Dr.

RAM MANOHAR LOHIYA

NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

HISTORY-II

RESEARCH PROJECT

ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF BRITISH COLONIALISM IN INDIA

SUBMITTED TO – SUBMITTED BY –
DR. VANDANA SINGH ADITI JOSHI
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR Enrolment No.- 210101009
(HISTORY) B.A. LL.B. (Hons.)
Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University 2 Semester, Section ‘A’
st

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I have taken efforts to do this research work. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support of many individuals. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all
of them.

I am highly indebted to DR. VANDANA SINGH, Assistant Professor (History) for her
guidance and contact supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding
the research and also for her support in completing the work.

I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents and elders for their kind co-
operation and encouragement which helped me in completion of this research project.

And special thanks to my college mates and library staff who helped me in developing this
research work.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………4
2. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………...4
3. THE INITIAL PHASE….……………………………………………………......5
4. POLICIES OF THE BRITISH…………………………………………………....5
5. THE DISILLUSIONMENT……………………………………………………….6
5.1 DADABHAI NARAOJI………………………………………………………6
5.2 MAHADEV GOVIND RANADE……………………………………………8
5.3 ROMESH CHANDRA DUTT……………………………………………….10
6. DECLINE OF THE TRADITIONAL INDUSTRY……………………………...11
6.1 ARTISANRY…………………………………………………………………11
6.2 PEASANTRY………………………………………………………………...11
6.3 ZAMINDARI…………………………………………………………………12
6.4 AGRICULTURE……………………………………………………….……..12
6.5 EMERGENCE OF MODERN INDUSTRIES…………………….………….13
6.6 POVERTY AND FAMINES…………………………………………………13
7. THE PUBLIC ……………………………………………………………………13
8. CALL FOR INDUSTRIALISATION ……………………………….…………..14
9. JUSTIFICATION BY THE BRITISH……………………………………………15
10. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………16
11. REFERENCES………………………………………………………………...….17

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ABSTRACT

While a majority of historians believe that British colonialism had adverse impacts on the
Indian population, some others believe that the rule was largely beneficial and India’s poor
economic conditions were due to other factors. In the initial phase of the colonial years,
though the Indian intellectuals were against foreign rule, they still hoped that the
industrialised Britain would modernise India. But soon the disillusionment set in and the
early nationalists such as Dadabhai Naoroji and G.V.Joshi exposed the British economic
policies which proved to be detrimental to Indians. The traditional indigenous industry was
disrupted as cheaper goods flooded the Indian market. Artisans and peasants were growing
poorer while the zamindars and landlords continued with their exploitative practices. The
British tried to justify their practices in the name of development, but the result was a divide
where a small minority of Indians educated while the majority seeped into poverty. Famines
became recurrent. To alleviate the distress, the nationalists called for industrialisation and
even the capitalist class joined in later advocating support for worker welfare schemes. Thus
it can be concluded that while the British policies brought in some of the modern western
practices, the impacts these policies had were devastating.

2. INTRODUCTION

Economists, historians, and politicians continue to discuss the importance and scope of
British imperial policy under the British Raj (1858–1947) in India's relative decrease in world
GDP. Many analysts think that British rule had a largely negative impact on India, claiming
that Britain engaged in a campaign of deindustrialization in India to favour British exporters,
leaving Indians significantly poorer than before British control. Others claim that Britain's
influence on India was largely neutral or beneficial, and that India's diminishing percentage
of world GDP was attributable to other reasons such as new mass manufacturing technology.
In the following sections, this project will explore the economic policies of the British and
the impacts it had on the existing Indian industries while also discussing how national leaders
gave an economic critique of the policies which were adopted by the colonial rule.

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3. THE INITIAL PHASE

Indian intellectuals in the first half of the nineteenth century took a positive view of the
British rule, hoping that Britain, as the most advanced nation at the time, would assist India
in modernising. In terms of economic development, Britain, the world's developing industrial
giant, was anticipated to help India develop its productive forces by introducing
contemporary sciences and technology as well as capitalist economic organisation. Although
early Indian nationalists were aware of the many political, psychological, and economic
disadvantages of foreign authority, they continued to embrace colonial rule because they
anticipated it would rebuild India as a spitting image of the Western countries.

