
  
 . . .  = M6 (1, 1, 1)Pa
 
τd  τdy /(dcT ) 
2
ω̄d,6 τdz /(cM )
• Unknown variables cT , cM , d can be compensated for by adjusting control

(PID) parameters.
Quadrotor: Motor Control
• Motors drive propellers, and thus the rigidly attached multicopters.

• High performance motor speed control: better attitude and position
control
• Motor control objective: To design throttle input σd,k s.t.
lim |ω̄k (t) − ωd,k (t)| = 0 ∀ k = 1, . . . , nr

t→∞
• Propulsor model with throttle command as input

1
ω̄k = (CR σk + ω̄b ) , σk ∈ [0, 1]
Tm s + 1
˜ = ω̄k − ω̄d,k
• Throttle controller (closed-loop), with error ω̄
Z
˜ − kω̄i
σk = −kω̄p ω̄ ˜˙ k ; kω̄p , kω̄i , kω̄d ∈ R
˜ − kω̄d ω̄
ω̄
• Throttle controller (open-loop)
σk = aω̄d,k + b ; a, b ∈ R
UAV: Simulation Results using Euler Angles
UAV: Simulation Results using Rotation Matrix
KR = diag(1, 1, 1); Kω = diag(1, 1, 2.5)
UAV: Guidance Models
PC: Wikipedia
• Complex equations of motion for vehicle considering everything for design

purpose
• Necessity to develop significantly less mathematical complex design
models that capture essential behavior of the system.
• Approximation of the performance of closed-loop vehicle system to develop
reduced-order design models for higher-level guidance design
UAV: Autopilot Models
• Guidance models use a high-level representation of autopilot loops

• Airspeed and roll-hold loops, with bVa , bϕ > 0, are
V̇a = bVa (Vac − Va ) , ϕ̇ = bϕ (ϕc − ϕ)
• Constants bVa , bϕ depend on implementation of autopilot and estimation

techniques
• Altitude and course-hold loops, with bḣ , bχ̇ , bh , bχ > 0
ḧ = bḣ ḣc − ḣ + bh (hc − h)

χ̈ = bχ̇ (χ̇c − χ̇) + bχ (χc − χ)
• Load factor: Ratio of lift to the weight

• Autopilot-hold loop for flight path angle and load factor
γ̇ = bγ (γ c − γ) , η̇lf = bηlf ηlf

c

− ηlf , bγ > 0, bηlf > 0
UAV: Kinematic Model of Controlled Flight
• How to obtain reduced-order guidance models?

• Simplification: eliminate force and moment balance equations of motion
• Elimination of their computations of complex aerodynamic forces acting
on the airframe
• Replacement with simpler kinematic equations for specific flight conditions
such as a coordinated turn and an accelerating climb
• Velocity of aircraft w.r.t. inertial frame
 
cos χ cos γ
Vgi = Vg  sin χ cos γ 
− sin γ
• Kinematics of vehicle
   
ṗn cos χ cos γ
 ṗe  = Vg  sin χ cos γ 
ḣ sin γ
UAV: Kinematic Model of Controlled Flight
• Control of airspeed and heading is common in practice.

• Using wind triangle, we have
     
ṗn cos ψ cos γa wn
 ṗe  = Va  sin ψ cos γa  +  we 
ḣ sin γa −wd
• In case of constant altitude and no upward component of wind,
     
ṗn cos ψ wn
 ṗe  = Va  sin ψ  +  we 
ḣ 0 0
• Commonly used kinematic model for UAV
UAV: Kinematic Model of Controlled Flight: Coordinated Turn
• Coordinated turn: No lateral acceleration in body frame

• Bank angle set in a way to provide zero net side force acting on vehicle
• For coordinated turn,
g
χ̇ = tan ϕ cos (χ − ψ)
Vg
• Essential behavior of coordinated-turn: Aircraft must bank to turn (unlike
skid-to-turn)
• Wind triangle, (Va = Vg − Vw ), in component form
     
cos χ cos γ wn cos ψ cos γa
 sin χ cos γ  Vg −  we  =  sin ψ cos γa  Va
− sin γ wd − sin γa
UAV: Kinematic Model of Controlled Flight: Coordinated Turn
• On differentiation of both sides, we get

  
cos χ cos γ −Vg sin χ cos γ −Vg cos χ sin γ V̇g
 sin χ cos γ Vg cos χ cos γ −Vg sin χ sin γ   χ̇ 
− sin γ 0 − cos γ γ̇
  
cos ψ cos γa −Va sin ψ cos γa −Va cos ψ sin γa V̇a
=  cos ψ cos γa Va cos ψ cos γa −Va sin ψ sin γa   ψ̇ 
− sin γa 0 − cos γa γ̇a
• For constant altitude flight and no down component of wind
γ, γa , γ̇, γ̇a , wd = 0
V̇a V̇a Vg χ̇
V̇g = + Vg χ̇ tan(χ − ψ), ψ̇ = tan(χ − ψ) +
cos(χ − ψ) Va Va cos(χ − ψ)
• For constant airspeed, coordinated turn condition
Vg χ̇ g tan ϕ cos (χ − ψ) g
ψ̇ = = = tan ϕ
Va cos(χ − ψ) Va cos(χ − ψ) Va
• Equation true even in the presence of wind

