Human Comm Vo. 2 Issue 2

HUMAN
Volume 2 (Issue 2)
COMMUNICATION
2019
PACA A Journal of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association

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Universiti Putra Malaysia
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University of Nothern Iowa, Hanyang Seoul Korea
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Hisako Kakai Yoshitake Miike
Aoyama Gakuin University, University of Hawaii, USA
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Dankook University, Seoul Korea Universiti Putra Malaysia
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Takehide Kawashima Nihon University, Leticia Nien-Hsuan
Tokyo Japan National Cheng-chi University
Taipei Taiwan
Caroline Hatcher
Queensland University of Technology, Sung Gyung Kim
Brisbane Australia Korea Military Academy,
c.hatcher@qut.edu.au Seoul Korea
Rita Mei-Ching Helena Pan

Ohio University, Zanesville USA Shenzen University, China
Nittaya Campbell Che Su Mustaffa

University of Waikato, Hamilton New Zealand Universiti Utara Malaysia
NITTAYA@mngt.wakaito.ac.nz Chesu402@uum.edu.my
Carmencita P.Del Villar

University of the Philippines, Philippines
cpdelvillar@gmail.com
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Human Communication
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Human Communication Journal Ek Choi
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Muhammad Khairuddin Yusof Carmencinta P. Del Villar

CADe, Universiti Putra Malaysia University of the Philippines
kaizan@upm.edu.my cpdelvillar@gmail.com
Editorial Review Board Member Editorial Review Board Member
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University of Miami Universiti Putra Malaysia
mbeatty@miami.edu abmuati@upm.edu.my
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New York University University of New Haven
Djb1@nyu.edu.my jlallen@newhaven.edu.my
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Ball State University West Virginia University
Jchesebro@ma.rr.com Theodore.avtgis@mail.wvu.edu.
Michael J. Beatty Melissa Beall

University of Miami University of Northern Iowa
mbeatty@miami.edu Melissa.Beall@uni.edu
Deborah Borsioff James W, Chesebro

New York University Ball State University
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Human Communication
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Leeva Chung Takehide Kawashima

University of San Diego Nihon University Tokyo Japan
leeva@Sandiego.edu.my
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Ann Bainbridge Frymier Carolyn J. King

Miami University Geico Corporation Washington, D.C
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Linda Lede rmen
Caroline Hatcher Arizona State University
Queensland University of Technology, Australia Linda.Ledermen@asu.edu
c.hatcher@qut.edu.au
Linda L. McCroskey
Ronald D.Gordon California State University Long Beach
University of Hawaii at Hilo LMCCROSK@calpoly.edu
rgordon@hawaii.edu
Diane Millete
Marian L.Houser University of Miami
Texas State University San Marcos millete@miami.edu
Mh53@txsstate.edu
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Fred E. Jandt Pennsylvania State University De Bois
California State University San Bernadino obc@psu.edu
HUMAN COMMUNICATION
A Journal of the Pacific and Asian
Communication Association
Volume 2 (Issue 2)
Table of Contents
1
Link Between Young Filipinos’ Power-Distance Cultural Orientation
and their Preferences in Compliance-Gaining Strategies
Carmencita P. Del Villar
25
Words of ‘keyboard warriors’: Comparing the use of harsh language in two
Facebook pages
N. H. Hanani Mohd Kadri, Siti Zobidah Omar, Rusli Abdullah, Nor Azura Adzharuddin
42
Online News and Public Opinion: How Malaysians Respond
to News on a State By-Election
Hafizan Mohamed, Syed Arabi Idid , Kamaruzzaman Manan
58
A Conceptual Paper on the Rhetorical Analysis of Tun Mahathir’s Speeches
Shahrill Ramli, Abdul Muati Ahmad, Hamisah Hasan

Human Communication 1
Human Communication
A Journal of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association
Volume 2 (No 2), pp 1-24
Link Between Young Filipinos’

Power-Distance Cultural Orientation
and their Preferences in Compliance-Gaining Strategies
Authors:
Carmencita P. Del Villar, PhD
Philippines
Abstract
This study looked into the possible correlation between young Filipinos’ Power-distance Cultural Orientation and their
preferences in Compliance-gaining Strategies. For its framework, Hofstede’s Power-distance Cultural Orientation and
Del Villar’s Filipino Typology of Compliance-gaining Strategies were used. Results revealed that the young respondents
rated high in Power-distance orientation and preferred Rule for their top ranking compliance strategy. This was a
departure from previous findings where respondents also rated high in Power-distance orientation but preferred the
Power-based strategy. An important conclusion of this study seemed to be that although the young Filipinos of today
still believed that those in positions of power must be respected and obeyed, they (young respondents) would opt to
consider if their compliance were within acceptable rules or have an important bearing on their sense of responsibility
or obligation. This further showed that the young respondents in the study appeared to be more rational and analytical
compared to their predecessors in previous compliance studies.
Keywords: Compliance-gaining strategies, Power-distance, cultural orientation, Filipino compliance typology
Introduction and Rationale
Communication experts believe that power is the underlying and deep-seated element in
human communication (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2011). Knowing how to use it, consciously
or unconsciously, to manage the direction of communication and to achieve desired results,
bestows authority and control upon the user.
In human relationships, power is apparent in a variety of ways. Communication experts have

been studying this phenomenon since the time of Aristotle when he identified the three sources
of personal power – Ethos, Logos, and Pathos (Aristotle, Roberts, Bywater, Solmsen, 1954; Grice
& Skinner, 1998) . The persuader was said to have used either his personal qualifications
(Ethos), emotions (Pathos), or reasoning (Logos) to sway his listeners.
Subsequent researchers in the West have explored power as manifested in various so-called
compliance-gaining strategies. These strategies were specific schemes to control or persuade
other persons to comply with requests in an interpersonal communication context. Two such
compliance-gaining strategies often used in communication research in the Philippines were
those by Marwell, & Schmitt, (1967) and Schenck-Hamlin,Wiseman, & Georgacarakos, (1982).
2 Human Communication
Marwell & Schmitt (1967)
Marwell & Schmitt developed 16 compliance-gaining strategies which were believed to

have laid the foundation for future research on compliance-gaining strategies. Their strategies
provided some kind of a standard upon which other empirical researches based their compar-
isons. The 16 compliance-gaining strategies are:
1. Promise where the target complies if there is a reward waiting

2. Threat where an ‘ultimatum’ is issued to achieve compliance
3. Expertise (positive) where a reward awaits because of the ‘nature of the situation’
4. Expertise (negative) where a punishment awaits because of the ‘nature of the situation’
5. Liking when the actor is friendly and helpful thus putting the target in a similar state
that would cause compliance
6. Pregiving where a reward is given prior to the request
7. Aversive stimulation ignores the use of punishment until a compliance is achieved
8. Debt attributes guilt to the target for non-compliance
9. Moral appeal suggests morality to get compliance
Self-feeling (positive) increases targets self-esteem when compliance is given
10.
Self-feeling (negative) decreases self-esteem when compliance is not given
11.
Altercasting (positive) suggests that a ‘good person’ complies
12.
Altercasting (negative) suggests that a ‘bad person’ does not comply
13.
Altruism asks for compliance ‘due to the actor’s desperate situation’
14.
Esteem (positive) suggests that the target is ‘valued as a better person for complying’
15.
Esteem (negative) suggests that others will not look kindly on the target for not
16.
complying
These 16 strategies were further classified into 5 clusters:
1. Rewarding (promising)
2. Punishing (threatening)
3. Expertise (displaying knowledge)
4. Impersonal commitments (moral appeals)
5. Personal commitments (debts)
Schenck-Hamlin, et al (1982)
Schenck-Hamlin, et al developed what they called a ‘model of properties’ of compli-

ance-gaining strategies. Four classifications of strategies were made:
1. Strategies based on sanctions

a. Ingratiation
b. Promise
c. Debt
d. Esteem
e. Allurement
f. Aversive stimulation
g. Threat
h. Guilt
i. Warning
2. Strategies based on need
a. Altruism
3. Strategies based on explanation

a. Direct request
b. Explanation
c. Hinting
4. Strategy based on circumvention

a. Deceit
A number of other strategies were developed each emphasizing certain contexts and
purposes. Cialdini (2001) built on six (6) principles that people use in the market place.
Kearney, Plax, Richmond, & McCroskey (1984) developed 22 strategies mainly used by the
teacher in the classroom. Miller, Roloff, & Seibold (1977) improved on Marwell & Schmitt’s
by decreasing the original number from 16 to a compact typology of only four. Falbo (1977)
developed taxonomy of 16 strategies using what he called the ‘Machiavellian strategies.’ Levine
& Wheeless (1990) identified 53 tactics for different situations.
It should be noted that the compliance-gaining-strategies mentioned above were developed

in countries with low Power-distance orientation. This researcher, therefore, found a compelling
need to construct a typology of strategies specifically used in a high Power-distance culture like
the Philippines. Thus, the Del Villar 2012 study about a Filipino typology of Compliance-
gaining strategies (Del Villar, 2012a). As a result of the said study, a typology of 14 strategies
particular to Filipinos was developed. From among the 14, the Power-based strategy ranked
the highest, the probable reason being the inherent role of power in the Filipino society. This
finding somehow confirmed Hofstede’s conclusion (1980. In Gudykunst, 2003) ranking the
Philippines a high number four in Power-distance orientation among 53 countries.
The Del Villar Compliance-gaining strategies are:

• Strategy1 : Reason & Substance
• Strategy 2 : Friendship
• Strategy 3 : Affection
• Strategy 4 : Credibility
• Strategy 5 : Rules, Responsibility, & Obligation
• Strategy 6 : Security
• Strategy 7 : Gifts, Compliment, Incentive
• Strategy 8 : Enjoyment
• Strategy 9 : Intimidation, Discipline, & Punishment
• Strategy 10 : Compassion
• Strategy 11 : Family & Loyalty
• Strategy 12 : Sincerity & Fairness
• Strategy 13 : Power-based Strategy
• Strategy 14 : Interest & Quality
The Del Villar 2012 study (Del Villar, 2012.a) was followed by another (Del Villar, 2013)
to validate the initial findings about the Filipino compliance typology. Six hundred employees
working in government and private sectors were invited to join the survey. For most of the 600
participants, the five (5) most preferred compliance-gaining strategies were: Power-based Strategy
(Mean=4.36, SD=.51), Family & Loyalty (Mean=4.35, SD=.38), Security (Mean=4.18, SD=.69),
Friendship (Mean=4.10, SD=.48), and Interest & Quality (Mean=4.09, SD=.54). Power-based
Strategy was the highest ranking compliance-gaining strategy chosen by the respondents. This
could mean that in the Filipino society’s working sector, power was a very important component
in gaining people’s compliance. This finding was in agreement with the Del Villar 2012 (Del
Villar, 2012.a) study where Factor 13 (Power-based strategy) also ranked the highest among
the respondents (Mean=4.27, SD=.70). As was explained, this preference was likely because, by
nature, Filipino culture is a high Power-distance orientation culture. It is fairly ordinary to find
such characteristics as “dependence on superiors, unquestioning acceptance of directives from
them, virtue of respect for elders, and high respect for those in authority in the home, in school,
and in the workplace” (Hofstede, 1980. In Del Villar, 2012.a. 218).
To determine if the Del Villar typology of compliance-gaining strategies were similar

to those from the Western researches, a qualitative comparison was made. The three earlier
typologies mentioned above were selected for this purpose: Aristotle’s Modes of Persuasion,
Marwell & Schmitt’s dimensions of compliance-gaining strategies, and Schenck-Hamlin et al’s
model of properties of compliance-gaining strategies.
A. Aristotle’s Modes of Persuasion
Comparison results showed that all the 14 Factors of the Del Villar typology were similar to
those of Aristotle’s means of persuasion namely: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos.

According to Aristotle (Aristotle, 1954; Grice, & Skinner, 1998), the persuader is said to
use modes of persuasion or his Ethos, Logos, and Pathos to sway his listener. Comparing these
modes of persuasion with the Del Villar Compliance Strategies, they seem to be apparent in the
14 Compliance Strategies.
Five Del Villar strategies fall under the Ethos or personal qualifications:
• Strategy 2 Friendship
• Strategy 4 Credibility
• Strategy 8 Enjoyment
• Strategy 12 Sincerity
• Strategy 13 Power-based
Four strategies fall under the Logos or reasoning:

• Strategy 1 Reason & Substance
• Strategy 5 Rules, Responsibility, & Obligation
• Strategy 9 Intimidation, Discipline, & Punishment
• Strategy 14 Interest & Quality
Six strategies fall under the Pathos or emotion:

• Strategy 3 Affection
• Strategy 6 Security
• Strategy 7 Gift, Compliments, Incentives
• Strategy 10 Compassion
• Strategy 11 Family & Loyalty
• Strategy 14 Interest & Quality
This qualitative comparison shows that the 14 Compliance Strategies reflected Aristotle’s
Modes of Persuasion.
B. Marwell & Schmitt’s Dimensions of compliance-gaining behavior
Comparing the Del Villar Typology with Marwell & Schmitt’s showed that not all the 14
strategies in the Del Villar typology were found in the Marwell & Schmitt dimensions. The
table below shows the comparisons:
Del Villar’s Typology Marwell & Schmitt’s Dimensions

1. Reason & Substance  Expertise displaying knowledge
2. Friendship  Liking when the actor is friendly and helpful thus
putting the target in a similar state that would
cause compliance
3. Affection  Liking when the actor is friendly and helpful thus
cause compliance
 Expertise displaying knowledge
4. Credibility  Liking when the actor is friendly and helpful thus

cause compliance
 Expertise displaying knowledge
5. Rules, Responsibility, Obligation  Moral appeal suggests morality to get compliance

 Threat where an ultimatum is issued to achieve
compliance
6. Security 
7. Gift, Compliment, Incentive  Promise where the target complies if there is a
reward waiting
 Pregiving where a reward is given prior to the
request
 Self-feeling (positive) increases targets self-esteem
when compliance is given
 Atlercasting (positive) suggests that a good person
complies
 Esteem (positive) suggests that the target is valued
as a better person for complying
 Esteem (negative) suggests that others will not
look kindly on the target for not complying
8. Enjoyment 
9. Intimidation, Discipline,  Threat where an ultimatum is issued to achieve

Punishment compliance
 Expertise (negative) where a punishment awaits
because of the nature of the situation
 Debt attributes guilt to the target for
non-compliance
 Aversive stimulation ignores the use of
punishment until a compliance is achieved
 Altercasting (negative) suggests that a bad person
does not comply
 Esteem (negative) suggests that others will not
look kindly on the target for not complying
 Punishing, Threatening
10. Compassion  Altruism asks for compliance due to the actor’s

desperate situation
11. Family & Loyalty 
12. Sincerity  Impersonal commitments, moral appeals
13. Power-based Strategy 
14. Interest & Quality 
Comparing the two compliance-gaining typologies, it was apparent that not all of the Del
Villar strategies had exact counterparts in Marwell & Schmitt’s (1967). The six strategies that
did not have counterparts in Marwell & Schmitt’s were:
 Strategy 3: Affection
 Strategy 6: Security
 Strategy 8: Enjoyment
 Strategy 11: Family & Loyalty
 Strategy 13: Power-based strategy
 Strategy 14: Interest & Quality
It seemed apparent that these six strategies were found only in the Filipino culture and
not in the Western culture as shown in the comparison of typologies. Possible explanations
inferred from interviews with respondents in the Del Villar study were that: In the Filipino
culture Affection, especially from a loved one was highly valued such that if it were to be given
in exchange for a request, such a request would be willingly granted; Security was also given so
much importance so that if granting a request would be the cost then it would be willingly given;
The Filipino culture has repeatedly ranked in surveys as among the happy peoples of the world
such that enjoyment seemed to be highly sought. The cost therefore of granting a request was
seen as acceptable in exchange for it (enjoyment); Family was highly valued so that requests
in exchange for anything that would benefit it was an easy cost to pay; Power was so deeply
entrenched in the Filipino psyche such that people would easily comply to requests emanating
from superiors, parents, or elders without much question; And lastly, a careful consideration
was also given to one’s interest in and quality of a product/service being offered. Because money
to most Filipinos was hard earned, a great deal of thought was given before it was spent on a
product/service.
C. Schenk-Hamlin et al’s properties of compliance-gaining strategies
The table below shows a comparison of the two typologies:
Table 2: Comparison between Del Villar and Schenck-Hamlin et al’s typologies
Del Villar’s Typology Schenk-Hamlin, et al’s Typology