But this industrial revolution in Britain led to India becoming the former’s economic colony.
The reasoning behind this is as follows. The Industrial Revolution enabled English merchants
to amass a large amount of capital from Asia, Africa, and America. They now desired to
invest this wealth in the establishment of industries and trade with India. The Industrial
Revolution, which occurred first in England during the late 18th and early 19th centuries,
pioneered the mass production of goods through machines that we see today. This resulted in
a massive increase in finished product output. The East India Company contributed to the
financing and expansion of their industrial base. During this period, in England, there was a
class of manufacturers who benefited more from manufacturing than from trading. They were
interested in obtaining additional raw materials from India as well as returning their finished
goods. Between 1793 and 1813, these British manufacturers waged a campaign against the
company, its trade monopoly, and the benefits it received. They eventually succeeded in
removing the East India Company's monopoly on Indian trade. India became an economic
colony of Industrial England as a result of this.

4. POLICIES OF THE BRITISH

The Battle of Plassey (23rd June 1757) was a turning point in our history as it was after this
battle that the British started intervening in the economic policies of our country. The
Economic Exploitation of India can be classified into three phases1:
• Mercantilist phase : 1757 to 1813
• Mercantile capitalism phase: 1813 to 1858
• Finance capitalism phase: 1858 to 1947.

1
Singhania, Shilpa. "Economic Policies Of The British In India - Geeksforgeeks". Geeksforgeeks, 2022,

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 - In the Mercantilist phase, the trade was entirely monopolized by the East India
Company. The trade was entirely monopolized by the East India Company. They
began to plunder India’s wealth by manipulating the low prices of India’s finished
goods for exports to Europe and England. The surplus revenue from the provinces
of Bengal was utilized to buy the finished goods for export.
- In the Mercantile capitalism phase, India was converted into a free market. British
mercantile class took away the raw materials. It brought back manufactured goods
for being marketed in India, and Export from India came to be confined to raw
materials and food grain.
- In the Finance capitalism phase, for augmentation in the investment of British
goods in India, the construction of railways, banking, post and telegraph services,
etc. were developed, and to preserve control over Indian capital, the system of
management agency was adopted.
Specific policies will be discussed in the further sections.

5. THE DISILLUSIONMENT

The process of disillusionment began gradually after 1860, as the reality of social
development in India failed to meet the people’s expectations. They began to notice that,
while progress in new directions was slow and halting, the country as a whole was regressing
and under developing. Gradually, the image of British rule began to darken, and the early
nationalists began to delve deeper into the reality of British rule and its impact on India.

Early Indian nationalists organised powerful intellectual campaigns opposing nearly all
important official economic policies. They used these agitations to both understand and
explain the colonial structure's policies to others. They advocated for the end of India's
economic subservience to Britain in all spheres of life and agitated for a different path of
development that would lead to an independent economy. The use of bold, hard-hitting, and
colourful language was a key feature of this agitation. While many leaders initiated and
carried out a detailed economic analysis of the British rule, this project would talk about three
of those imminent personalities;

4.1 DADABHAI NAOROJI

Dadabhai Naoroji (born-Sep 4, 1825), also known as The Grand Old Man of India, was an
Indian Nationalist who actively criticised the British economic policy in India. This project

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would highlight his top four economic ideas which provided a pattern of thought for modern
India2.

• National Income
Naoroji wasn’t satisfied with the official estimates regarding the National Income
given by the British and termed it misleading. He pointed out that unless complete
information about: a) The average annual income per head and b) “The requirements
of labourer to live in working health and not as a starved beast of burden” was
supplied every year, it was useless to make unsounded statement that India was
progressing. The upper and middle classes received a larger share, while the poor
masses did not receive enough to meet their basic needs. In this context of growing
income disparities, Naoroji spoke of two Indians, one prosperous and the other
impoverished. The prosperous India belonged to the British and other foreigners,
while the poor India belonged to the Indians. Though the method adopted by Naoroji
was criticised by F.C. Danvers, an employee of India office (as Naoroji did not take
into consideration actual number of persons employed in agriculture, industries and
other professions), Dr. V.K.R.V. Rao had supported the method adopted by Naoroji
and paid a great tribute to him as a statistician.
• Taxation, Military expenditure and Public Department
In England, taxes accounted for 8% of total income; in India, taxes accounted for
about 15%. He chastised the then-Indian government for abolishing duties on cotton
imports from Manchester, claiming that it was detrimental to newly established Indian
factories. The main cause of India's poverty, according to Naoroji, was excessive
spending on European services and interest on public debts. So Naoroji suggested that
the military expenditure should be limited and England should pay her share for the
maintenance of the British army in India and for other military services.
• Drain of Wealth theory
This theory was adopted to explain the situation of poverty in India. According to his
estimates, the drain which was around 3 Million pounds in the beginning of the 19th
century increased to 30 Million pounds at the end of the century. And the drain took
place in several ways; a) Large remittances were made by European officials of their
savings in India b) Large remittances were made in the form of salaries and pensions

2
Shailesh, Kirti. "Economic Ideas Of Dadabhai Naoroji". Economics Discussion, 2022.

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 c) India had to pay for government expenditure in England also and d) Non-official
Europeans made remittances from their business profits in India.