UAV: Kinematic Model of Controlled Flight: Accelerated Climb
• Pull up maneuver and aircraft climbs along

Accelerating climb
an arc
• Due to roll angle of ϕ, projection of lift
force in ib − kb plane: Flift cos ϕ
• Force balance:
Flift cos ϕ = mVg γ̇ + mg cos γ

g Flift cos ϕ
γ̇ = − cos γ
Vg mg
g
= (nlf cos ϕ − cos γ)
Vg
Flift
where load factor nlf ≜
mg
UAV Kinematic Model of Controlled Flight: Accelerated Climb
• For level wing, horizontal flight,
ϕ = γ = 0, nnf = 1
• Load factor: Representation of the

force experienced by aircraft during
climbing and turning maneuvers
• Check and flexibility about the
commands to aircraft within its
structural capability
• What would happen for constant
climb conditions?
• For constant climb, γ̇ = 0
cos γ
nlf =
cos ϕ
UAV Kinematic Guidance Model
• How to obtain guidance model in presence of wind?

• Difficult to model wind using a kinematic model, why?
• It introduces aerodynamic forces on aircraft
• These forces are expressed in the dynamic model in terms of Va , α, β
• Velocity vector of UAV
⇒ Airspeed, heading, and air-mass-referenced flight-path angle
⇒ Ground speed, course, and flight-path angle
• Control of airspeed, course angle, and flight-path angle
• Compute ground speed, heading, and air- mass-referenced flight path
angle using wind triangle
• Do you recall about how to compute these quantities?
• Assumption: Control of airspeed, altitude, and course angle using

autopilots
Equations of motion
ṗn = Va cos ψ + wn
ṗe = Va sin ψ + we
χ̈ = bχ̇ (χ̇c − χ̇) + bχ (χc − χ)
ḧ = bḣ ḣc − ḣ + bh (hc − h)

V̇a = bVa (Vac − Va )
• Control inputs: hc , Vac , χc

• Heading angle of UAV, with γa = 0
−wn sin χ + we cos χ

ψ = χ − sin−1
Va
• Can we also have some other alternatives?

• Roll angle as the input command
• Control of heading angle through roll angle by using coordinated-turn
condition
Equations of motion
ṗn = Va cos ψ + wn
ṗe = Va sin ψ + we
g
ψ̇= tan ϕ
Va
ḧ = bḣ ḣc − ḣ + bh (hc − h)


ϕ̇= bϕ (ϕc − ϕ)
• Control inputs: hc , Vac , ϕc
• For longitudinal motion, the altitude is indirectly controlled by flight path

angle
• Flight path angle and course angle both taken as states as they are
references in inertial frame
Equations of motion
ṗn = Va cos ψ cos γa + wn

ṗe = Va sin ψ cos γa + we
ḣ= Va sin γa − wd
g
χ̇= tan ϕ cos (χ − ψ)
Vg
γ̇= bγ (γ c − γ)
ϕ̇ = bϕ (ϕc − ϕ)
• Control inputs: γac , Vac , ϕc

• Other variables can be computed using these states using wind triangle
• Some autopilots control load factor, rather than flight path angle
• Use accelerating climb conditions
Equations of motion
ṗn = Va cos ψ cos γa + wn

ṗe = Va sin ψ cos γa + we
ḣ = Va sin γa − wd
g
ψ̇= tan ϕ
Va
g
γ̇= (nlf cos ϕ − cos γ)
Vg
ϕ̇ = bϕ (ϕc − ϕ)
ṅlf = bn nclf − nlf

• Control inputs: nclf , Vac , ϕc

• Other variables (Va , γa , ψ) can be computed using wind triangle
UAV Dynamic Guidance Model
• Reduced-order guidance models: based on kinematic relations between

positions and velocities
• Based on first-order differential equations to model closed-loop response of
commanded states
• Advantage of conditions for coordinated turn to eliminate lift force from
equations of motion
• Airspeed as a controlled quantity and thus no force balance along
body-fixed ib axis
• Using Newton’s law

Fthrust Fdrag
V̇g = − − g sin γ
m m
cos γ Flift
• Course angle, using nlf = = , is given by
cos ϕ mg
g g sin ϕ cos(χ − ψ) Flift sin ϕ cos(χ − ψ)
χ̇ = tan ϕ cos(χ − ψ) = nlf =
Vg Vg cos γ mVg cos γ
Equations of motion
ṗn = Va cos ψ cos γ