1. Reason & Substance  Strategies based on explanation
2. Friendship 
3. Affection 
4. Credibility  Strategies based on explanation
5. Rules, Responsibility, Obligation  Moral appeal suggests morality to get compliance
 Threat where an ultimatum is issued to achieve
compliance
6. Security 
7. Gift, Compliment, Incentive 
8. Enjoyment 
9. Intimidation, Discipline,  Strategies based on sanctions
Punishment
10. Compassion  Strategies based on actor’s need or altruism
strategies
11. Family & Loyalty 
12. Sincerity 
13. Power-based Strategy 
14. Interest & Quality 
  Strategies based on circumvention
When the Schenck et al. (1982) typology was compared with that of Del Villar’s, it was
apparent that not all the strategies had counterparts in both studies. The Del Villar strategies
not found in the Schenck et al. study were:
 Strategy 2: Friendship
 Strategy 3: Affection
 Strategy 5: Rules, Responsibility, Obligation
 Strategy 6: Security
 Strategy 8: Enjoyment
 Strategy 11: Family & Loyalty
 Strategy 12: Sincerity
 Strategy 13: Power-based Strategy
 Strategy 14: Interest & Quality
Again, it was noticeable that the Filipino culture played a role in the respondents’ choice
of strategies. When the respondents were asked for probable explanations for their choices of
strategies that reflected the above strategies, the explanations given were: They would willingly
do anything for their friends; they would readily comply in exchange for the affection of their
loved ones; they would willingly comply if it were an obligation or responsibility; if compliance
would be for the sake of their family; if the requester displayed purity of heart; if the requester
was a superior, an elder, or a parent; and finally, if the offer was of good quality. The only Schenck
strategy with no counterpart in the present study was the one based on circumvention. No
single strategy related to deceit was generated in the Del Villar typology. A possible explanation
for this could be, that the respondents were young students and that their circumstance at the
time of the survey might not have been an ideal ground for deception. Another reason could
be that deception might have been subsumed under Strategy: Reason & Substance because the
deceiver might have used reason to mislead.
Based on the above comparisons of the Del Villar typology with those of Aristotle’s, Marwell
et al’s. and Schenck et al’s., it was apparent that there were similarities as well as differences
in the compliance-gaining strategies preferred by Filipinos and those by Western cultures.
Differences were mainly attributed to dissimilarities in cultural orientations.
In view of the above discussions, the present study hopes to continue looking deeper into
the phenomena of power and compliance in the hope of developing a better understanding
of the Filipino culture. Knowing the important role power plays in people’s lives and its link
to the Power-distance orientation would help in understanding the phenomena of power and
compliance in particular and the Filipino culture in general.
The present study, the third in the Filipino Compliance typology series, is an extension of
the Del Villar 2012 and 2013 studies. Of specific interest in the present study are the Filipino
youths and their preferences in compliance-gaining strategies; the reasons they prefer those
strategies; their level of power-distance orientation and the reasons behind it; the possible
relationship between the youths’ level of power-distance orientation and their preferences in
compliance-gaining strategies.
The following specific questions are addressed:

1. What are the five most preferred Compliance-gaining strategies of Filipino youths?
2. What is the Filipino youths’ level of Power-distance orientation?
3. What is the correlation between Power-distance orientation and the five most preferred
Compliance-gaining strategies?
Study Frameworks
This study is framed by two major concepts used in the Del Villar 2012 and 2013 studies:
Filipinos’ Power-distance cultural orientation (Hofstede, 1980) and Filipinos’ Compliance-
gaining typology (Del Villar, 2012.a).
Power-distance as a Cultural Orientation of Filipinos
Hofstede (1980. In Gudykunst, 2003) ranked the Philippines a high number four (4) in Power-
distance orientation among 53 countries. As mentioned above, the dominant characteristics
of high Power-distance cultures particularly evident among Filipinos are: Disparity among
people, reliance on superiors, obedience, and respect for elders and those in authority.
The family is where values related to Power-distance are first learned. As Hofstede, Hofstede,
and Minkov (2010) claimed, “All people started acquiring their mental software immediately
after birth, from the elders in whose presence they grew up… ” (67). in high Power-distance
cultures, children learn to be respectful and submissive to their parents… and “this lasts through
their adulthood…as long as the parents are alive…The pattern of dependence on seniors …
pervades all human contacts” (67). This enculturation carries over to the children’s lives outside
the family.
The school, where children spend an average of 16 years is where the “mental programming”
that is started at home continues. Teachers instill the values of respect and submission. As
Hofstede et al. (2010) argued “the role pair parent-child is replaced by the role pair teacher-
student… Teachers are treated with respect or even fear… Teachers are never publicly
contradicted or criticized and are treated with deference even outside school” (69).
The values developed at home and in school are carried over to the workplace. “The role
pairs parent-child, teacher-student… are now complemented by the role pair boss-subordinate,
and it should not surprise anybody when attitudes toward parents, especially fathers, and toward
teachers, which are part of our mental programming, are transferred toward bosses” (73).
In studies conducted by Del Villar (2012.a, 2012.b, 2013, and 2015), it was found that
Filipinos indeed belong to the high Power-distance culture supporting Hofstede’s assertion
(1980. In Gudykunst, 2003).
Filipino Typology of Compliance-gaining strategies (Del Villar, 2012.a)
Del Villar’s 2012 study developed a typology of Compliance-gaining strategies based on

what Filipinos commonly used to make requests or orders. Results revealed a 14 Factor model
explaining 76.11% of the total variance in the data. The 14 Factors were named: Reason,
Friendship, Affection, Credibility, Rules, Security, Gift, Enjoyment, Intimidation, Compassion,
Family, Sincerity, Power, and Interest. Below is a brief explanation of the 14 Factors or Strategies:
Strategy 1: Reason & Substance

Eight tactics clustered together because they were all related to the use of reason or substance
as a way of making people comply. Using Cronbach’s Alpha to determine the internal reliability
of the items under this Factor, results showed a rating of=.88 or high reliability. The items under
Factor 1 or Strategy 1 were: Filipinos generally complied because an acceptable reason was
given; because complying was good for others; it was for the common good; it was honorable;
it was the result of the requester’s wisdom and good motive; the message had substance; and
it was based on principles. As disclosed by some of the respondents, they willingly complied
if in return it would be for the good of their fellow humans. They said that they could detect
if the requester’s motive for seeking their compliance was guided by wisdom and substance by
the way he supported his arguments. Especially important were evidence to support why their
compliance would result in positive outcomes.
Strategy 2: Friendship
Seven tactics related to friendship gathered under this strategy. Together, their internal
reliability was very high at α=.90. The items under Strategy 2 were: Filipinos would comply
if the requester was a friend; they would comply if they shared some history or experience
together; if the requester was a very close friend; if they both valued friendship; and if the
requester was warm and pleasant. A number of respondents admitted that they found it easy to
comply if the person asking was a friend. In cases where he was not one, it was sufficient that he
was warm and friendly. Friendship among Filipinos is important. As Mercado (1974) argued,
Filipinos are very particular about keeping harmony within his circle of friends. As much as
possible he would avoid diverging from his group for fear of shame. And one very important
way of uniting with the group was by complying with its requests. What Mercado said was true
as related by some of the respondents. One specifically admitted that if one of his friends made
a request, he would readily give in “for what are friends for if not for lending a ready hand.”
Strategy 3: Affection
Tactics that were related to affection clustered under this Factor. Their internal reliability
was a high α=.89. These tactics were: Filipinos complied if they wanted affection, romance, love,
care, and intimacy. Some respondents divulged that often, they would comply with requests
in return for some forms of affection especially from their partners and family members. This
kind of strategy was especially useful in close relationships such as within the family, between
partners, and among close friends. Filipinos, being naturally affectionate people, are not only
quick to show affection but also need a return of affection from their close relations. As some
of the respondents disclosed, if they had to comply with a partner’s request in return for a show
of affection, they would happily oblige. Or as one mother shared, she would readily comply to
her child’s request for a treat because she would be rewarded with a warm hug and a kiss.
Factor 4: Credibility
Strategies under this Factor were those about using convincing words, being able to speak
well, having a good diction, having a pleasant personality, credibility, integrity, authority,
trustworthiness, charm, accommodation, and pleasing looks. Their internal reliability was a
high α=.87. As some respondents disclosed, the requester’s credibility was important in making
them comply with his requests. How he delivered his message was crucial in their decision
to comply. Some respondents shared that they readily followed their teachers’ orders if they
thought they were credible. Some teachers, they disclosed, were not credible because they did
not speak well nor did they have an authoritative personality.
Factor 5: Rules, Responsibility, & Obligation

The seven tactics that grouped under this Factor were those that had to do with obligation,
were according to rules, those that reflected responsibility, and those that were reasonable or
part of one’s job, or were based on morals. Their internal reliability was α=.84. Being on the
right was important to some respondents when it came to deciding whether or not to follow
an order. What the requester was asking for must be according to what was right. Others also
said they followed orders because it was their obligation. A specific example given was that of
a daughter who followed her mother’s order not to have a romantic relationship while still in
school. She obeyed, even if she was unhappy, because it was her obligation as a daughter.
Factor 6: Security
Two strategies clustered under this factor: those related to safety and security. The internal
reliability was α =.91. Some respondents revealed that vital to them were matters of security
and would willingly do anything to enhance it. One respondent opined that it is human nature
to secure oneself from any harm because it is basic survival. He shared that his parents bought
an apparatus for home security despite its exorbitant price. He recalled that the sales person was
very effective in convincing his parents about the need for home protection from the growing
threats in the city.
Factor 7: Gifts, Compliment, & Incentive

Four strategies related to gifts, rewards, compliment, praise and incentive grouped under
Factor 7. Their internal reliability was α=.73. Respondents felt that at times, a gift would soften
their defense to make them comply to a request. The gift made the requester pleasing to the
receiver’s eyes. There were also times when they felt obliged to return the gesture by way
of compliance. Whatever the gift, tangible (a simple trinket, a souvenir from another place, a
delicacy, flowers, candies) or intangible (a compliment), its effect is the same – it is appreciated.
Filipinos, by nature, value receiving gifts as much as giving them. It is one of their means of
connecting with others.
Factor 8: Enjoyment
Tactics that bring about fun, delight, and humor clustered under Factor 8. Their internal
reliability was α=.72. A number of respondents shared that whatever hostility they initially
had toward the requester dissolved when he displayed a good sense of humor or behaved in a
delightful way. This behavior could be explained by the nature of the Filipinos. A number of
informal worldwide surveys in the past ranked the Filipinos among the happiest people in the
world. It must be in their nature to be happy, to enjoy life, to take things in stride, and to trust
that God will take care of them.
Factor 9: Intimidation, Discipline, and Punishment

Five strategies all related to being strict, being disciplined, avoiding humiliation, being
pressured, or being intimidated clustered under Factor 9. Their internal reliability was α=.73.
According to some respondents, there were times when a requester threatened to make
them comply to his request. And because they were threatened, they felt pressured to give in.
Examples of situations where this happened were: when a father threatened to ground a son
for misbehaving, or reprimanded a daughter for coming home late, or when a teacher warned
a misbehaving student with a failing mark. In these instances, the threat worked quite well
because the authority figures (parents, teachers) were respected or feared.
Factor 10: Compassion

The strategies under this Factor were the ones about having pity, showing compassion,
shedding tears, using emotion, and pleading. Their internal reliability was α=.77. When some
of the respondents were asked for the reasons they used this tactic, they argued that there
were instances when the use of emotion was very effective. Examples mentioned were: When
persuading a parent to increase an allowance or when asking a would-be-partner to commit to
a relationship. It could also be used when asking a superior for a raise or a friend for a loan.
Factor 11: Family & Loyalty

The strategies under Factor 11 were all about gratitude, tradition, family unity and harmony,
loyalty, and simply being one of the families. The internal reliability was α=.61. A number of
respondents agreed that using family as a strategy proved to be very effective in the Filipino
culture. Even if one were not a family member but were one with the family or felt like family
then he could still be persuasive. An example of this strategy in action was identifying with the
family to be able to borrow money or personal items. Because Filipinos value the family they
would give in to the request.
Factor 12: Sincerity & Fairness
This Factor was all about being sincere, fair, just, and patient. The internal reliability was
α=.73. Respondents who were asked about this strategy admitted that it was an important
quality in a requester. If s/he displayed sincerity and fairness s/he was more easily believed and
obeyed.
Factor 13: Power-based Strategy

This Factor reflected the inherent power of the one asking for compliance such as a person
of influence, an elder, a parent, a superior or boss, or an authority. The internal reliability
was α=.72. When asked about this strategy, most respondents agreed that certain individuals
possessed power by virtue of their age, position, and status in society. In general, Filipinos
highly regard their elders. In important family decisions, elders were sought for their advice
because of their wisdom and experience. So, what they said were usually followed. This kind of
respect for the elders was extended outside the home. As Hofstede (Hofstede et al, 2010) argued,
what started as a parent-child relationship becomes a teacher-student relationship in school, and
later superior-subordinate relationship in the workplace. This kind of programming continues
and is deeply ingrained in the Filipino psyche. That is why, generally, Filipinos respect and
follow their elders or superiors.
Factor 14: Interest & Quality

This factor included five tactics that echoed interest, novelty, quality, worth, and a need
being met. The internal reliability was α=.61. When asked about this strategy, a number of
respondents agreed that the quality of the product they were buying mattered a lot. If it were of
good quality and there was a need for it, then they, as buyers, would be easily convinced by the
seller.
Methods
The study is descriptive in nature employing mainly the quantitative technique with the
survey as its main method. To complement the quantitative data, interviews and focused group
discussions with selected respondents were conducted.
Research instruments
Two research instruments, both tested for validity and reliability, were used.
 Compliance-gaining Strategy Questionnaire (Del Villar, 2012.a) is a 36 item Likert
type instrument under the 14 Factors generated from Del Villar’s 2012 study. This
questionnaire aims to identify the compliance-gaining strategies of Filipino respondents.
The reliability ratings of each of the 14 Factors range from =.61 to .90 in the Cronbach’s
Alpha Test. Construct validity test results showed that the elements in the Del Villar
Compliance-gaining Strategies were fairly similar to those found in Aristotles’ Modes
of Persuasion (1954), Marwell & Schmitt’s Compliance-gaining Strategies (1967), and
Schenck-Hamlin et al’s Compliance-gaining Strategies (1982). Although there were
some strategies found only in the Del Villar typology, these were attributed to the
Filipino culture. The complete reliability ratings of each of the 14 Factors are shown in
Table 3, Appendixes.
 Power-distance Questionnaire (Del Villar, 2013), a 15 item questionnaire that
measures the Power-distance Cultural Orientation, is based on the established
indicators identified by Hofstede (1980). This questionnaire was tested for validity using
a panel of five communication experts who rated the questionnaire with an average of
68 or high (with 75 as the highest possible rating and 15 as the lowest). Kendall’s
Coefficient of Concordance also resulted in a moderate agreement among the panel
(W=.626, p=.000). Further, concurrent validity test also confirmed similar results to
Hofstede’s ratings of Filipinos’ Power-distance orientation. The internal reliability score
of the test was alpha=.88 in the Cronbach’s Alpha Test.
Data Analysis
 To address question 1 (What are the five most preferred Compliance-gaining strategies
of Filipino youths?) The Mean scores in the 14 Compliance-gaining strategies were
computed, compared, and ranked.
 To address question 2 (What is the Filipino youths’ level of Power-distance orientation?)
scores in the Power-distance orientation questionnaire were computed and summarized.
 To address question 3 (What is the correlation between Power-distance orientation and
the five most preferred Compliance-gaining strategies?) scores in the Power-distance
questionnaire were correlated with scores of the five top ranking Compliance-gaining
strategies. Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation test was used at alpha .05.
Results
Demographic profile of the respondents
Using the stratified sampling technique, the selected university in Metro Manila was
divided into colleges. From each of the 18 colleges, quota sampling was employed and resulted
in a total sample size of 342 young respondents who were all enrolled in their respective courses
at the time of survey. The respondents have representations from different regions and socio-
economic sectors of the Philippine society. Of the 342, 196 (57%) were females and 146 (43%)
were males; Eighty six (86, 25%) belonged to the 16-17 age group, 196 (57%) to the 18-19 age
group, and 60 (18%) to the 20 -22 age group.
The five most preferred Compliance-gaining strategies of young Filipinos
From this point on, the 14 Factors shall be referred to as Strategies. Those that garnered
the highest Mean ratings were deemed as the most preferred Strategies by the young Filipino
respondents. According to ranking, the five most preferred were:
1. Strategy 5: Rules, Responsibility, & Obligation. M=4.304

2. Strategy 1: Reason & Substance. M=4.298
3. Strategy 12: Sincerity M=4.058
4. Strategy 6: Security M=4.032
5. Strategy 13: Power-based M=3.906
1. Strategy 5: Rules, Responsibility, & Obligation