The money that had flowed from India to England returned as British capital and
foreigners monopolised trade and industry. It had once again resulted in a wealth
drain. As a result, the drain became continuous, affecting capital formation in India.

Hence Naoroji suggested the following measures; a) Indians and Englishmen should
be paid equal salary for the same type of job, b) The British who were already earning
high salaries had to be omitted from the pension scheme, c) No country could invade
India through the sea and so she should not be charged for the maintenance of the
India navy and d) Indians should be given due representation in the government and
foreign capital should come but not the foreign capitalist who took everything from
India.

• Criticism of the British Administration

Naoroji harshly criticised the British administration in India in The House of
Commons speeches. The main target was the East India Company's unjust,
destructive, and exploitative attitude. It was, on the one hand, destroying the country's
internal trade while, on the other, employing imported labour in administration.
Naoroji also went on to say that “If India did not progress under the Englishmen there
was no justification for their existence here”.

4.2 JUSTICE MAHADEV GOVIND RANADE

Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, one of the founding memebers of the Indian National
Congress party promoted the value of modern industrial development . His ideas on the
prevailing economic conditions too can be based under 4 main categories3;

• Political Economy
In Ranade’s words, “The method to be followed is not the deductive but the historical
method which takes into account the past in its forecast of the future; relativity and
not absoluteness, characterizes the conclusion of the economic science”.

3
Shailesh, Kirti. "Economic Ideas Of Mahadev Govind Ranade (With Conclusion)". Economics Discussion,
2022.

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 Ranade considered economic laws were only relative. In other words, he believed in
the doctrine of relativity. He said that the ideas of economists like Adam Smith and
Malthus were applicable only to a static society. He held the view that in India,
institutions like family and caste were more powerful than the individual in the
determination of his economic position. Wealth was not the only thing to be aimed at
and also emphasized that the traditional assumptions of economic theory were true
only for England.
• Economic Education
Ranade emphasised the importance of economic education in promoting the wealth of
a nation. He said, “The nation’s economic education is of far more importance than
the present gain of its individual members, as represented by the quantity of wealth
measured by its value in exchanges. In a sound and normal condition all the three
departments of national activity must be fully developed. Commerce and
manufactures are, if possible, more vital in their bearing on education, on the
intelligence and skill and enterprise of the nation than agriculture.”
• Economic Development
According to Ranade, economic development of India depended on economic, social
and political institutions and it was the duty of the state, to direct and channelize the
activities of individuals and institutions, towards a well determined goal. In India,
since the private initiative was shy, he wanted the state to undertake measures for the
industrial development of the country
• India’s Poverty
While both Naoroji and R.C. Dutt believed that the current poverty was due to the
British rule, Ranade believed that poverty had existing in the country from much
before and was exacerbated due to the foreign rule with the reasons for poverty being
predominance of agriculture, backwardness of Indian industries, lack of credit
facilities and flawed land policy.
• He desired the development of agriculture, industry, and commerce to be balanced
and well-planned. He advocated for government intervention to promote large-scale
farming. Ranade also proposed that the state establish agro-based industries.
Furthermore, he advocated for changes in land policy to benefit cultivators,
recommending a liberal land policy and a permanent Ryotwari system in which the
cultivator receives 50% of the profit.

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 Furthermore, he voiced for the reorganisation of the credit system and the formation
of capitalist committees to finance agriculture. Ranade opposed the free trade policy
because it was harmful to local industries, and thus asked for a policy of protection for
Indian industries. Ranade also proposed population redistribution to ensure proper
resource utilisation among the various regions.

4.3 ROMESH CHANDRA DUTT

Romesh Chunder Dutt was an Indian civil servant, economic historian writer and translator
of Ramayana and Mahabharata. His first book on the economic problems of the cultivators
was 'Peasantry of Bengal', written in 1875 and the ideas developed in this book were
expanded fully in 'Famines in India,' published in 1900, containing his strongly-argued
thesis about the over-assessment of land revenue and containing a plea for the extension of
the Permanent Settlement to the Ryotwari area and also for a permanent fixation of rents
payable by the Ryots to the intermediaries.