ṗe = Va sin ψ cos γ
ḣ = Va sin γ
Fthrust Fdrag
V̇g = − − g sin γ
m m
Flift sin ϕ cos(χ − ψ)
χ̇ =
mVg cos γ
Flift g
γ̇ = cos ϕ − cos γ
mVg Vg
• Lift and drag forces:

1 2 1
Llift = ρVa SCL , Dlift = ρVa2 SCD , CD = CD0 + KCL2
2 2
• Control inputs: Thrust, lift coefficient, and bank angle

• Popularity of this point-mass model: Models aircraft behavior in response

to inputs used by pilot
• Control inputs used by pilot: engine thrust, lift from the lifting surfaces,
and bank angle
• In the absence of wind, Vg = Va , γ = γa and χ = ψ
Equations of motion
ṗn = Va cos ψ cos γ

ṗe = Va sin ψ cos γ
ḣ = Va sin γ
Fthrust Fdrag
V̇a = − − g sin γ
m m
Flift sin ϕ
ψ̇=
mVa cos γ
Flift g
γ̇ = cos ϕ − cos γ
mVa Va
Text/Reference
Reference
1. Quan Quan, “Introduction to Multicopter Design and Control”,

Springer, 2017.
2. Randal Beard and Timothy W. McLain, “Small Unmanned
Aircraft: Theory and Practice”, Princeton University Press, 2012
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Guidance and Control of Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles

Shashi Ranjan Kumar

• How to design overall controller for multicopters?

lim ∥Θh (t) − Θhd (t)∥ = 0; lim ∥RR⊤

• Constraints on convergence rate of inner loop

• Attitude control problem: Design control input τ s.t.

• Using Θ̇ = ω, desired angular velocity

• With assumption of Θ̇d = 0 and eω ≜ ω − ωd

lim ∥eω ∥ = 0 =⇒ lim ∥eΘ ∥ = 0

• Using J ω̇ = τ , desired torque to ensure ∥eω ∥ = 0, using PID controller

• With assumption of ω̇d = 0,

lim ∥τ (t) − τd (t)∥ = 0 =⇒ lim ∥eω ∥ = 0 lim ∥eΘ ∥ = 0

• Derivative term can be omitted for reduction of noise.

• With symmetric thrust limit given by τmax , saturated attitude controller

• How to design these controllers using rotation matrix approach?

• Attitude error matrix with desired rotation matrix as Rd

• When will this matrix be identity matrix? R = Rd

τd = −KR eR − Kω eω − J [ω]×R⊤ Rωd − R⊤ Rω̇d

• Necessary for aggressive maneuver flight of multirotors

• Control allocation: Allocate control command to the actuators, while

• Linear control allocation problem

• Actuator (position and rate) constraints

δmin,k ≤ δk ≤ δmax,k , δ̇min,k ≤ δ̇k ≤ δ̇max,k

• Control allocation module: Located after position and attitude control

• Benefits of using control allocator: Safer operation of multirotors even in

• Propeller’s angular speeds

• In a particular allocation, some propeller angular speeds may exceed the

Control effectiveness matrix

• One can write

Mnr (cT , cM , d) = Pa Mnr (1, 1, 1)

Pa = diag(cT , dcT , dcT , cM )

Mn†r (cT , cM , d) = Mn†r (1, 1, 1)Pa−1

• For a hexacopter, control effectiveness matrix

• Angular speeds of multirotors

• Unknown variables cT , cM , d can be compensated for by adjusting control

• Motors drive propellers, and thus the rigidly attached multicopters.

lim |ω̄k (t) − ωd,k (t)| = 0 ∀ k = 1, . . . , nr

• Propulsor model with throttle command as input

• Throttle controller (open-loop)

KR = diag(1, 1, 1); Kω = diag(1, 1, 2.5)

• Complex equations of motion for vehicle considering everything for design

• Guidance models use a high-level representation of autopilot loops

V̇a = bVa (Vac − Va ) , ϕ̇ = bϕ (ϕc − ϕ)

• Constants bVa , bϕ depend on implementation of autopilot and estimation

ḧ = bḣ ḣc − ḣ + bh (hc − h)

χ̈ = bχ̇ (χ̇c − χ̇) + bχ (χc − χ)

• Load factor: Ratio of lift to the weight

γ̇ = bγ (γ c − γ) , η̇lf = bηlf ηlf

• How to obtain reduced-order guidance models?

• Control of airspeed and heading is common in practice.

• Coordinated turn: No lateral acceleration in body frame

• On differentiation of both sides, we get

• Equation true even in the presence of wind

• Pull up maneuver and aircraft climbs along

Flift cos ϕ = mVg γ̇ + mg cos γ

• For level wing, horizontal flight,

• Load factor: Representation of the