Having been ranked as the top choice (M=4.304), this means that the young respondents
in the present study were more likely to comply if the requester showed any of the following
conditions: He followed certain rules; he made the request because of an important obligation;
his request was guided by morals of society; or he was prompted by a sense of responsibility.
This choice of strategy also illustrated that the young Filipinos in the study were more mature in
their thinking in that above all considerations, they were guided by what seemed right and just.
This was quite a change from the previous studies (Del Villar, 2012.a and 2013) where the most
preferred Strategy was that which was based on power (Strategy 13). This means that for the
2012.a and 2013 respondents; the prime consideration for complying was the inherent power
of the one asking for compliance such as a person of influence, an elder, a parent, a superior
or boss, or an authority. The young respondents in the present study, however, seemed not to
consider power as the most important concern.
Note that the sample in the 2012.a study was a heterogeneous group whose ages ranged
from 16 to 26, were students from a state university in Metro Manila, and came from different
regions of the country. The 2013 sample, on the other hand, were those working in government
and private corporations in Metro Manila, whose ages ranged from 23 to 64 years old. The
sample in the present study was young Filipinos, from a large university in Metro Manila, ages
16 to 22, representing different regions and socio-economic classes of the country.
One male respondent stressed the importance of rules in deciding whether or not to comply.
He was not at all concerned about the requester’s position or status in life. He further explained
that this thinking had at times put him in conflict with his elders who insisted on using
their age or position as leverage for compliance. Calmly, he would explain that there were
more important rules or obligations as reasons why he would not follow orders from home.
Another respondent opined that if a request went against what he believed was morally right, he
would definitely not comply. From these examples, it would seem that the young respondents
were no longer obligated to comply on the basis of authority alone. They seemed to be guided
by more important rules, responsibility, or obligation. They appeared to have developed their
young wisdom.
2. Strategy 1: Reason and Substance

The second most preferred strategy was Strategy 1 or Reason & Substance, (M=4.298).
This means that the young respondents would likely comply if any of the following conditions
were present: An acceptable reason was given; complying would be good for those concerned;
it would be for the common good; it would be honorable; it was the result of the requester’s
wisdom and good motive; the request had substance; and it was based on certain principles. An
18 year old female respondent admitted that there were times when she had been persuaded by
her boyfriend to lie to her parents so that they could go out on a date even if there were more
important school work to be done. She recalled insisting on doing what was more reasonable
and that was to attend to her school work. Another respondent, a 21 year old, admitted that
between two requests, she would comply with the one that seemed more important at the
moment.
3. Strategy 12: Sincerity

The third most preferred was Strategy 12 or Sincerity (M= 4.058). This means that the
young respondents would most likely comply if the requester showed any of the following
conditions: Sincerity, fairness, or patience. A group of respondents, during a focused group
discussion, agreed that if the person making the request were sincere and fair, they would most
likely comply. One 22 year old respondent conveyed that he was convinced to rent a particular
condominium unit over other less expensive ones when the broker displayed sincerity in
explaining the benefits. True to the broker’s word, the unit proved to be much better than the
others in a number of respects: It was closer to school, it was closer to the commercial area,
security was good, and the building administration was efficient.
4. Strategy 6: Security
The fourth most preferred was Strategy 6 or Security (M=4.032). This means that the young
respondents in the study would most likely comply if the requester’s reason for the request would
improve security or safety. One 21 years old respondent emphasized that security should be
a prime concern because it was important considering the level of violence happening in the
present environment. If he knew that his compliance would enhance his personal security then
he would readily comply. Another consideration according to a 20 year old respondent was the
safety of her family. She would always keep her family’s safety a principal consideration at all
times.
5. Strategy 13: Power-based

The fifth most preferred was Strategy 13 or Power-based strategy (M= 3.906). This means
that respondents would also willingly comply if the requester were an authority they respected
such as an elder, a parent, or a superior. Although not the highest ranking among the five
most preferred, this strategy was still the fifth most preferred. In general, the young Filipino
respondents still regarded their elders when it came to important personal or family decisions.
What their elders advised would most likely be given serious consideration. One 17 year old
respondent disclosed that she almost always sought compliance when advice came from her
parents. She knew that her parents would always consider her personal welfare in all the advice
they gave.
As mentioned above, Strategy 13 or Power was no longer the top most preferred strategy
among the young respondents unlike in the 2012 and 2013 compliance studies. Note that the
respondents in 2012 were also young (ages 16 to 26) while those in the 2013 were more mature
(ages 23 to 64) and working in government and private organizations. Both groups came from
different socio-economic statuses and regions of the country
To determine if there were significant differences among the top five Compliance strategies
in the degrees of preference by the respondents, the ANOVA test was conducted. Results
showed some significant differences. The top ranking Strategy Rules, Responsibility, & Obligation
was found to be significantly preferred over Strategy Sincerity (Mean diff = .24, p-value=.000),
Strategy Security (Mean diff=.27, p-value=.000), and Strategy Power-based (Mean diff= .397,
p-value=.000), but not over Strategy Reason & Substance (Mean diff=.0039, p-value=1.00).
Strategy Reason & Substance was likewise significantly preferred over Strategy Sincerity (Mean
diff = .24, p-value=.000), Strategy Security (Mean diff=.27, p-value=.000), Strategy Power-based
(Mean diff= .397, p-value=.000). Lastly, Strategy Sincerity was significantly preferred over
Strategy Power-based (Mean diff=.152, p-value-.020).
The two top ranking strategies (Strategy Rules, Responsibility, Obligation and Strategy
Reason & Substance) were equally preferred by the respondents (Mean diff=.003, p-value=1.0).
See Table 4 in the Appendixes for ANOVA Summary Statistics.
Filipinos’ level of Power-distance cultural orientation
The Mean Power-distance orientation score was 60.22 (S.D.=5.832) which falls within the
high Power-distance orientation. Most of the respondents rated high in this orientation (290,
85%), while 52 or 15% rated moderate. None of respondents rated low. This supports Hofstede’s
claim (1980. In Gudykunst, 2003) that the Philippines ranked among the highest in Power-
distance cultural orientation among 53 countries. It is to be noted that Hofstede’s respondents
then were more mature Filipinos working in multinational corporations while respondents in
the present study were young Filipinos within the ages of 16 to 22 years old.
It should also be noted that in the series of studies done about Power-distance orientation
among Filipinos (Del Villar, 2012.a, 2012.b, 2013, 2015) it appeared that on the average, the
different age groups and socio-economic classes also registered high in this cultural orientation.
All these confirmed Hofstede’s argument (1980. In Gudykunst, 2003) that the Philippine culture
belonged to the high ranking Power-distance countries.
Correlation between Power-distance orientation and the five most preferred Compliance-
gaining strategies
Scores in the top five most preferred compliance strategies were correlated with the scores in
Power-distance cultural orientation. The reason for the correlation test was to determine if the
respondents’ preference for these strategies was related to their high rating in the Power-distance
cultural orientation. Among the five, only the Strategy Security did not have a significant
correlation with the Power-distance orientation (r=.034, p=.532). The four that correlated
significantly were Strategy 5 (Rules, Responsibility, and Obligation), Strategy 1 (Reason &
Substance), Strategy 12 (Sincerity & Fairness), and Strategy 13 (Power-based strategy). See
Table 5 in the Appendixes for the summary statistics.
A. Correlation between Power-distance orientation and Strategy 5: Rules, Responsibility,

Obligation
When Power-distance orientation score was correlated with the top ranking strategy
(Strategy 5: Rules, Responsibility, Obligation) results showed there was a moderately weak
but significant relationship between the two (r=.262, p=.000). This means that there was a
moderate link between scoring high in Power-distance orientation and the tendency to choose
the strategy that uses rules, responsibility, and obligation. In the survey, respondents who,
on the average, rated high in Power-distance orientation also tended to consider the use of
rules and responsibility before they complied or when they themselves asked for compliance
from others. These young respondents, who highly respected their superiors (or elders or other
persons of authority), still believed that a fair way of convincing them would be to operate
within acceptable rules, responsibility, or even obligation. To the young respondents, being
within the bounds of rules was important when it came to deciding whether or not to follow or
give an order. What the requester was asking for must be according to what was right. Some
also admitted that giving or following an order must be done if it were an important obligation
or responsibility to family or to work, if it was part of their job, and if it was based on what
they believed was morally correct. Unlike previous studies (Del Villar 2012.a, 2012.b, 2013,
2015) that showed that Filipinos followed their superiors without much question, the young
respondents in the present study displayed more rational thinking by considering the nature of
the request. If the order or request seemed to fall within what was an acceptable rule, then it
would be followed.
B. Correlation between Power-distance orientation and Strategy 1: Reason & Substance

When Power-distance orientation was correlated with the Strategy of Reason & Substance,
results revealed a moderately low but significant correlation between the two (r=.234, p=.000).
This means that when respondents registered high in Power-distance orientation, they
moderately tended to choose the Strategy of Reason & Substance. Although moderately low,
the link between the two was still significant and made sense. This means that when one had
respect for a higher authority he somehow tended to expect that authority to be reasonable
when asking for compliance. One 22 year old respondent opined that he respected his superior
and would readily comply with his request. But when the request was not reasonable, he would
tend to think twice. Another respondent continued that unlike before, she would now be more
inclined to weigh the reason behind her parents’ order. In the past, she would tend to just follow
without much question.
C. Correlation between Power-distance orientation and Strategy 12: Sincerity & Fairness
When Power-distance score was tested against Strategy 12, results showed a moderately low
but significant correlation (r=.201, p=.000). This means that those who rated high in Power-
distance orientation were moderately likely to comply with a request that reflected sincerity and
fairness. During a focused group discussion, a number of participants agreed that if a requester
seemed honest and genuine in asking for compliance, they would most likely grant his request.
A specific example was given by a 20 year old female respondent who said that when she felt
that her male friend was earnest in courting her, she became convinced and agreed to an
exclusive relationship. Another example was given by a male student who said he was able to
convince his teacher that there was a valid reason why he failed to hand in his paper on time.
He told the truth, apologized, and his teacher believed him.
D. Correlation between Power-distance orientation and Power-based compliance strategy

The result of the correlation test between Power-distance orientation and Power-based
strategy proved to be significant (r=.147, p=.006). Although the correlation was moderately
weak, it was nonetheless significant. This means that respondents (who on the average rated
high in Power-distance orientation) would most likely include a Power-based strategy among
their preferred strategies to gain compliance or to comply. This Power-based strategy is vested
on the person by virtue of his position or title. Examples of those persons are a grandparent,
a parent, a superintendent, or an officer in an organization. In an interview, one 19 year old
female respondent related that certain individuals in Philippine society possessed power by
virtue of their age, position or status. Generally, Filipinos give high regard to those individuals.
A specific example she gave was the respect accorded to elders in her family. Her parents’ advice
was usually sought when it came to important decisions that concerned personal matters. This
kind of respect was also generally accorded to teachers, doctors, government officials and
others in similar positions. One respondent mentioned the superior-subordinate relationships
in school. This, according to him, was commonly observed and expected.
Summary and Conclusions
The present study, the third in the Filipino Compliance typology series, is an extension of
the Del Villar 2012.a and 2013 studies, this time focusing on the Filipino youths. In the hope
of further understanding the phenomena of power and compliance in the Philippine context, the
study looked into the youths’ preferences in compliance-gaining strategies and their possible
link to the Filipino Power distance orientation.
The following questions were addressed:
1. What are the five most preferred Compliance-gaining strategies of Filipino youths?
2. What is the Filipino youths’ level of Power-distance orientation?
3. What is the correlation between Power-distance orientation and the five most
preferred Compliance-gaining strategies?
The following results were obtained:

The five most preferred compliance-gaining strategies used by young Filipinos were:
1. Strategy 5: Rules, Responsibility, & Obligation
2. Strategy 1: Reason & Substance
3. Strategy 12: Sincerity
4. Strategy 6: Security
5. Strategy 13: Power-based strategy
This finding is a deviation from previous results (Del Villar 2012.a, 2013) where Strategy 13
Power-based strategy consistently ranked the highest. An important conclusion of the present
study is that the young Filipino respondents are quite different from those of previous studies
in that their top ranking strategy is no longer Strategy 13 (Power-based strategy). To the present
respondents, the most important consideration when complying or asking for compliance are
rules, responsibility, obligation, reason and substance. Although they still believe that superiors
or those in positions of authority must be respected and obeyed, they (young respondents) also
believe that they have the option to consider if the request being asked of them were within
acceptable rules; or if the request had an important bearing on their sense of responsibility
or obligation; or that compliance were within reason and good judgment. This shows that
the young respondents in the study are more rational and analytical compared with their
predecessors in the previous studies.
Another important finding of the study is that the young Filipino respondents rated high in
the Power-distance cultural orientation supporting earlier findings that the Philippine culture
is indeed a high Power-distance culture (Hofstede (1980.In Gudykunst, 2003; Del Villar 2012.a,
2012.b, 2013, 2015). This implies that although the young respondents seem to be more mature
than their predecessors, they are still deeply entrenched in their culture that highly respects its
elders and those in positions of power.
Four of the five preferred strategies correlated significantly with Power-distance cultural
orientation. These were Strategy 5 (Rules), Strategy 1 (Reason), Strategy 12 (Sincerity), and
Strategy 13 (Power-based strategy). These correlation results imply that respondents who
rate high in Power-distance orientation tend to also prefer to use strategies that make use of
rules, reason, sincerity, and power. Although the young respondents rated high in the Power-
distance orientation, they still displayed mature qualities by the way they judged the wisdom
of complying to an order or request. Considering that they are still young (ages 16 to 22), and
that the requesters maybe in positions of power, the respondents know that it is more sensible
to stand by their own opinions rather than be swayed by power.
It is also worth noting that from among the five most preferred strategies; only Security and
Power-based strategy were consistently favored since the 2012.a and 2013 studies. This could
suggest that among the Filipinos, these two strategies are vital in their everyday interaction.
It is also interesting to note that Strategy Rules, which was the top most preferred in the
present study, was never among the five most favored in the past studies of 2012.a and 2013.
This again seems to suggest that the young respondents of today are more discerning than their
predecessors in that they are influenced more by rules or morals of society rather than by power.
One could speculate that the young Filipinos, although living within the context of and also
rating high in Power-distance orientation, are slowly moving towards more independent and
judicious thinking when it comes to compliance. Their seeming young wisdom makes them
cautious in complying with a request even if it comes from a person of power.
The present study had a number of limitations that should be addressed in future research.
For example, other factors (like demographics) could be explored for their possible link to
the respondents’ compliance behavior. Knowledge of these factors could have important
implications in the field of communication specifically politics and business.
Another area that should be explored is the compliance behavior of Filipino elders.
Although in the twilight of their years, they are still a force to reckon with in a number of areas
in communication like health, community affairs, and marketing.
It might also be interesting to do a cultural validation of the Del Villar Compliance Typology
to see if it applies to other cultures. Specifically, a comparison could be made with other Asian
cultures with varying levels of Power-distance orientation.
With the result of the present study showing a subtle shift from Power-based strategy to
Rules, it would also be interesting to determine if young Filipinos in the next five years or so
would also have a subtle shift in their Power-distance cultural orientation ranking. More
importantly, it would be interesting to look into the influences behind those shifts.
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Appendixes
Table 3: The 14 Factors, Factor Loadings, and Reliability Ratings

of the Del Villar Compliance-gaining Typology
Factors Factor
loadings
Factor 1: Reason & Substance (alpha=.8819)
Q108. If an acceptable reason is given. 0.622
Q119. If it will be good for my fellow human beings. 0.802
Q123. If it will be for the common good. 0.749
Q124. If it is honorable. 0.775
Q128. If the requester has wisdom. 0.692
Q66. Because of the substance in the message. 0.623
Q68. If the reason is based on principles. 0.635
Q77. If the requester has a genuine motive. 0.617
Factor 2: Friendship (alpha=.9022)

Q102. If the requester is a friend. 0.823
Q107. If they share a history with the requester. 0.64
Q109. If they share togetherness with the requester. 0.737
Q110. Because the requester is a very close friend. 0.825
Q72. Because they value friendship. 0.718
Q92. If the requester is warm and pleasant. 0.69
Q95. If they share memories with the requester. 0.625
Factor 3: Affection (alpha=.8877)

Q117. Because they want affection. 0.812
Q37. Because they want romance. 0.735
Q63. If the requester uses seduction. 0.688
Q76. Because they want love and care. 0.817
Q80. Because they want intimacy. 0.847
Factor 4: Credibility (alpha=.8687)

Q44. If the requester uses nice words. 0.619
Q51. If the requester speaks well. 0.738
Q52. If the requester is credible. 0.672
Q57. If the requester is accommodating. 0.687
Q58. If the requester has good diction. 0.723
Q70. If the requester has a pleasant personality. 0.673
Q74. If the requester makes a good speech. 0.755
Q33. If the requester has charms. 0.601
Q88. If the requester has good looks. 0.645
Factor 5: Rules, Responsibility, Obligation (alpha=.8421)