Mainly three publications by Dutt dealt with the economic effects of British colonial rule in
India. These were England and India (1897), Famines in India (1900) and the two volumes of
the Economic History of India4. England and India touches upon several features of British
rule in India, which he developed in greater detail in his subsequent publications. The second
book began with a brief history of famines in India from 1770 to the end of the nineteenth
century and contained five 'Open Letters' to the Governor General and the Viceroy, Lord
Curzon.

Furthermore, in the Economic History of India, he describes the various aspects of the British
government's economic administration, including the de-industrialization of India due to
unfair competition with machine-made goods from England, the neglect of industrial and
agricultural development, the high rate of revenue, the consequent impoverishment of the
peasantry, the outbreak of famines, the drain of resources through the payment of 'Home
charges,' and the financing of costly wars beyond Indian borders. Even today, his criticisms
of the colonial policies are considered to be the most influential.

4
Dutt, Romesh Chunder – Banglapedia.

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Thus, the leaders' agitation on economic issues contributed to the undermining of the alien
rulers' ideological hegemony over Indian minds, that is, the foundations of colonial rule in the
minds of the people.

5. DECLINE OF THE TRADITIONAL INDUSTRY

According to the historians, over the course of our history, though there had been various
emperors and empires, no significant structural change occurred with regards to the economy.
But Indians had to experience varied destructive policies of the British which resulted in
monumental changes in the structure ultimately leading to a drain of the country’s treasury.
Below discussed are areas which experienced multiple disruptions and the adverse impacts of
the colonial policies.

5.1 ARTISANRY

• The main reason for the collapse of the Indian handicraft industry, made using
primitive technologies was caused by the competition led by the cheaper imported
machine made goods from Britain. This was augmented by the policy of one way free
trade on India, adopted by the British after 1813. The railways further enabled the
British manufacturers to disrupt the traditional industries in the remotest of villages
and the worst-hit commodities were the cloth industry products.
• Another reason for the collapse was due to the oppressive practices adopted by the
company, which for example, forced craftsmen of Bengal to sell their goods below
the market price and import duties coupled with the disappearance of demand caused
great damage to the indigenous groups
• Flourishing industrial centres such as Dhaka, Surat, etc. were depopulated. Moreover,
industrialization as a friend to Europe did not take ground in India, due to which
artisans and handicrafts couldn't find alternate employment and hence many took to
cultivation and labour activities. And this increasing pressure on agriculture was one
of the major causes of extreme poverty in India under the British. India, which had
been an exporter for centuries now turned into an importer of cotton products and
exporter of raw cotton

5.2 PEASANTRY

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 • In the early years of the rule in Bengal, Robert Clive and Warren Hastings, policy of
extracting the largest possible land revenue led to a huge devastation and the peasant
became more and more impoverished. The situation was further deteriorated due to
the oppression by zamindars, who raised rents to unbearable limits and in other places
zamindars and landlords levied excessive land revenue.
• On the other hand, the government devoted almost its entire income to meeting the
needs of British Indian administration and sending indirect tributes to England. Also,
the growing commercialization of agriculture helped the moneylenders to explore the
cultivation. Hence, the peasant had to face a three frontiers, the government, the
zamindar and the moneylender.

5.3 ZAMINDARI
• In the first few years of the rule, due to Warren Hasting’s policy of auctioning the
rights of revenue collection to the highest bidders, most of the old zamindars in
Bengal and Madras were ruined. Thus the government increased their power over
tenants by eroding the rights of the latter as a result of which the conditions of
zamindars improved. But due to this rise, the zamindars and landlords grew more
powerful, with many becoming chief political supporters of the foreign rule.
• Also, different settlements were introduced in the country for eg; In 1793, the
Britishers introduced the Permanent Settlement in the provinces of Bihar and
Bengal. The Permanent settlement system gave East India Company a fixed sum of
money and made zamindars the hereditary owners of the land. These land revenue
policies generated revenue for the government at the cost of the peasants.

5.4 AGRICULTURE

• The causes for deterioration of agriculture were overcrowding, excessive land revenue
demand, growth of landlordism, increasing indebtedness and the growing
impoverishment of cultivators. There emerged smaller holdings and the extreme
poverty of peasants left them without any resources. Also, landlords in India, unlike in
European countries did not invest capital in their land to increase productivity to
further share the increased income.
• Moreover, the government too refused to help. The step motherly treatment of Public
Works and agriculture improvement was quite evident, for example, while the

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 government of India had spent by 1905 over 360 crore of rupees on the railways,
which was demanded by British business interests, it spent in the same period less
than 50 crores of rupees on irrigation, which would have benefited millions of Indian
cultivators. Finally, due to lack of modernization, Indian agriculture was
technologically stagnating.

5.5 EMERGENCE OF MODERN INDUSTRIES

• In the second half of the 19th century, India saw the emergence of large scale machine
based industries with respect to cotton, jute, etc. And most of these were owned or
controlled by British capital. Labour was cheap and raw materials were readily
available. This attracted foreign capitalists. As a result, Indian enterprises found it
difficult to penetrate the markets because of favouritism.
• Furthermore, India lacked heavy or capital goods industries. Indigo plantations too
were of little advantage to the cultivators, as most of the profits went to the British. To
conclude, in terms of production as well as employment, the modern industrial
development of India was paltry compared with the economic development of other
countries or even those with India’s economic needs.

5.6 POVERTY AND FAMINES

• While there may be a debate on the state of poverty amongst historians, it is clear that
Indians faced extreme starvation. As a result of the poverty famines became recurring
and took the lives of millions of people. It may be the famine of 1868-70 or 1876-78.
Even Charles Eliot, an English official once said, “I do not hesitate to say that half the
agricultural population do not know from one year and to another what it is to have a
full meal”.
• Finally, all of this culminated in extreme poverty and impoverishment of Indians,
which was not the result of geography or lack of resources, but which was man-made.

6. THE PUBLIC

What the British did not take into consideration was the fact that attempting to rapidly
'transform' the condition people whose lives were ordered by a formidable indigenous
civilisation was an extraordinary undertaking, demanding wide-ranging protracted and

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coherent innovations which the British couldn’t come up with. Hence, the result was a divide
among the citizens.

The literate minority, especially those who were high and commercial castes, penetrated the
prestigious Civil Service, establish chased land, often prospered from nationalist movement
to end colonial rule but the British reform agenda was incomplete, though, investing little
directly in 'social capital'; Western policies didn't educate the ordinary populace. The
dominantly illiterate masses were little able to benefit from the economic reforms and didn't
contribute substantially to more rapid economic growth, partly because they lacked
education, capital and were subject to established laws, village relations and the domination
of superiors in local hierarchies.

But the awareness slowly started to come about amongst the masses as the critics gradually
started spreading the message through numerous ways including newspapers magazines etc.
The nationalists of the 20th century were to rely heavily on the main themes of their
economic critique of colonialism. These themes were then to reverberate in Indian cities,
towns and villages, carried there by the youthful agitators of the Gandhian era. Based on this
firm foundation, the later nationalists went on to stage powerful mass agitations and mass
movements. Even the British started to assess such mass movements for eg; when 'Mutiny'
caused a re-assessment policies, there was a substantial consensus at Calcutta and Whitehall
for more legislative consultation with Indian interest groups.

8. THE BRITISH PERSPECTIVE

British rule in India probably was in the reformist van regimes, but by Independence
relatively few among the populace had benefited notably from Western 'modernization
praised lavishly by a past generation of English historians ping India for 'rapid progress'
under 'the rule of law', but hardly represented exemplary social engineering or the prosperity,
health, well-being, education or career of most Indians5.

The British program of 'rapid improvement' amalgamated Free Trade, Utilitarian, cultural and
other reform ideas, but excluded direct social intervention for human improvement.
Development projects like railroads, trunk harbor works and irrigation canals were
remunerative and promised to return rupees to the Indian exchequer but in practicality they

5
' Reginald Coupland, Britain and India (London, 1941), 31-2; Sir fiths, The British Impact on India .479.

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became profitable to the western investors and industries and drained more and more wealth
from Indians.

Thus, the colonial policy had three goals, according to the British. The first goal was to
improve the living conditions of the people for whom the British government saw itself as a
trustee. Second, policy embodied the idea that Britain not only held her colonies "in trust" for
their inhabitants, but also as a "sacred trust to civilization," as the League of Nations put it—
access to raw materials by the industrial nations being the most important aspect of this.
Third, because much of the cost of administration and defence of the colonial empire fell on
the British taxpayer (as did the cost of funds provided for economic development after I929),
it was felt that the colonies owed it to Britain to extend the supply of raw materials and
provide a market for British manufactured goods. Leo Amery stated these three goals in the
House of Commons in I 9I 9:

“…we must set up a new and more positive standard of our duty and obligations towards the
peoples to whom this House is in a position of a trustee and to those territories whose
boundless potentialities call urgently for development in the interests of their own
inhabitants, of the British Empire as a whole and of the impoverished and wasted world”6.