Q100. If it is their obligation. 0.632
Q25. If it is the lawful thing to do. 0.667
Q34. If it is according to the rules. 0.636
Q46. Because it is their responsibility. 0.731
Q47. Because it is reasonable. 0.717
Q48. Because it is part of their job. 0.641
Q53. If the reasons is based on morals. 0.605
Factor 6: Security (alpha=.9066)

Q60. If their safety is at stake. 0.772
Q67. If their security is at stake. 0.722
Factor 7: Gift, Compliment, Incentive (alpha=.728)

Q13. If there is a gift, reward, or a treat. 0.723
Q89. If there is an incentive. 0.65
Q65. If they are praised by the requester 0.706
Q7. If they are complimented 0.607
Factor 8: Enjoyment (alpha=.7158)

Q24. If the requester is fun to be with. 0.704
Q45. Because the requester is delightful. 0.649
Q99. If the requester has a sense of humor. 0.661
Factor 9: Intimidation, Discipline, Punishment (alpha =.725)

Q17. If the requester is strict. 0.627
Q26. If they are being disciplined by the requester 0.623
Q27. Because they do not want to be humiliated. 0.652
Q43. If they are intimidated. 0.734
Q6. Because they are being pressured. 0.704
Factor 10: Compassion (alpha=.7688)

Q61. Because they pity the requester. 0.734
Q73. If they feel compassion for the requester. 0.694
Q87. If the requester sheds tears. 0.634
Q35. If the requester uses emotion. 0.666
Q32. If the requester pleads. 0.748
Factor 11: Family & Loyalty (alpha=.6085)

Q30. Because they want to show gratitude. 0.725
Q111. If family tradition is at stake. 0.65
Q113. For the sake of family unity and harmony. 0.645
Q81. If loyalty is at stake. 0.611
Q121. Because the requester is like family. 0.623
Factor 12: Sincerity (alpha=.7277)

Q21. If the requester is sincere. 0.736
Q22. If the requester if fair and just. 0.746
Q130. If the requester is patient. 0.715
Factor 13: Power-based Strategy (alpha=.7135)

Q116. If the person asking is influential 0.641
Q4. If the requester is an elder. 0.7
Q112. If the requester is a parent. 0.643
Q120. If the requester is a superior or boss. 0.672
Q10. If the requester is an authority. 0.615
Factor 14: Interest & Quality (alpha=.610)

Q79. If they are interested. 0.703
Q16. If there is novelty. 0.627
Q54. Because of the quality of the product. 0.712
Q50. Because it is worthy. 0.611
Q3. If a need is met. 0.605
Table 4: ANOVA Comparing the 5 Most Preferred Strategies
The Five Most Preferred Compliance-gaining Strategies

(I) gpvar (J) gpvar Mean Diff Sig.
Rank 2: Reason & Substance .00398 1.000
Rank 1: Rules, Responsibility, Rank 3: Sincerity .24515* .000
Obligation
Rank 4: Security .27164* .000
Rank 5: Power-based .39737* .000
Rank 1: Rules, Responsibility, -.00398 1.000
Obligation
Rank 2: Reason & Substance Rank 3: Sincerity .24117* .000

Rank 4: Security .26766* .000
Rank 1: Rules, Responsibility, -.24515* .000
Obligation
Rank 3: Sincerity Rank 2: Reason & Substance -.24117* .000

Rank 4: Security .02649 .986
Obligation
Rank 4: Security Rank 2: Reason & Substance -.26766* .000

Rank 3: Sincerity -.02649 .986
Rank 5: Power-based .12573 .092
Obligation
Rank 5: Power-based Rank 2: Reason & Substance -.39339* .000
Rank 3: Sincerity -.15222* .020
Rank 4: Security -.12573 .092
Table 5: Correlations between Power-distance Orientation and the Top 5 Ranking Strategies
Pow- Strat1 Strat5 Strat6 Strat12 Strat13

Correlations er- dis- Reason Rules Secu- Sincer- Pow-
tance rity ity
Power-distance 1 .233** .261** .034 .201** .147**
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .532 .000 .006
N 342 342 342 342 342 342
Strat1 Reason .233** 1 .628** .027 .532** .196**
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .625 .000 .000
N 342 342 342 342 342 342
Strat5 Rules .261** .628** 1 .195** .444** .341**
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 342 342 342 342 342 342
Strat6 Security .034 .027 .195** 1 .085 .144**
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .532 .625 .000 .116 .007
N 342 342 342 342 342 342
Strat12 Sincerity .201** .532** .444** .085 1 .377**
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .116 .000
N 342 342 342 342 342 342
Strat13 Power-based .147** .196** .341** .144** .377** 1
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .006 .000 .000 .007 .000
N 342 342 342 342 342 342
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Human Communication
Words of ‘keyboard warriors’: Comparing the use of harsh language

in two Facebook pages
Authors:
N. H. Hanani Mohd Kadri, Siti Zobidah Omar, Rusli Abdullah, Nor Azura Adzharuddin
Abstract
The use of harsh language during interaction is rife on local Facebook pages. Its use can mostly be seen on viral
contents posted by two top tabloid media Facebook pages with the most followers in Malaysia. While studies focusing
on online incivility and flaming on the internet are increasing, literature on harsh language use on Facebook among
Malaysians are scant. Due to that, little is known about the use of harsh language in viral content interactions on
Facebook particularly in the commentary section among Malaysians. This study compares the differences between the
use of harsh language in users’ comments in two tabloid media Facebook pages in Malaysia. 5,025 comments were
collected from 4 viral posts on these two Facebook pages and analysed for the use of harsh languages. The findings
identified a 25.04% difference in the frequency of comments containing harsh language use between both Facebook
pages. Contents that depicted violence were also found to have higher usage of harsh language in the users’ comments.
Keywords: Content Analysis, Facebook, Harsh Language, Incivility, Viral Content
Introduction
Facebook and several other social networking sites (SNS) have rapidly grown over the last
decade. With the rapid expansion of SNS, internet users have found new ways to generate and
disseminate information (Su, et al., 2018). However, despite its popularity, the pervasive use
of harsh language online is becoming prevalent. It was demonstrated that at least one in every
five comments made online was found to be uncivilised (Coe, Kenski, & Rains, 2014). This has
caused a rising concern over the use of harsh language in the commentary section particularly
on Facebook as online commenting is now predominantly focused on the platform (Su, et al.,
2018).
Some scholars agree that the rising frequency of harsh language use on SNS was due to its
contagious nature (Coe et al., 2014; Kwon & Cho, 2015). Others criticise the lack of regulation
for contributing to the extensive use of harsh language on SNS (Anderson, Brossard, Scheufele,
Xenos, & Ladwig, 2013). One study demonstrated that service providers have indeed set up
some regulations for the users – but only to some extents (Kwon & Cho, 2015). Despite these
regulations, however, the use of harsh language is still rampant (Oz, Zheng, & Chen, 2017).
The Malaysian Communications Multimedia Commission (MCMC), the agency responsible

for regulating abusive comments and online harassment reported a total of 1,776 complaints
regarding the misuse of SNS in 2015. 1,040 of the complaints received were categorised as
offensive/menacing and obscene/indecent (MCMC, 2015). In the year of 2016 however, the
number increased up to 69.6% with a total of 3,323 complaints received regarding the misuse
of SNS. Complaints categorised as offensive/menacing and obscene/indecent also increased to
a total of 1,121 complaints.
With the use of harsh language in online discourse becoming increasingly prevalent, it is
not surprising that the number of complaints received by MCMC is high. Admittedly, literature
on the issue of harsh language use in online comments is growing. However, past research has
mostly focused on the linguistics and the use of harsh language during face-to-face conversation
(Baudin & Paramasivam, 2014; David, Kuang, & Tayyebian, 2016; Tian, 2014). Meanwhile,
others focused more on incivility in online news sites and on political discussions (Anderson
et al., 2013; Chen & Ng, 2016; Cho & Kwon, 2015; Coe, Kenski, & Rains, 2014; Kwon & Cho,
2015).
This paper examined the interaction of users in the comments of viral content posts on two
top tabloid media Facebook pages from Malaysia which were labelled as PM and SK. Its focus
was specific to the use of harsh language used in the comments of PM and SK. Therefore, this
paper investigated whether the PM Facebook page or SK Facebook page has a higher number
in the use of harsh language use in the comments of viral content posts.
Harsh Language use on Facebook
The advent of social networking sites (SNS) has given the public new means to interact and
socialise with each other. With the adoption of platforms such as Facebook, users now have the
freedom of choosing how they want to communicate with others. Ever since Facebook went
global in September 2006, its number of users has grown rapidly. With more than 2 billion users
per month, Facebook now is the most popular SNS worldwide (Statista, 2018).
Statista (2018), a database company based in Hamburg, Germany recorded that almost 12
million Facebook users originated from Malaysia in 2017. The MCMC (2016) in their Internet
Users Survey 2016 also reported that Facebook, as a social networking site, has the highest
number of account ownership among Malaysians. It was also found that about nine (9) out
of ten (10) Malaysians owned a Facebook account and more than half of them access their
Facebook account daily (MCMC, 2016).
Facebook generates a huge amount of information through users’ interactions every day
(Weng, et al., 2013). It also gives the users the freedom of choosing which information they
want to retrieve and what information to share with others (Lievrouw & Livingstone, 2006). This
shared information is often able to attract a large amount of attention from the users especially if
it went viral (Bandari, Asur, & Huberman, 2012). However, recently there has been an increase
in making provocative comments online. These comments can often be found in viral contents.
Because of its provocative and offensive nature, they tend to trigger negative emotional response
from other users such as anger and frustration (Kwon & Cho, 2015), exacerbating the situation
further.
Researchers discovered that the use of offensive comments online could potentially be
“contagious” and influence other people to react in a similar way (Kwon & Cho, 2015, p. 2). When
emotionally triggered, users have the potential to react aggressively and retaliate using offensive
words online (Kwon & Cho, 2015). This process is what scholars call emotional contagion; a
process where people are influenced by other people’s emotions or behaviour (Barsade, 2002;
Schoenewolf, 1990). Emotional contagion usually happens when users’ expression of opinions
trigger other people’s emotions (Kwon & Cho, 2015).
Kramer (2012) found that when users post on Facebook, they can affect their network of
Facebook friends. He explained that users may influence their network of friends on Facebook
to use the same words to express their opinions. Particularly when users use emotionally
expressive language (Kramer, 2012). This is further proven by Stieglitz and Dang-Xuan (2012)
who found that emotionally stimulating contents tend to become more viral than others.
Emotional expressions on Facebook
Using Facebook to express opinions and emotions is not something new. However, when
the content of a post is emotionally stimulating, it may cause emotional contagion (Kwon &
Cho, 2015). It often happens subconsciously and is a form of “social influence” (Barsade, 2002,
p. 645). Emotional contagion may encourage users to be more aggressive in expressing their
opinions (Kwon & Cho, 2015). In one study, Kramer (2012) found that Facebook posts are
subsequently able to affect the posts of others within the users’ network. He explained that people
who use emotionally expressive language may influence those around them and influence them
to express their opinions using the same emotionally expressive language.
Often, negatively charged emotional expressions on the SNS such as anger are more
contagious (Kwon & Cho, 2015). In a study by Kwon and Cho (2015), they found that the use
of harsh language in the comments on online news sites tend to receive more public attention.
Harsh language is considered as a form of high-arousal emotional expression. However, they are
still unable to explain whether the use of swear words could motivate other users to use harsh
language within the same discussion topic. Kwon and Cho (2015) also identified that insulting
comments from users may cause a split in users’ opinions. SNS users tend to be influenced by
the sentiments created within the contents based on positive or negative opinions of others
(Berger & Milkman, 2012).
Even when the use of harsh language is becoming increasingly common in the virtual
setting, there is still relatively small body of literature that focuses on the use of harsh language
in the context of users’ online discussion (Kwon & Cho, 2015). This is because swearing may be
deemed as a violation of public communication (Kwon & Cho, 2015) and most research on SNS
tend to focus on the relationship of the users as their main element (Thelwall, 2008).
Harsh language in viral contents
Harsh language is a very broad and general term on the use of words that are considered
as taboo in the society (Thelwall, 2008). Those words include subjects belonging to religious
beliefs, attributed to “sex” and “sexuality”; racial and “ethnic group” along with “nationality”;
“political affiliation”; words that are degrading; attributed to less fortunate group and the
disabled; “stupidity; undesirable behaviour and disease” (Thelwall, 2008, p. 86).
Harsh language has been labelled by scholars as a part of an uncivilised act. According
to Smith, Philips and King (2010) the act of using harsh language is considered as an act of
incivility. In their study, they found that people consider the act of swearing, using bad language
and making sexual remarks as rude and uncivil (Smith et al., 2010). An act of incivility can
cause discomfort in a casual or professional setting (Coyne et al., 2011; Smith et al., 2010).
Incivility can happen both in real life and online. However, in this digital era, Weber Shandwick
(2013) highlighted that the internet and SNS are among the main causes of incivility. The act of
incivility on the internet – dubbed as ‘flaming’, is considered as irritating by the majority of SNS
users (Moor, Heuvelman, & Verleur, 2010).
Emotions have often been associated with the use of harsh language. Scholars believe that
harsh language is used as a form of emotional expression (Thelwall, 2008). Previous studies
reported that contents with high emotional arousal elements such as provocation, nudity, and
violence (Porter & Golan Guy, 2006) may trigger the need for users to share and disseminate the
content (Berger, 2011). Emotional arousal plays a significant role in initiating the diffusion of
viral contents (Berger, 2011; Porter & Golan Guy, 2006). Users may not realise it, but they may
inadvertently express their opinion regarding the topic being discussed when they comment or
interact on Facebook using harsh language (Anderson et al., 2013).
Anderson and colleagues (2013) found that using harsh language in the comments may
influence other users’ opinions. Users often like to make an initial judgment of the discussed
topic based on other users’ comments rather than referring to the information given in the
content. Misinformed users who make judgments based on just the comments may end up
being influenced and have their perceptions altered. Users may also end up being divided and
may not receive the intended message from the writer of the content (Anderson et al., 2013).
Often, people will consider other users’ interaction before participating in an online discussion
(Anderson et al., 2013).
While it is agreed that using harsh language might attract more users to interact, it would
create distrust among the users (Anderson et al., 2013) as harsh language use is considered
offensive and pointless (Coe, Kenski, & Rains, 2014; Cho & Kwon, 2015). In one study on
incivility in a newspaper website comments, Coe and colleagues (2014) found that the use of
harsh language online may have a domino effect on the users. In their research, harsh language
use could influence other users to act the same way especially since they discovered that harsh
language use in online interaction may attract more negative feedback from other users.
Methodology
Sampling selection
This study aims to identify which of the two top tabloid media Facebook pages from Malaysia
has a higher frequency of harsh language use in their viral content comment section. These two
Facebook pages are labelled as PM and SK. Being the top two tabloid media Facebook pages,
PM and SK have high number of followers and high use of harsh language. PM started out as
a personal blog. As it starts to gain traction from followers, the blog was moved to a proper
website and transformed into a tabloid media. PM then started its Facebook page by sharing
posts from its web portal. Now, they claim themselves as “the cheapest viral marketing agency
in Malaysia”. Like PM, SK too started out as a blog. Following the footsteps of PM, they created a
more professional looking web portal and recognised themselves as an “Entertainment Website”.
To meet the objective of this study, the content analysis method was employed to retrieve
and analyse the data from SK and PM Facebook pages (Socialbakers, 2018). These two Facebook
pages were selected due to the sheer number of fans and followers. The high number of followers
also meant that it is easier for their Facebook posts to go viral. Viral contents were chosen as
they can acquire a sizable number of interactions among Facebook users.
Up until July 2018, the SK Facebook page has over 5.4 million number of fans whereas PM
Facebook page has over 7.8 million fans. Socialbakers (2018), a social media monitoring
platform highlighted a significant number of fan growth on both pages during the month of
April 2018 (see Table 1). Due to this significant growth, viral contents from 1 April 2018 to 30
April 2018 were retrieved and analysed for this study. However, the PM Facebook page had been
taken down somewhere in September 2018 and was replaced with a new page which now has
lesser followers than it used to have previously. While the data collected from the PM Facebook
page is no longer available, it is still valid up to September 2018 before the Facebook page was
taken down.
Table 1: Fan growth and total users’ comments for SK and PM
Facebook page Number of fans Fan growth in % of fan growth % of users’ com-
April 2018 ments
SK 5,444,226 62,235 1.14 56.20