However, the three goals were not always in sync. Particularly as time passed, the goal of
raising living standards in the colonies clashed with the goal of keeping the colonial empire
in a complementary position to Britain as a supplier of raw materials and consumer of British
manufactured goods. When these two clashed, it was British metropolitan interests that won.

9. CALL FOR INDUSTRIALISATION

The nationalists unanimously agreed that industrialisation could bring in economic

development and also believed that modern industry could unify people from diverse
backgrounds who shared similar interest and further strengthen the National Movement.

Another aspect that the nationalists were clear about was the fact this industrialisation should
be based on Indian capital and not foreign capital. They saw foreign capital as an unmitigated
evil which did not develop a country but exploited and impoverished it.

6
2 Hansard (Commons), 5th ser. CXVIII, 2174, 30 July 19.

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They advocated this idea in various ways for example, they for a heavy tax imposition on the
imported goods so that Indian indigenous commodities could now compete with the earlier
cheap foreign goods. They also demanded that the government give loans for the
development of iron, coal, paper and sugar industries in India and total abolition of Salt Tax
and the duty on sugar7.

Even the capitalist class, who initially did not support mass movements due to the fear that
any kind of property destruction or boycott would jeopardize their interests, now started
supporting the national movement. Business houses like Tata, Birla, Walchand Hirachand,
Thapar, Dalmia etc laid the foundation of industrial India. They did not pay heed to the
British who wanted these industrialists to side with them and actively propagated welfare
schemes for workers and labourers of the country. A case in hand would be the Tata Iron and
Steel Company (TISCO), headed by Dorabji Tata, opened its plant at Jamshedpur in Bihar
(present day in Jharkhand) in 1908. It became the leading iron and steel producer in India,
with 120,000 employees in 19458. TISCO became an India's symbol of technical skill,
managerial competence, entrepreneurial flair, and high pay for industrial workers and has the
same stature even today.

10. CONCLUSION

Economically it can be concluded that though the British bought some of the western
technology and modern practices along, they left India impoverished when looked from a
holistic perspective. India, which was a thriving economy before now became impoverished
and poor in the sectors of agriculture, industry, infrastructure and foreign trade. From holding
a 27% share in the world economy when the British came, India came to hold just a 3% share
in the world economy by the time the former left the country9. Thus, Britain subordinated the
Indian economy and determined the fundamental social trends in India based on its own
requirements.

11.REFERENCES
7
"What Did The Early Nationalists Demand For The Industrial | Knowledgeboat"
8
“Economic History Of India - Wikipedia"
9
"How The British Destroyed India's Wealth,Part-1,The Indian Economy".

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Books referred

• Chandra, Bipan, Aditya Mukherjee, Mridula Mukherjee, Sucheta Mahajan, K.N.

Panikkar.India's Struggle for Independence, 1857-1947. New Delhi, India: Viking,
1988.
• Chandra, Bipin. History of Modern India.Hyderabad.Oriental Black Swan.2009.

Online Sources

• "Romesh Chandra Dutt". Indian National Congress, 2022,

https://inc.in/leadership/past-party-presidents/romesh-chunder-dutt.

• "Dutt, Romesh Chunder - Banglapedia". En.Banglapedia.Org, 2022,

https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Dutt,_Romesh_Chunder.

• "India And The World Through Ages". Nios.Ac.In, 2022,

https://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/SecSocSciCour/English/Lesson-05.pdf.

• Singhania, Shilpa. "Economic Policies Of The British In India -

Geeksforgeeks". Geeksforgeeks, 2022, https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/economic-
policies-of-the-british-in-india/.

• "Economic History Of India - Wikipedia". En.Wikipedia.Org, 2022,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_India#Colonial_Boom_(1885-
1920).

• "How The British Destroyed India's Wealth,Part-1,The Indian

Economy". Youtube.Com, 2022,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PAHG_xhwdSM.

• "What Did The Early Nationalists Demand For The Industrial |

Knowledgeboat". Knowledgeboat, 2022,
https://www.knowledgeboat.com/question/what-did-the-early-nationalists-demand-
for-the-industrial--247176637482624830.

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• Shailesh, Kirti. "Economic Ideas Of Mahadev Govind Ranade (With
Conclusion)". Economics Discussion, 2022,
https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/economists/economic-ideas-of-mahadev-
govind-ranade-with-conclusion/21126

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