PM 7,894,447 205,615 2.60 43.27
Content virality is not usually just spread by a single mechanism. It usually requires both
messages to be broadcasted by a single entity before it is adopted and then spread through
peer-to-peer diffusion (Goel, Anderson, Hofman, & Watts, 2016). Goel and colleagues (2016)
also found that there is no specific structure on how a content could go viral. However, it was
indicated that when a content receives a minimum of 100 shares, it often has a higher chance to
spread further (Goel et al., 2016). To ensure the virality of the sampling, this paper focused on
posts that have more than 1,000 shares with more than 1,000 comments. Posts with sensitive
topics focusing specifically on social issues were chosen as sensitive topics tend to be emotionally
contagious and may contain “more controversial elements” (Oz et al., 2017).
The viral posts from both Facebook pages were retrieved using the Facebook search
function. To narrow down the results specifically to the timeline of the sampling, the ‘Filter
Results’ function was used so that only posts from 1st April 2018 to 30th April 2018 from
both Facebook pages are listed. This process had to be done individually for each page. The
‘Filter Results’ were sorted using the Top Posts selection. However, the posts that were retrieved
seemed to appear randomly and were not sorted according to the selected format. Hence, to
narrow down the results, each post was then analysed manually according to these specific
requirements: (1) The viral post/content should have more than 1,000 shares, (2) The viral post
should have more than 1,000 comments and, (3) The post/content topic must centre around
sensitive topics that highlight on social issues.
Determining the scope of social issues is not easy as there is no universal definition and it
varies between literature. However, Eitzen and colleagues (2011) defined social issues as act or
situations that “violate the norms and values present in society” and social condition that cause
suffering towards the general population, be it physically or mentally that needs to be improved.
Therefore, to determine whether a post or content is considered as a social issue, the content
needs to have one of these two characteristics; (1) violation of the societal norm and values or;
(2) social conditions that cause physical or mental suffering.
A total of 5,025 comments were retrieved from all 4 posts. However, only comments on
the main post on the page were collected. Each post contains more than one video and photo
that were uploaded onto the page. With Facebook’s dynamic function, each of these videos and
photos may contain their comments, shares and likes. Since this study only focused on the main
posts’ number of comments and shares, these separate comments and shares were not included
in this study.
Comments that were collected were sorted into a table. These comments were then
individually and manually analysed to find the use of harsh language. Each post and comment
was counted as one unit while every use of harsh language was quantified as an item each.
Comments were then re-read to ensure the right number of harsh language used was quantified.
Comments with memes or photos uploaded depicting obscenity were also counted as using
harsh language.
The ethical guidelines for internet-mediated research highlight that individuals’ behaviour
observed in a public space where they do not expect any form of privacy requires no consent
(British Psychological Society, 2017). Since these comments were posted on a Facebook page,
it is “public and can be viewed by everyone who can see the Page” (Facebook, 2019, para.
17). Facebook (2019) also considers content uploaded in the public domain they provided as
available for the public to use freely. Therefore, this research was considered to have met this
ethical standard.
Inter-coder reliability
Inter-coder reliability was tested using the inter-coder reliability formula by Holsti (1969).
Two coders were engaged for this test to ensure the researcher remains on neutral ground when
coding the data of this study. The coders were tasked to code the comments from the viral
content. They were given coding sheets to observe the use of harsh language and indicate the
harsh languages used in the comments. Coders were then instructed to quantify the number
of harsh language that was used in the comments. The test was then performed using the inter-
coder reliability formula by Holsti (1969) as below:
CR = 2M / (N1 + N2)
2M stands for the total number of categories that was agreed by both coders whereas, (N1
+ N2) is the number of categories that was given to the coders. The total number of harsh
language that was agreed upon between both coders was 35 whereas the total number of harsh
language that was given was 42. The calculation for this study’s inter-coder reliability test is as
below:
CR = 2M / (N1 + N2)
CR = 35 / 42
CR = 0.83
The result for the inter-coder reliability test was 0.83 which is considered as an acceptable
result according to Mouter and Noordegraaf (2012). Mouter and Noordegraaf (2012) regard
results with more than 0.80 as an acceptable result in most situations. Whereas, anything below
0.80 will be considered as having too many disparities between the coders.
Results
The Facebook search function yielded a total of 214 viral posts retrieved from 1st April 2018
to 30th April 2018. A total of 91 posts were collected from the SK Facebook page whereas 123
posts were retrieved from the PM Facebook page. However, only two (2) posts fit the criteria
of this study for SK and after filtering the viral posts according to specific requirement for this
study, PM yielded two (2) posts as well. Hence, the total number of viral posts highlighting
sensitive topics regarding social issues that were collected for this study is four (4) in total.
The first post collected from SK Facebook page was labelled as SK1. The post, which depicted
public harassment was categorised as uncivilized behaviour. SK1 contained a combination of
videos and photos. However, it has since been deleted from the SK Facebook page. SK1 portrayed
the public harassment towards some shopping mall staff in Southern Malaysia. The aggression
happened after a Royal Crown Prince decided to treat shoppers at a mall on a shopping spree.
After the news of the treat went viral, people started flooding the mall. Despite the staff closing
the supermarket, people still demanded that they open the shutters prompting the aggression
to happen as displayed in the video stills in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Video stills from SK1 taken from SK Facebook page

portraying the public harassing shopping mall staff through
the small looking glass on the door
The video stills displayed a hoard of people banging on the door of a supermarket inside a
mall believed to be in Johor Bahru, Malaysia. In the video, there was a commotion as several
people were seen harassing the staff by shouting harsh words and banging on the door of the
supermarket. SK1 was regarded as viral because it garnered a total of 6,588 interactions. 3,711 of
the interactions were made up of reactions (or as previously called, ‘likes’). The reactions itself
make a total of 56.33% from the whole interactions of the post. The comments from SK1 were
collected and analysed. 14.12% out of 1,183 comments were found to contain the use of harsh
language (see Table 2).
Table 2: Viral posts from SK and PM with sensitive topics highlighting social issues from 1 April 2018 to 30 April 2018
Label Post Type of post No. No. of No. of

category of shares comments comments
(N=5,025) with harsh
language
(N=1,166)
SK1 Uncivilised behaviour Videos & photos 1,694 1,183 167
SK2 Public property vandalism Photos 3,598 1,656 562
PM1 Bullying Videos & photos 5,482 1,088 249
PM2 Female teenage brawl Videos & photos 3,161 1,098 188
Source: www.facebook.com (3 July 2018)
The second post collected from SK Facebook page was labelled as SK2. The post contained
several still images from a CCTV footage of an elevator. The screenshot of the post in Figure
2 shows two (2) girls vandalising the elevator’s button panels with a caption translated as “New
PPR lift that’s just been replaced… But when you get a new one?”. PPR is short for Program
Perumahan Rakyat, a public housing program. It is a low-cost housing project initiated by the
government for low-income group of people. The caption suggested that the lift at the PPR
housing has just been replaced recently before being vandalised by the two (2) girls.
Figure 2: Images from SK2 taken from SK Facebook

page portraying two (2) girls vandalising a lift
SK2 had received a total of 7,412 interactions among Facebook users, which easily made it a
viral content particularly, when the number of users sharing the post was more than 3,000 (see
Table 2). According to Table 2, 22.34% of the interactions were made of user’s comments on
the Facebook post. These comments were then analysed and SK2 was found to have received a
higher number of harsh language use in the comments than SK1 with 70.28% difference. SK2
was also recorded as having the highest number of harsh language use in comments among all
the viral posts collected (see Figure 4).
Next, posts from PM Facebook page were collected and analysed. Labelled as PM1, PM’s
first post was categorised as bullying. The post contained a video and images of a smaller student
being confronted and beaten by two other school students who appeared to be bigger than
him. Figure 3 shows a still from the video where the victim was confronted by two (2) bigger
students. These students then proceeded to beat the victim while the others just watched the
scene unfolds including the person who was recording the video.
Figure 3: A video still from PM1 portraying a confrontation

between the victim and the bullies before being beaten
PM1 contained a total of 11,289 interactions from the users. The high number of interactions
made it easy for the post to go viral with the shares making up almost half of the interactions
at 48.56% (see Table 2). However, despite the high number of shares, the post only amassed a
total of 1,088 comments (see Table 2). These comments were analysed, and it was found that
22.89% of the comments contained the use of harsh language from the fans and followers of PM
Facebook page.
PM’s second post which was labelled as PM2 was categorised as a female teenage brawl.
The post has been removed since the deletion of PM Facebook page. It displayed videos and an
image of female teenagers in a physical brawl with their group of friends watching. Despite the
fight getting out of hand, only a few of their friends went to help dissolve the fight. The two teens
were then seen rolling on the ground on a field and getting further away from their friends. The
fighting went on until a few adults who happened to pass by the field came over to help and
separate the two girls.
This second viral post from PM Facebook page amassed a total of 7,521 interactions from
Facebook users. The post shares were made up of 42.03% out of the total of interactions which
made the content viral during the month of April 2019. There is not much difference in terms
of the number of comments between PM1 and PM2 with only 0.46% difference (see Table 2).
However, from the analysis of the comments, 17.12% of the comments contain the use of harsh
language.
The analysis shows that despite having fewer fans and lesser fan growth than PM (see
Table 1), SK has a higher number of comments from the users than PM with a 13% difference.
Comments from SK1 and SK2 were analysed for the use of harsh language and it was found
to have a higher number of harsh language use than PM (see Table 2). With a total of 729
comments containing harsh language, SK surpassed PM in the number of comments containing
harsh language with 25.04% difference. Based on Figure 4, SK recorded an overall 14.50% use of
harsh language while PM recorded 8.70% use of harsh language in the comments of their viral
contents.
Figure 4: Total of comments with harsh languages used from viral content posts on
SK and PM Facebook pages
Discussion
The findings from the results offered limited early evidence on the number of harsh language
used between both pages. They showed that despite having a lower number of fans and fan
growth, SK has a higher number of users’ comments than PM. This also explains why SK has
25.04% higher number of difference in the number of harsh language used in the comments
than PM does in their viral content posts.
The most notable differences between SK and PM was the categorisation of both pages.
According to Socialbakers (2018), SK falls under the Media category while PM falls under the
Celebrity category. The “About” tab on their Facebook page also offers different categorisation
for both pages, with SK being categorised as a Media/News Company and PM being categorised
under Personal Blog. This differentiation of categorisation shows that each page may have
different sets of target audience.
Since it is not a part of this study’s objective, how this differentiation of categories may
contribute to the different frequencies between SK and PM is unfortunately unavailable. This
limitation is also due to the unavailability of the Facebook page insights data. Browsing the
pages as a normal Facebook user and page follower could not afford the researchers on the
pages’ insights data. The issue on how the differences between Facebook page categorisation
and target audience may produce varying results in terms of commenting frequencies between
the pages could be further explored in future research.
Overlapping of posts and viral content could also contribute to the varying difference in the
number of comments containing harsh language. Through analysis and observation of the viral
contents posted on both pages, SK’s posts were found to be more emotionally arousing. Berger
and Milkman (2012) discovered that provocative contents often receive more attention from
users than less provocative contents. As discussed previously, contents that are emotionally
stimulating are more likely going to receive users’ attention and interaction (Berger, 2011).
However, there could also be other differences within the contents of the posts from each page
which this study could not account for.
It was also discovered that SK and PM often has users commenting using harsh language
more than once within one comment. Taken from the post SK2, the highest number of harsh
language used per comment from SK Facebook page were 20 (see Figure 5). The highest number
of harsh language used per comment for PM were taken from the PM2 post. In this comment
from PM2, the comment contained use of 10 harsh languages (see Figure 6). However, both
comments from each page differ in terms of their use of harsh language.
The comment from Figure 5 contains harsher words than the comment from Figure 6 with
sentence structure that made it overall insulting and violent. The comment (see Figure 5) also
contained threats, curse and death wishes. Aside from the obvious choice of harsh language,
the comment from Figure 5 also included racial slur targeted to a specific race, the use of pig
emoji which also depicts racial sentiment and a middle finger emoji. It is unclear how the
user managed to identify the girls’ race from the images as there was no indication of it in the
comment, nor was the information given in the post itsel.
Figure 5.
Screenshot of the comment with the highest number of
harsh languages used per comment taken from SK2, SK Facebook page
The comment from Figure 5 is translated as below:
This is stupid. You should get trapped in the elevator and left to die there
and become a skeleton. Stupid Chinese likes to cause shit in Malaysia and
everywhere. . You should be cursed. Do you know what mutts are? Yes, this is
how you are, you’re like a mutt. Chinese are stupid and deserve to die. You’re
just like the pigs you eat. If the elevator can seek revenge, it should just trap you
in there until you die. Since you eat pigs, you’re behaving like a pig. Someone
should just hit them in their heads. If I find them in the elevator, I would hurl
insults at them until they die in there. Stupid idiot dumb brainless. (pig emoji)
(angry emoji) (middle finger emoji)
As the SK2 post only consist of still images taken from a video, not much information was
available that could explain why SK2 received a significant amount of harsh languages used in
the comments. It did, however, portrayed the act of vandalism. This corresponds with Berger
(2011) who mentioned contents that are characterised with “conflict, crisis or catastrophe” are
often able to stimulate users’ emotions. Being in a state of highly aroused emotions may have
been the cause of the user’s anger and for the user to develop hostility (Berger & Milkman,
2012).
Despite having used 10 harsh languages, the comment from Figure 6 has a softer tone to
it. The comment, which was taken from PM2 post was less violent as it is not a targeted insult
like the comment from SK2. While there was use of harsh language present in the comment,
it sounded less violent and was more of a lecture than violent threats and insults such as those
displayed in Figure 5. It was identified that the person who commented in Figure 5 was a male
and the person commented in Figure 6 was a female. There could be a correlation towards
the harsh language used between different genders which could be explored further in future
research.
Figure 6.
Screenshot of the comment with the highest number of harsh languages
used per comment taken from PM2, PM Facebook page
The comment from PM2 was written in a Kelantanese dialect. However, the use of harsh
language was still apparent as the following translation:
Hey, Kelantanese people. . If someone mentions your state in this comment,

you can’t be angry as this happened in Kelantan… You can’t argue anymore.
Even if you try to, it will not stop others from talking bad. Of course, not all
Kelantanese people are this stupid. But we need to accept the fact that this
happened at our place. We should just let those idiot people in the video remain
stupid. Maybe they grew up in a stupid family… If we are smart enough ,we’ll
take care of ourselves, sisters, family so they don’t become stupid like them in the
video. I’m Kelantanese too but I hate Kelantanese attitude. They are a disgrace
to their own state. They always cause trouble outside Kelantan. Kelantanese
men are jobless, only know how to ride their father’s motorcycle while busy
hunting for women’s attention. Meanwhile Kelantanese women keep getting
involved in fistfight, acting like a gangster... Stupid kids, you are supposed to
study well at school and look for good jobs, but you are doing the other way
round.
Through the analysis, the number of harsh languages used to comment on the viral posts
found is worrying. One viral post managed to amass no less than 160 of comments containing
harsh language. There would also be a significantly high amount of harsh language use in the
comments especially when the viral content depicts violence that can be seen in SK2, PM1
and PM2 (see Table 2). This demonstrates that there is certainly a worrying number of harsh
language use on Facebook platform. This finding supports the premise that using harsh language
in online interaction is contagious and may influence other users to do the same (Anderson et
al., 2013; Coe et al., 2014).
Among other limitations faced by the researchers was the deactivation of the PM Facebook
page after September 2018. While the page was replaced by a new one, the data that was once
available on the page was now missing and could not be traced back to be further analysed. The
PM Facebook page also has lesser followers now than previously. For a while, the PM Facebook
page could not be found as it did not exist on Facebook after it was taken down. However, there
are ample tabloid journalism pages that are still available on Facebook and an extensive amount
of data available to be studied.
Conclusion
This study examined the number of harsh language use in the comments among Facebook
users in two top tabloid journalism Facebook pages. It aimed to identify which of these two
pages has a higher number of harsh language use in the comments of viral content posts. It
compared the use of harsh language in the comments of viral contents in these two pages; SK
and PM. Based on the comparative analysis of these two pages, the aim of this study was met.
It was identified that SK has a higher number of users commenting with harsh languages
in their viral content compared to PM. The results also found that SK has a higher number of
users’ comments. In one of the findings from the content analysis, the ones with content of
violence displayed a significantly higher number of harsh language use among the users. The
use of harsh language in the comments also attracted higher interactions among the users and
influenced other users to behave in the same way. The results also identified a worrying level of
harsh language use within just one viral content post when the content depicted use of violence.
Future studies could explore how service providers such as Facebook could control or reduce
the number of harsh language use on their platforms.
Nevertheless, this study only focused on sensitive topics highlighting viral social issues.
Hence, it could not account for the use of harsh language in non-viral contents and on non-
sensitive topics. Results of this study could also be different if it were conducted on other SNS
platforms such as Twitter or Instagram.
Finally, future studies could explore what are the other factors that contribute to the use
of harsh language in Facebook comments. From the findings of this research, it is highlighted
that harsh language is being used as a tool to harass other users on Facebook. The results will
hopefully be able to assist the local governing bodies to improvise current bylaw and develop a
more stringent regulation and policies in the context of online content dissemination. This may
possibly also prevent further abuse of SNS such as Facebook and reduce cases of harassment,
libel and defamation on the said platform.
Funding
This work was supported by the Universiti Putra Malaysia Grant, Putra IPS (GP-
IPS/2017/9571100) and MyPhD scholarship from Ministry of Education, Malaysia.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Zaifunizam Ariffin for his insightful observations
on the data and analysis.
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Human Communication
Online News and Public Opinion: How Malaysians Respond to

News on a State By-Election
Authors:
Shafizan Mohamed*, Syed Arabi Idid and Kamaruzzaman Manan
Department of Communication, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International
Islamic University Malaysia, 53100, Gombak, Selangor.
*shafizan@iium.edu.my
ABSTRACT:
This study articulates the agenda setting function of online news that is shared on Facebook. Many news organizations
today have their own Facebook pages in which they publish news stories or links to articles. Having facebook pages
allow the newspapers to reach a wider readership as well as promote reader participation through the comments
section on Facebook posts. When audience members read and subsequently comment on news articles on Facebook, it
becomes possible to identify the effectiveness of a newspaper’s agenda setting function by scrutinising how the readers
respond to the issues covered in the newspaper. Content analysis was done on over 450 news articles from four major
online newspapers during the Semenyih by-election in Malaysia. The study found that while the online newspapers
and the readers do share some issue salience, the relationship is not as simple and direct. The dynamics of Facebook
now enable news readers to become more than just receiver of news. Instead, they disrupt the conventional agenda
setting function by becoming commenters who influence how other readers receive and contemplate news and issues.
Keywords: By-election, Facebook, Malaysia, Public opinion, Agenda setting, Online Newspapers
INTRODUCTION
The availability of Social Networking Sites (SNS) such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter
have enabled traditional newspapers to engage with the online audiences by encouraging them
to read, comment, and share news with other users. Today, large numbers of news organizations
extend their content and interactions on SNS to get connected to the larger audience. Facebook
is generally the primary platform used by news organizations to share their news stories and
to encourage user interaction (Al-Rawi, 2016). This shift towards encouraging news comments
on Facebook is based on the implicit assumption that commenting on social media platforms,
especially Facebook, is a better alternative than commenting on online news sites (Kim, 2018).
Most news sites have suffered from offensive, insulting, and brutal comments on their websites
because of the anonymous character of their comment sections (Coe, Kenski, & Rains, 2014).
Facebook, on the other hand, is more open in the sense that users can search about one another
through a system of notifying users of others’ likes and comments, forcing commenters to be
accountable to their posts (Rowe, 2015). While the ability to create fake accounts still allows
for irresponsible commenting, the amount of legit comments often drowns the impact of fake
users. Most of the time, fake users are easily identified and apprehended by other users.
Due to the popularity of leaving and reading comments online, these spaces for public
discourse have attracted the interest of media and communication researchers. Scholars have
examined news comment to understand the impact of interactivity and other content features
(Weber, 2014), the quality of news comments (Rowe, 2015), motivations for commenting
(Stroud, Van Duyn & Peacock, 2016), personal characteristics of news commenters (Wu &
Atkin, 2017), and the influence of news comments on users’ evaluation of news articles and
social issues (Prochazka, Weber, & Schweiger, 2016) and their future commenting behaviors
(Rösner & Krämer, 2016).
Following the interest in this growing body of study, this study attempts to problematize the
relationship between news and news comments by contemplating on whether the sentiments
shared by newsreaders in the comment sections reflect the sentiments presented in the news
content? And, can these comments be constituted as a form of public opinion? Ksiazek (2018)
proposed that news comments could indicate user engagement with the news, as well as offer
insight into how users are participating in virtual discussions of current events. The emergence
of interactive digital platforms for the provision of news has sparked an interest in capturing
the ways that users are engaging, experiencing, and reacting to content. When users choose
to comment on a news story, they signal a heightened interest by not only processing and
reacting to the news, but by choosing to share their thoughts in a public forum. Therefore, news
comments offer the possibility to learn about the effectiveness of news stories in influencing
user opinions.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Facebook Usage in Malaysia
The media and political cultures in Malaysia have been very much altered by the rapid
rise of the online media (Wok & Mohamed, 201). The democratic openness afforded by the
social media has especially allowed Malaysians to challenge the country’s conservative political
culture by daringly participating in online discourses where there is limited government control.
This change in political culture was exemplified in 2018 when Malaysians overthrew a 61 years
old government that had strong control over the country’s media and political systems. The
social media afforded Malaysians the avenue to get alternative news and to participate in local
politics. Facebook is where most of the political discourses take place (Salman, Yusoff, Salleh &
Abdullah, 2018) (Lee, 2017)
There are over 16 million active Facebook users in Malaysia (MCMC, 2017). The popularity
of social networking sites (SNSs) such as Facebook was made possible by the improved Internet
infrastructure, increase in Internet penetration and overall better exploitation of Information
Technologies in terms of mobile phones, computers and Internet access (Wok and Mohamed,
2017). Recently, the Internet usage amongst individuals in Malaysia increased from 57 percent
in 2013 to 71.1 percent in 2015, although the digital divide between rural and urban areas
remains significant, there is a continuous effort by the government to reduce the gap (Lee,
2017).
According to the Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission (MCMC,

2017), Malaysians access the Internet very frequently (86.6% at least once a day) and are very
participative in social networking sites (84.3%). Facebook is the most popular social media
platform in Malaysia. MCMC (2017) found that 96.5 percent of the Internet users surveyed
owned at least a Facebook account and 53.8 percent of the Internet users access Facebook on a
daily basis. The study also found that some 18.3% percent of social media users share political
views. While the percentage of social media users sharing political views may not be that high,
it is still a significant source of information for those who access it (90.1%). 86.9% of those who
surveyed identified that social media is one of the main online information portals for them.
A study on political engagement among Malaysian voters by Salman et al. (2018) supports the
centrality of SNS in Malaysian political discourse. The study found that 63.5% of voters identify
SNS as their main source for political information with 86.5% claiming Facebook as their main
SNS platform.
All the major online newspapers in Malaysia have a Facebook page and are actively
using it to engage with the readers. They do so mainly because of the decline in the sales of
printed newspapers. Advertisers are more interested to advertise on the newspapers’ social
media platforms where they can attract bigger number of audiences. At the same time, it is
legally and politically more conducive for them to engage with the readers online where the
government has limited control. The mainstream online newspapers that have direct link to
the old government do not have a comment section in their online news portal. This is to avoid
negative and controversial user discussions. However, when extending their news stories on
Facebook and allowing for user comments, these online newspapers are able to technically defy
the imposed self-censorship and allow readers to interact. Because of this, the Facebook pages
of Malaysian online newspapers are definitely more alive and popular when compared to their
online sites.
The Semenyih By-Election
The heated discussions and strong sentiments that went on running up to the 14th General
Election signify the popularity of the Facebook pages of local online newspapers. Every news
article that relates to the election was responded with high volume of shares and comments. In
the comment sections, the newsreaders were bold and very daring in sharing their opinions
despite the still strict media environment. The sentiments shared by the users at the time were
quite cohesive and presented an obvious public opinion. However, no careful study had captured
the public opinion that was forming in the comment sections of the Facebook pages of the
local online newspapers at the time. Therefore, while there is a significant acknowledgement of
Facebook as an arena for democratic political discourse (Salman et al., 2017), there is still a gap
in learning about the content of the discourses and the complexity of the sentiments. This study
attempts to fill this gap by focusing on the issues that are being discussed by the users rather
than relying on generic observation.
In the context of Malaysian politics, a by-election occurs when a particular seat in the
lower house of the parliament becomes vacant when, a member of parliament (MP) dies or is
disqualified from being a member of the parliament (Moten, 2019). In each of this election, the
Facebook pages of the Malaysian online newspapers were alive with continuous stream of news
coverage and an overwhelming user comments. It is interesting to look at how the users are
discussing the election and how they identified with the issues around the elections. On March
4th, 2019, a by-election was held in Semenyih, a small district in Selangor, Malaysia. The by-
election was called because the incumbent assemblyman, Bakhtiar Mohd Nor of the Malaysian
United Indigenous Party or Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (BERSATU), a component of
Pakatan Harapan (PH) coalition passed away due to a heart attack.
The Semenyih by-election garnered a lot of interest because there was raising political tension
in the aftermath of the GE 14. The current opposition parties seemed to have gathered a strong
support and are challenging the popularity of the newly elected Pakatan Harapan government.
Therefore by focusing on the news coverage on the Semenyih local election and relating it to
the responding news comments, this article tests the ‘first-level’ agenda setting effects of online
news by asking:
1. Do the issues presented by the Malaysian Online newspapers parallel with the issues
commented about by the newsreaders on Facebook during the Semenyih by-election?
2. Can comments shared in online newspapers’ Facebook pages be considered public opinion?
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
News Comments Agenda Setting And Public Opinion
Undeniably, the volume and theoretical richness of research activity on Agenda setting
have made it one of the most studied concepts in media effect research (McCombs, 2005).
The concept of agenda setting was innovated by Walter Lippmann (1922) in his famous book,
‘Public Opinion’ where he posited the notion that the media construct public views of the
world. Fifty years later, McCombs and Shaw conducted the seminal study of agenda setting.
This study has been called one of the 15 milestones in mass communication research (Lowery &
Defleur, 1995). The central thesis of a ‘first-level’ Agenda setting is the transfer of object salience
from the mass media to the public (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). It mainly focuses on the issues,
events or political figures of the media agenda, and how the media agenda impacts audience
perceptions about what issues are worthy of attention. Coleman, McCombs, Shaw and Weaver
(2009), defined it as:
the process of the mass media presenting certain issues frequently and
prominently with the result that large segments of the public come to perceive
those issues as more important than others … the more coverage an issue
receives, the more important it is to people (p. 147).
In other words, the amount of news coverage of an object would largely determine the
perceived importance of that object by the audience. The level of importance or what McCombs
(2004) referred to as salience indicate the transfer of influence from the media to the audience.
Agenda setting is not new to the study of political issues in Malaysia. The roles of the news
media in telling people of what to think of political figures are indeed crucial, especially during
election period. According to Yassin and Zanuddin (2012), media reports set media agenda in
an effort to influence how people view politicians and political issues. The media representation
helps the public in making informed electoral decisions. However, to what extent the media
agenda sets the public agenda vary from a case to another. A study by Kee, Salman, Ni, Yaakop,
Adisa, and Hoong (2017) attempted to explore the function of agenda setting in English
newspapers during the 13th General Election in Malaysia. The study found that although the
media agenda in English newspapers assisted the transfer of issue salience and issue attributes
to audiences, there was no significant relationship between the English newspapers and the
public agenda among the main ethnic groups in Malaysia. For example, even though crime is
ranked at the 9th place as the media issue, the public considered the issue as their top agenda.
Traditional methods of investigating whether news influences public agendas require
comprehensive and sometimes complex field study wherein a public opinion survey becomes
the prominent way to identify public sentiments. But with the availability of direct user
comments on news, it becomes possible to look at how media users respond to news articles and
whether they place the same level of issue salience when compared with the issues covered by
the news media. Therefore, this article aims to identify whether there exists a first-level agenda
setting relationship between news media and the readers by comparing and analyzing the issues
highlighted by the online newspapers with the issues talked about by the news commenters
during the Semenyih by-election.
METHODOLOGY
For the Semenyih by-election, the candidates were allowed to officially campaign from
March 2nd 2019 to March 16th 2019. This election rule is unique to Malaysia where it is illegal
by law for politicians to campaign openly outside the allocated time. It was in these two weeks
that all the online newspapers had daily updated coverage on the by-election. Thus, the two
weeks campaign period was very appropriate for 1) observing the news coverage of the elections
and, 2) comparing the relationship between the issues that were covered by the newspapers with
the issues discussed by the newsreaders.
To answer the research questions, four main online newspapers with large Facebook
followers were chosen for the study. They consist two Malay online newspapers that are
written in the local Bahasa Melayu language: Malaysiakini (Bahasa) and Sinar Harian and two
English online newspapers: Malaysiakini (English), and TheStar. These online newspapers have
prominent online presence and represented a slightly varied readership. Malaysiakini, both
the Malay and English versions were mostly read by the more urban, educated and politically
liberal demographic group (Lee, Nayan and Othman, 2016). TheStar mostly attracted the urban,
English-speaking and mostly non-Malay readers. Sinar Harian which has the largest followers
is a staple for most low to middle-class Malay readers (Lee et al., 2016). These variations in the
demographic and psychographic of the readers are important in capturing a more inclusive data
that represented majority Malaysians.
Table1: Descriptions of the sampled online newspapers
Number of Total number of Total number of

Facebook Followers all news stories comments for all
news stories
Malay Online newspapers 2.2 million 148 7100
Malaysiakini (Bahasa)
Sinar Harian 3.9 million 152 7062
English Online newspapers 1.7 million 78 3850
Malaysiakini (English)
The Star 1.08 million 72 3500
Total 450 21,512
Content analysis was used to collect the data. It is a common method used in electoral studies
(Idid, 2017) especially when looking at news coverage during the elections. Ahmad and Buyong
(2017) content analyzed the political issues covered by several online newspapers during the
Malaysian 13th election. Similarly, Salman et al. (2017) explored the agenda setting functions
of the English online newspapers in that same election. Studies that focused on the use of
Facebook during election have also relied on content analysis. Manaf, Taibi and Manan (2017)
content analyzed the issues presented on the Facebook pages of Malaysian online newspapers
and compared them with the public issues identified through a public opinion survey. On the
other hand, Zainuddin et al. (2017) content analyzed both the Tamil online newspapers and
Facebook pages of Indian politicians in the attempt to look at the issues concerning the Indian
voters during the 13th general election.
A standardized codebook and code sheet was designed to record the data. The code book
detailed all the variables included in the study while the code sheet was designed to capture the
issues and slants shared by both the online newspapers and their readers. Three coders were
trained on the materials by the researchers. A trial analysis was conducted to test the reliability
of the coding categories. The coders were asked to code the same news articles and the results
were analyzed using Holsti’s CR (1969) inter-coder reliability to test the trustworthiness of the
findings. In general, the test result indicated that all the variables used are above the minimum
reliability value of 0.7.
During the study period, each coder was assigned with a newspaper and was asked to code
the 10 most popular news on the ‘PRK Semenyih’ during the study period. Popular in this sense
refers to the amount of response an article gathers in terms of the number of comments and
shares. This lasted for 15 days. Therefore, each coder worked on 150 pieces of news. However, the
English online newspapers (Malaysiakini and The Star) appeared to cover less on the election,
thus a coder was assigned to look at both online newspapers and was asked to code 75 news
from each paper. Since the number of comments on each news article was very big, only the top
50 most relevant comments were coded. On Facebook, most relevant comments are comments
that had the most replies. This meant that each coder needed to code 7, 500 comments (150
news stories x 50 comments) that should total up to 22,500 comments. However, some news
articles had less than 50 comments. From the comments coded, only the top 5 issues discussed
by the commenters were recorded. Therefore, each news article could generate up to 3 media
issues and 5 public issues. These issues were then grouped and categorized into 25 main issues
that included Politics, Election, Economy, Crimes, Development, Education, International
Relations and many more.
To gauge the agenda setting relationship between the online newspapers and the readers,
two main variables were studied. They were the issues reported by the online newspapers and
the issues discussed by the readers. The issues discussed in all the news articles were aggregated
and ranked based on the total coverage. The same approach was used on the news comments. All
the issues discussed by the commenters were aggregated and ranked according to the number
of times the issues were discussed.
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
As indicated above, this study adopts an agenda-setting approach towards understanding the
relationship between news and user comments in the Facebook pages of Malaysian newspapers
during two state by-elections. Results from the content analysis conducted showed that there is
a relationship between the issues highlighted by the online newspapers with the issues talked
about by the news commenters. However, this relationship is not as linear and as direct as
proposed by the traditional agenda setting relationship. The study identified more than 20 main
issues discussed by the online newspapers and the news commenters during the campaign
weeks. The issues included Politics, Election, Economy, Crimes, Development, Education,
International Relations and many more. Each of these main issues is generic and is an umbrella
to a variety of related sub-issues. The table below describes the 10 most popular main issues
discussed by both the online newspapers and the commenters.
Table 2: Description of the ten most popular issues
No Main Issue Description

1. Campaign Issues about the candidates’ campaign activities such as manifestos and
election speeches and promises
2. Economy Issues relating to Malaysia’s finances such as recession, inflation, poverty,
tax, exchange rates and cost of living
3. Election Issues about the electoral system and the election process such as the
election dates, rules and logistics
4. Leadership Issues relating to the leadership in the government and the political
parties
5. Local Issues Issues concerning the voters in Semenyih such as infrastructure and
development
6. Malay-Islam Issues involving the Malay privileges and Islam as the country’s official
religion
7. Najib Razak Issues pertaining to the conduct and misconduct of the former Prime
Minister Najib Razak. This includes the corruption charges against him
as well as his very popular ‘Bossku’ political campaign
8. PH Admin Issues relating to the effectiveness of Pakatan Harapan government’s
manifestos, policies and actions
9. Politics Issues relating to the political system, the strength and weaknesses of the
political parties and the act of the politicians.
10. Unity Issues relating to the conflicts around racial integration between the
different ethnic groups
In order to capture the issue salience in more detail, the results will only show the 7 most
popular issues written about in the news to compare with the 7 most popular issues written
about by the news commenters.
Issues Salience In The Online newspapers
The table below lists the top 7 most popular issues covered by online newspapers. While
the ranking of the issues differs among the online newspapers, the differences were minute
indicating that the online newspapers were focusing on similar issues.
Table 3: Top seven issues discussed in the online newspapers
Issues Malaysiakini Sinar Harian Malaysiakini The Star

(Bahasa) (English)
1. Politics 81 (49.1%) 69 (39.2%) 31 (22.6%) 19 (17.3%)
2. Campaign 39 (23.6%) 36 (20.4%) 33 (24.1%) 29 (26.4%)
3. Election 17 (10.3%) 50 (28.4%) 14 (10.2%) 12 (10.9%)
4. Leadership 8 (4.9%) 5 (2.9%) 28 (20.4%) 27 (24.5%)
5. PH Admin 6 (3.6%) 8 (4.5%) 13 (9.5%) 5 (4.5%)
6. Local Issues 12 (7.3%) 4 (2.3%) 5 (3.7%) 9 (8.2%)
7. Najib Razak 2 (1.2%) 4 (2.3%) 13 (9.5%) 9 (8.2%)
Total (n) 165 (100%) 176 (100%) 137 (100%) 110 (100%)
All four online newspapers wrote heavily on ‘Politics’ and it was the most popular issue with
the Malay online newspapers. Malaysiakini (Bahasa) wrote about ‘Politics’ 81 (49.1%) times
while Sinar Harian wrote about it 69 (39.2%) times. The most popular issue for the English
online newspapers was ‘Campaign’. Malaysiakini (English) wrote about ‘Campaign’ 33 (24.1%)
times while The Star wrote on it 29 (26.4%) times. News on ‘Election’ was also among the
main issues covered by the online newspapers. 28.4% of the news on Sinar Harian was focused
on the ‘Election’ and this made it the second most salient issue for the newspaper. Issues of
‘Leadership’ were more prominent in the English online newspapers compared to the Malay
online newspapers. In fact, it is the second most popular issue on The Star (24.5%) and the
third most popular issue on Malaysiakini (English) (20.4%). The Malay newspaper tended to
focus less on ‘Leadership’ issues as it was written less than 10 times in each of the Malay papers.
The other issues that were given attention by the online newspapers were the ‘Local Issues’
and ‘PH administration’. The online newspapers also wrote significantly about ‘Najib Razak’,
the controversial ex-PM who is waiting to be tried for his alleged involvement in numerous
corruption and money laundering charges. The English online newspapers wrote on Najib more
than the Malay online newspapers. This is probably due to the prominence Najib managed to
create for himself through his active commentaries on social media. In the months running up
to the Semenyih election, Najib had made a political comeback by starting to openly criticize
the PH government that he claimed to be weak and practiced poor governance.
Issues Salience Among News Commenters
Table 4 depicts the top 7 issues discussed by the news commenters. The news commenters
seemed to respond to the news shared by the online newspapers by also focusing mainly on
‘Politics’. ‘
Table 4: Top 7 issues discussed by the news commenters
Issues Malaysiakini Sinar Harian Malaysiakini The Star

(Bahasa) (English)
1. Politics 147 (39.6%) 90 (40.2%) 74 (26.3%) 70 (30%)
2. Leadership 20 (5.4%) 38 (17.4%) 69 (24.6%) 62 (26.6%)
3. Malay-Islam 95 (25.6%) 32 (14.6%) 18 (6.4%) 5 (2.2%)
4. Najib Razak 35 (9.4%) 22 (10%) 44 (15.7%) 35 (15%)
5. Economy 52 (14%) 5 (2.4%) 33 (11.7%) 29 (12.5%)
6. PH Admin 12 (3.3%) 8 (3.7%) 33 (11.7%) 20 (8.6%)
7. Election 10 (2.7%) 25 (11.5%) 10 (3.6%) 12 (5.2%)
TOTAL (n) 371 (100%) 220 (100%) 281 (100%) 233 (100%)
‘Politics’ was the most popular issue discussed by the commenters on all four selected
online newspapers. The second most popular issue among the commentators on Sinar Harian,
Malaysiakini (English) and The Star was ‘Leadership’. The commenters were mostly expressing
concerns about the abilities of the current PH ministers as well as criticizing the credibility of
the previous BN ministers. It is interesting although not too surprising that the ‘Malay Islam’
issues are more prominent among commenters in the Malay online newspapers compared to
the English papers. It was the second most popular issue in Malaysiakini (Bahasa) (25.6%)
and third most popular issue on Sinar Harian (14.6%). On the other hand, it only made up
6.4% of the comments made by the readers of Malaysiakini (English) and 2.2% of comments
made by the readers of The Star. This indicated that there is a significant division among the
newsreaders when it comes to the ‘Malay-Islam’ issue. Another interesting findings were the
significance of ‘Najib Razak’ to the commenters. He was the third most popular topic discussed
by the readers of Malaysiakini (Bahasa) (9.4%), Malaysiakini (English) (15.7%) and The Star
(15%). He was the fourth most popular topic among the readers of Sinar Harian (10%). He
was prominent among the readers of both the Malay and English online newspapers. Although
the comments were both appreciative and depreciative of him, it was apparent that he was still
relevant to Malaysians in general. The Economy was also a popular issue among the readers of
Malaysiakini (Bahasa) (14%) and The Star (12.5%). The commenters also focused significantly
on the ‘PH Administration’ and the ‘Election’.
Issue Salience In The Newspaper And In The Comment Sections
The total numbers of issues were aggregated and compared in order to identify whether the
issues presented by the newspapers parallel the issues written about by the news commenters.
Generally, both the online newspapers and the commenters focused on a list of similar issues.
Both focused on issues such as ‘Politics’, ‘Leadership’, ‘PH Administration’ and ‘Election’. However,
there were also issues that were not shared by both parties. For example, the online newspapers
placed importance on issues such as ‘Campaign’ and ‘Local Issues’ while the commenters did
not find these issues as significant. Instead, the commenters were more interested in the issues
of ‘Economy’ and ‘Malay-Islam’. The graph below compares the salience of the issue between the
online newspapers and the news commenters.
Figure 1: Issue Salience in the newspaper and in the comment sectio
Media Issues (N= 588) Public Issues (N= 1097)

1. Politics 34% 1. Politics 34.70%
2. Election 21% 2. Leadership 17%
3. Campaign 18.50% 3. Malay Islam 14.10%
4. Leadership 11.50% 4. Najib Razak 11.80%
5. PH Administration 5.40% 5. Economy 10.50%
6. Local Issues 5.10% 6. PH Administration 6.70%
7. Najib 4.60% 7. Election 5.20%
For both the online newspapers and the commenters, the most popular issues were
‘Politics’. There was almost an exact match whereby 34% of the issues focused on by the online
newspapers were on ‘Politics’ and 34.7% of the issues highlighted by the commenters were also
‘Politics’. Political issues are popular mainly due to the complex and sometimes instable political
climate that had evolved in Malaysia post GE-14. Since it was the first time Malaysia had ever
experienced a government change, all those involved including the politicians, the government
and the people were still adjusting to the new political status quo. The new PH government is
still learning on how to administer a country while coordinating within its own loosely tied
component parties that have different ideals and work ethics. The Barisan Nasional on the other
hand, is still reeling over its lost and trying to salvage whatever political influence it still has.
In the aftermath of its lost in GE14, BN was faced with internal conflicts in which some of its
coalition parties and members have chosen to leave and even join the PH government. At the
same time, several of its top leaders are currently facing legal charges for many different reasons.
To ensure its survival, Barisan Nasional or UMNO especially has moved towards building a
strong relationship with PAS. PAS is the Islamist party that has a significant support among
the Malays. An UMNO-PAS partnership can mobilize the support of the majority of Malay
voters. These constant and rapid political changes affected the public who are also trying to
come to terms with the new political climate. PH’s inability to show that they are an effective
government and BN’s slow recovery is making the public nervous about the country’s future. The
newspaper captured these political activities extensively during the campaign weeks. Among
the prominent political issue that arose during the Semenyih election was Anwar Ibrahim’s
accusation against PAS in which he claimed that the Islamist party paid a certain amount of
money to Clare Rewcastle Brown to not pursue a case involving the PAS president Hadi Awang.
Claire is the journalist who was responsible for much of the expose’ on Najib Razak and his
involvement in the 1MDB corruption case. The bickering that happened between PAS and
Anwar is entirely political as it was mostly an attempt by both parties to smear one another. PAS
and Anwar’s party’s PKR were not even running in the Semenyih election. The commenters
were equally interested in these political issues and responded to them as well referring to them
when commenting on other issues. Therefore it appears that stories with dramaturgical values
appeal most to the online newspapers and its readers.

Although ‘Politics’ was the most popular issue, it was also the only main issue that shared the
same level of importance among the online newspapers and its readers. The ranking of issues
differed from the second to the seventh places. For the online newspapers, the second and third
largest issues covered were the ‘Election’ (21%) and ‘Campaign’ (18.5%). This is probably due
to the fact that the online newspapers were reporting on the statements and announcements
made by the Election Commission and also covering all the candidates’ campaign activities.
This included the live updates on nomination day and polling day. Despite the extensive news
coverage on these issues, the commenters did not find them to be appealing. ‘Campaign’ did not
even make it into the commenters’ top 7 most popular issue while ‘Election’ was the 7th most
written about issue making up only 5.2% coverage of all the comments made by the newsreaders.
‘Leadership’ was the second most popular issue for the news commenters (17%) and the
fourth (11.5%) most covered issue by the online newspapers. This indicated that the newsreaders
were commenting about specific leaders and relating many news stories to the problem of
leadership. Another interesting finding is the significance put by the commenters on issues
relating to ‘Malay-Islam’. Although the news coverage on the topic were scarce, the commenters
kept referring to it even when discussing about other news stories. The ‘Malay-Islam’ issue
became prominent among the commenters mostly due to it being used by UMNO-PAS when
explaining their political partnership that had gone stronger post GE-14. UMNO-PAS had used
the Malay-Islam narrative to gain support from the Malays. The two largest Malay parties used
to be traditional foes but have recently been coordinating as a united opposition front. Among
the issues played on by these parties were the threats brought by Pakatan Harapan’s supposed
liberal stance against the Malay privilege and the role of Islam as the official religion.
Another issue that was very significant to the commenters but not to the online newspapers
was the ‘Economy’ (10.5%). The commenters were especially concerned about the continued
rising cost of living. They were also apprehensive about Pakatan Harapan’s strict handling of
the economy where many projects proposed by the previous government had been cancelled
and postponed. The PH’s government’s inability to fulfill their GE14 manifestos in which they
promised to reduce the people’s financial burden by demolishing student loans, highway tolls
and cutting down fuel prices were among the points often made by the commenters. In short,
the commenters were not happy about the country’s current economic state.
‘Najib Razak’ is prominent among the online newspapers and the commenters. However,
he is more popular among the commenters than with the online newspapers. ‘Najib Razak’
was the 7th most covered issue in the online newspapers (4.6%) and the fourth (11.8%) most
popular topic among the commenters. This showed that the online newspapers were featuring
stories on Najib primarily because he was able to attract a big crowd whenever he came down
to Semenyih to campaign for Barisan Nasional. Najib had also made several jabs against the
PH government and its leaders throughout the campaign week. Among others, he remarked
on the PH’s government multiple retraction and cancellation of its own policies and programs.
While there was still a significant amount of condemnation against him, there was also an
increasingly positive impression on Najib mainly among commenters who were critical of the
PH government.
There was almost a match in salience when it comes to issues revolving the ‘PH Administration’.
It was the fifth most covered issue by the online newspapers (5.4%) and the sixth most referred
issue among the commenters (6.7%). The online newspapers were reporting significantly on
the Pakatan Harapan, primarily focusing on the government’s plans and activities. Meanwhile,
the commenters were expressing their satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the government’s
current performance.
The online newspapers also reported on ‘Local Issues’ (5.1%) such as the traffic and
infrastructure problems faced by the Semenyih residents but the issue did not trigger much
response from the commenters. This may be due to the fact that most of the commenters were
the general public who do not live in Semenyih and do not find local issues relevant to them.
Overall, it appears that while the online newspapers did focus on issues that were more focused
on the Semenyih voters such as ‘Local Issues’ and ‘Campaign’, it is still the broader national-
based issues such as politics, economy and Leadership that were more important for the online
newspapers to write about and more significant to the commenters to talk about. Therefore, in
the attempt to look at public sentiments in social media it would be essential to acknowledge
that online commenters are not the locals that will be casting the vote. Therefore, they may
not be able to offer a strong indication of voting behavior as a locally focused survey would.
However, it is also crucial to consider that while these commenters may not be directly voting
in the election, they are contributing to the political climate by asserting importance on issues
that may not be significantly covered by the media.
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
The data found showed that during the Semenyih election, the Malaysian online newspapers
and their readers were focusing on similar issues but were not giving the same amount of
significance to the issues. As such, the issue salience between the online newspapers and the
readers did not exactly match. Issues such as ‘Malay Islam’ and ‘Economy’ were not significantly
covered by the newspaper but were extensively discussed by the commenters. This indicates
that the commenters were not directly influenced by the news they have read. This brings into
question the roles of news organizations that are often acknowledged as social institutions ‘that
produce and communicate statements about reality on a regular basis’ (Ekström, 2002, p. 274).
As agenda setters, news media provides the public with the information that helps the public
understand the opinion climate around them (Hoffman, 2012).
Interestingly, the commenters in this study indicated that their opinions on issues are not
entirely determined by the news they consumed. The dynamic of the comments section itself
could be the main contributor to this. In the comment sections, the commenters as well as the
silent readers are exposed to opinions and expressions that are shared by others. Similar to the
concept of the ‘marketplace of ideas’, these commenters are not just informed and influenced by
the news they read but also by the discourses put forth by other commenters. As a result, one
news piece could trigger discussions about many different related and even unrelated issues. This
could lead to two propositions. Firstly, since the issues highlighted by the other commenters can
influence the newsreaders, the role of the news media may become less of agenda setters but
more of ‘discourse centers’ that capture the liberal conception of media as ‘marketplace of ideas’.
Secondly, although this may appear to undermine and compromise the role of news media as
agenda setters, it leads to the increasing importance of the comments sections as areas where
public opinions are formed and can be observed.
When the significance of the ‘other’ commenters are stipulated, the ideas of opinion
leaders, third-person effects and even the spiral of silence become relevant frameworks that
can delineate how media influence has become less directly causal but much more mediated by
others’ opinions. In the user comments sections, both the authoritative journalistic outlets and
the opinions of ‘ordinary people’ appear on the same page. If a news article on a certain issue is
followed by contradicting user comments, it would not only affect the newsreaders but also the
public opinion climate. Therefore, while the news media is still an important source of news and
distributors of agendas, it’s role as a powerful agenda setters may be in question. The ways in
which the news commenters are able to relate issues to other problems, agreeing and disagreeing
with one another or even proposing a different and unrelated ideas altogether suggest that while
the news media may not be directly setting the public agendas, they are significant discourse
centers where issues are discussed and contemplated upon before they are accepted as a salient
agenda. This means that while the agenda setting function of news media is still relevant, this
relationship has evolved into a more dynamic interaction between the news, the readers and the
commenters. Hence, to remain as an important source of news and agendas, news media must
be able to strategically manage and negate its role as agenda setters and discourse centers.
On the other hand, this change in the agenda setting dynamic of online news has allowed for
the capturing of broad public opinions and sentiments. The numbers of comments supporting
or opposing certain issues are indicators of the public’s attitudes and trends (albeit bias to the
demographics of the news readers). Moreover, Facebook now has the functions that allow
the users to express emotions and sentiments supporting or objecting to the news article or
user comment. The number of likes or dislikes a comment receives might strengthen readers’
perceptions on the popularity and importance of certain issues. While there is the threat of
how populist and radical views will drown democratic opinions, optimists such as Soffer (2017)
argued that the larger the number of comments, the higher is the ability of public discourse in
balancing out bias and populist views.
In a nutshell, the discourses that occur in the Facebook comment sections of online
newspapers are measures of public opinion. The discussions and sentiments shared are more
than just public expressions. Rather, as indicated by this study, comments shared by others can
disrupt the agenda setting function of newspapers by influencing the readers with alternative
views and ideas. Thus, to remain relevant, news media must now understand and accept that
news commenters are more than just readers. They are also opinion leaders that mediate the
transfer of issues. At the same time, academic studies must acknowledge the dynamics of online
opinions especially in regards to how they form and ultimately affect public sentiments.
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Journal of Communication, 64(6), 1111-1138. doi: 10.1111/jcom.12123
Human Communication
A Conceptual Paper on the Rhetorical Analysis of Tun Mahathir’s

Speeches
Authors:
Shahrill Ramli, Abdul Muati Ahmad and Hamisah Hasan
Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi, Universiti Putra Malaysia
shahrillramli@yahoo.com
Abstract
This conceptual paper attempts to address Tun Mahathir’s Malay dilemma speeches from the perspective of rhetorical
analysis. Unlike other rhetorical studies on Tun Mahathir which mainly dwelled on his 23 years of reign as the time
frames, this research significantly attempts to fathom his rhetorical strategies. As speech is a persuasive medium that
verbalizes one’s thoughts, it would be interesting to unearth how he implemented his rhetorical strategies within this
period as Tun Mahathir successfully led the then-opposition coalition to an unexpected victory of the 2018 general
election.
Keywords: rhetoric; Mahathir; speech; Neo-Aristotelian
INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT
As of 2018, Tun Dr. Mahathir is the world’s oldest Prime Minister (Stubbings, 2018) when
he was reappointed as the prime minister of Malaysia for the second time after abdicating the
premiership in 2003. The David versus Goliath victory of the then-opposition coalition Pakatan
Harapan (PH) led by Tun Mahathir (Abdullah, 2019) against the reigning political coalition,
Barisan Nasional (BN) was historical as for the first time since Malaysia’s independence in 1957,
the government was to be headed by the opposition political coalition. Prior to the 2018 general
election, Tun Dr. Mahathir established a new political party called Parti Pribumi Bersatu
Malaysia (PPBM) in 2016 with the hope that it would able to replace the legendary United
Malays National Organization (UMNO) in championing the rights of the Malays and their
issues (Jan, 2018). Although his political course deviated from being a staunch UMNO member
to the leader of a then-opposition coalition PH, Tun Dr. Mahathir’s instrumental views on the
Malays remained consistent (Hutchinson, 2018; Musa, 1999; Suryadinata, 1985) throughout his
life. Ironically, Mahathir’s popularity with the Malays waned at the edge of the first premiership
in 2003 (Khattab, 2015; Shukry, 2013) although many scholarly writings hailed him as an ‘ultra-
Malay’ throughout the 23 years of his premiership (Ahmad, 2010; Mauzy and Milne, 1983). He
was considered as “un-Malay” (Buang, 2017; Aun, 2000) and a misfit (Khalid, 2007) unworthy
to be taken seriously by the conservative Malay Muslim voters. This was also worsened by Tun
Dr. Mahathir’s constant critiques towards his successors’ leaderships (Ufen, 2009).
Nevertheless, the 15 years of Tun Dr. Mahathir’s political hiatus is a curious period as it
started with him being an unpopular figure among the Malays but at the edge of the political
hiatus in 2018, his collaboration in PH managed to swing more than 10% of the Malay support
for BN from the previous election (Abdullah, 2019) and that marked as the never-seen-before
avalanche of ‘Malay Tsunami’ votes (Rahman, 2018; Nadzri, 2018). Mahathir first coined the
terminology “The Malay dilemma” in his infamous 1978 book when he addressed the socio-
cultural and economic characteristics of the Malays which are holding back them from enjoying
the prosperity of the nation (Pakri, 2004). He continued to talk about that and its relation with
the Malays survival even during his political hiatus where he did not hold any significant post
in the government and despite the undulating support from the Malays. It was validated in a
content analysis research conducted by Mazli who examined Tun Mahathir Mohamad’s views
on the Malays during his post-retirement period from 2003 until 2012 (Mazli, 2014). Hence,
it is evident that Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad’s interest in regard of the Malay issues remained
unscathed even during his political hiatus. However, how did Tun Dr. Mahathir manage to
persuade the Malays throughout the 15 years of political hiatus despite initially experiencing
the setback support from them at the beginning of his political hiatus? How did he manage to
persuade the Malays by the end of his political hiatus in 2018?
Rhetoric studies comprises of persuasive techniques used by public orators such as

politicians to get engaged with their audiences. With speech as a medium needed to coax the
minds of the audience (Gadalla, 2011), politicians incorporate rhetoric in speeches for greater
impact towards their respective audiences. Tun Dr. Mahathir has delivered thousands of
speeches throughout his life (Wain, 2009) and thus used rhetoric in the speeches. As a renowned
public orator, scholars are intrigued by Tun Dr. Mahathir’s forceful and didactic style of speech
(Funston, 1998) and therefore there are many researches with various methodologies that were
conducted to analyse his speeches such as critical discourse analysis (Shukry, 2013; David and
Dumanig, 2011; Haque and Khan, 2004; Ghazali, 2004), critical metaphor analysis (Imani and
Habil, 2014), content analysis (Mazli, 2014) and Perelman’s theory of argumentation (Basri,
1996). As the first rhetorical criticism methodology, Neo-Aristotelian remains as a strong tool
of analysis to study speeches as it allows critics to assess speaker’s persuasion devices and serves
as the foundation to the other newer contemporary rhetorical criticism methods (Foss, 2019).
Nevertheless, it is found that Neo-Aristotelian approach of rhetorical criticism is underexplored
as methodology to analyse Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad’s speeches and no research has adopted
this methodology to analyse speeches delivered during his political hiatus from 2003 until 2018.
In this vein, it is clear that this scarcity prompts a rhetorical criticism to be conducted to analyse
Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad’s speeches that were delivered during the 15 years of his political
hiatus.
Findings in literature suggest that there are four outstanding local-based Neo-Aristotelian
rhetorical criticism studies (Shah et al., 2014; Khor, 2012; Ahmad, 2010; Ahmad, 2007) on
speeches catered towards Malaysian audiences. Shah et al. focused on elocutio when metaphors
used by Aminuddin Baki in his Torch Movement Speech 2 were examined whereas Khor used
only two canons of rhetoric namely inventio and dispositio in the research as the artifacts were
written speeches delivered by non-native English speakers and therefore, canons of style and
delivery were omitted from analysis. The application these two canons of rhetoric could also be
seen in 2011 as Ahmad analysed 26 speeches of Malaysian first Prime Minister Tunku Abdul
Rahman. However in the doctoral thesis on Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad’s 21 UMNO Speeches
from 1982-2003 that he conducted in 2007, Ahmad applied inventio, dispositio and elocutio
to support the analysis on the connection between Tun Dr. Mahathir’s logical proofs to his
thoughts. It is found that all four studies did not apply the whole five canons of rhetoric. In this
vein, the scope of this research also will not implement all the five canons of rhetoric for the aims
are to see the applications of Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad’s evidence and reasoning, rhetorical
structures and rhetorical techniques in his speeches. Therefore, this research will only focus to
the Aristotelian inventio, dispositiom, and elocutio. The justifications for such selection are due
to canon of memory as somewhat less important in today’s world since it is common for public
orators to rely on flashcards, notes, and teleprompters while delivering speeches (Reynolds,
1968). On the other hand, canon of delivery is relatively new in terms of being the focus of
rhetorical researches in comparison to the other three canons. Due to various interpretations
of how canon of delivery should be used for analysis, researcher has opted to exclude it in this
research.
The timeline frame of this research is from 2003 to 2018 which is the 15 years of Tun Dr.
Mahathir’s political hiatus although by 2016, Tun Dr. Mahathir has already established the new
political party called Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (BERSATU). The term political hiatus for
this research is defined as the interval transition between Tun Dr. Mahathir’s first premiership
in 2003 into the second premiership in 2018. There will be sixteen speeches, known as the
artefacts to be selected from each year during the political hiatus.
THE RHETORICAL CLASSICAL THEORY
What is rhetoric? According to Aristotle, rhetoric is a faculty of discovering means of

persuasion (McCroskey, 2015) while contemporary scholars such as Herrick defined it as
deliberation in submissive choice-making by audience without external force (Herrick, 1992)
and Foss viewed it as the action humans perform when they use symbols for the purpose of
communication with one another (Foss, 2019). In short, rhetoric is used by the speaker to
change his audiences’ minds into his own directions. The Rhetorical Classical Theory comprises
of the Five Canons of Rhetoric. It was inspired by the three rhetorical devices coined by Aristotle
namely the ethos which are the characteristics of the speaker, pathos the emotional appeals
and logos which are the rational appeals. The Roman scholars Cicero and Quintillianus then
perfected the theory by assembling five tenets a speaker should adhere in order to maximize the
persuasiveness of his speech. The five tenets are inventio (canon of invention), dispositio (canon
of organization), elocutio (canon of style), memoria (canon of memory) and pronuntiatio (canon
of delivery). It was until 1925 that this theory was revived by Wilchelns under the name Neo-
Aristotelian as the first formal rhetorical criticism (Foss, 2019).
Inventio : The Initiation of Ideas
Inventio is the first canon in Rhetorical Classical Theory and the most important as it is the
initial phase where the speaker is to elicit and gather ideas to form as contents of the speech.
It involves strategic planning based on the two types of proofs that are inartistic and artistic.
Inartistic proofs are those that speakers use from other sources but do not create whereas
artistic proofs comprise ethos, pathos, and logos which speakers formulate in order to enhance
the persuasiveness of their speeches. Ethos is the characteristics of the speaker. It encompasses
elements such as trustworthiness, moral values or virtues exhibited by the speaker which will
act as a magnet to maximize the persuasive effects upon the targeted audience. Scholars differ
in terms of categorization of ethos. McCroskey in his book An Introduction to Rhetorical
Communication has divided it into three types which are initial ethos, derived ethos and terminal
ethos (McCroskey, 2015) whereas Amossy was of opinion that ethos is to be distinguished into
two types which are preliminary ethos and discourse ethos (Amossy, 2000 cited in Mshvenieradze,
2013). Pathos is the emotional appeals that are used by speaker to stir the audience’s emotions.
And according to Demirdöğen , pathos is essential as psychological anchor to exude the right
mood to the audiences (Demirdöğen, 2010). Nonetheless, there are scholars who perceived it
as the least appealing rhetorical device. Waddell disagreed with the notion as pathos influences
the persuasiveness effect of an enthymeme (Waddell, 1990). Finally, logos which is the rational
appeal comprises of evidence and reasoning. McCroskey found it as the most sophisticated
rhetorical devices among the three as it is deeply connected to psychology and argumentation
(McCroskey, 2015).
Evidence and Reasoning under Logos
According to McBurney, inventio is the phase where speaker is to build his argumentation
and reasoning prior to be used in the speech (McBurney, 1936) while Scott stated that logos is
the integral part in building rhetorical research as epistemic due to the logical argumentation
(Scott, 1967). From both views, it is apparent that logos are rational appeals where speaker
is able to use rationalized arguments to persuade his audiences. Moreover, it is also deeply
connected to the speaker’s thought as logos that are used in speeches reflect the cognitive of the
speaker. This is supported by Gottweis in Handbook of Public Policy Analysis: Theory, Politics,
and Methods where logos is the integral part of rhetoric as both of the deduction and induction
reasoning are utilized as medium to persuade the audiences (Gottweis, 2006). This notion was
also agreed by Richard Whately who believed that rhetoric is an offshoot of logic and suggested
that enthymeme is a form of reasoning (McCroskey, 2015). In this vein, it is clear that logos are
the bridges between rhetoric and logic as reasoning is used to make arguments valid. There are
two types of reasoning namely inductive and deductive (Letteri, 2002). Inductive reasoning
means that a general conclusion is derived from a few specific statements whereas deductive
reasoning involves making specified conclusion based on generalized statements usually known
as premises. There are four types of inductive reasoning which are the reasoning by example,
reasoning by analogy, causal reasoning and sign reasoning whereas there are two types of
deductive reasoning which are syllogism and enthymeme. Hitchcock found that audiences are
more receptive when speaker applies deductive reasoning in the speech (Hitchcock, 1987) and
this notion is agreed by Conley as it is found that deductive is more persuasive in comparison
to inductive reasoning (Conley, 1984). Burnyeat also echoed this when he stated that Aristotle
hailed enthymeme as the most effective modes of persuasion (Burnyeat, 1996). Why enthymeme
which is a form of deductive reasoning is more persuasive than others? Although the premises
in an enthymeme may sound illogical, they are much simpler to be digested by the public. And
to quote McCroskey’s statement, “rhetorical communication is neither logical nor illogical” for
it is psychological (McCroskey, 2015).
Dispositio : The Arrangement of Ideas
Dispositio is the second canon of Classical Rhetorical Theory. It is the phase where speaker
organizes or arrange the contents his speeches in the strategic coordination in order to ensure
that the speech would be able to persuade the targeted audiences. Classical and contemporary
rhetoricians differ in opinions about the functions of dispositio. Cicero and Quintillianus believed
that it is the phase where a speaker is to place the structure of his speech whereas Whately in his
book Elements of Rhetoric disagreed as for him, dispositio is beyond structural process for it is a
“planned adaptation” of the whole oratory discourse. From this view, we can say that Whately
viewed dispositio as the phase where speaker is to merge with the audiences through strategic
placing of the speech contents as opposed to just being technical process about structuring the
speech. Apart from that, Cicero and Quintillianus believed that inventio and dispositio are two
unrelated, distinctive parts. Nevertheless, McCroskey and Knapp disagreed as they believed
that both tenets of The Classical Rhetorical Theory must act side-by-side like an inseparable
‘siamese twin’ to ensure the effectiveness of a speech (Knapp and McCroskey, 1966).
The Rhetorical Structures
There are many types of speech arrangement patterns or rhetorical structures proposed
by scholars. Scholars of the olden days believed there are five divisions of speech arrangement
namely exordium or the introduction, narratio or statement of the issue, partitio or division of
issues into its constituent parts, confirmatio which is the main part of the speech and peroratio
which is the conclusion (Iqbal, 2013). On the other hands, the one of the most popular speech
patterns or dispositio suggested by the contemporary rhetorical scholar is the Monroe’s
Motivated Sequence developed by Alan Monroe in 1930s (Ojebuyi and Ojebode, 2012; Micciche
et al., 2000; Shelton et al., 1999) and still widely used till these days. It comprises of five steps
that is deemed effective for a speaker to introduce new policy or ideas. Other than that, other
variations of speech dispositio include chronological order, spatial, causal, topical (McCroskey,
2001), ascending or descending order (Amit, 2003), problem-solution, withheld-proposal
sequence, open-proposal sequence, reflective and elimination (Letteri, 2002).
Elocutio : Style of the Ideas
Elocutio is the third canon in the Classical Rhetorical Theory and it deals with how the
contents of the speech are expressed. Quintilianus regarded elocutio as the most difficult stage
as it involves ability to use language to sustain audience’s attention to the speeches (Kirchner,
2007) and proposed three levels of style namely the low/plain style which is used to instruct,
the middle/forcible style that is used to move and the high/florid style which is used to charm
the audiences. On the other hand, it is also found that there are four main characteristics a
speaker should emphasize in order to produce speech with good style. Comparatively, both
McCroskey’s four characteristics of good style and the four virtues proposed by Aristotle’s pupil
named Theophrastus of Eresus (Kirchner, 2007) have similar functions. The comparison is as
per table below:-
McCroskey’s Four Theophrastus of Eresus’s Usage

Characteristics of Good Four Virtues of Diction
Style
Accuracy Correctness of Language Speaker must accurately express
ideas with common usage that
echoes with the habitual attitude of
the audience
Propriety Appropriateness Speaker must use suitable level of
language to get connected with the
audience
Economy Clarity Brief message with clear definitions
are more effective than wordier
version of the same message
Vivacity Ornament The usage of ‘aesthetically-tailored”

words to psychologically impress
the audience. Divided into figure of
speech and figure of thoughts. Also
sometimes known as rhetorical
technique (Ahmad, 2018).
Cook’s Nine Rhetorical Techniques
There are two types of elements that can be used by a speaker to ‘stylize’ the contents of
the speech in order to maximize persuasiveness effect upon the audience namely the figure of
speech and the figure of thoughts. Trope and schemes are two categories under figure of speech
and often simplified as rhetorical figures (Van Enschot et al., 2006) or rhetorical techniques.
In this vein, Cook in his book The Elements of Speechwriting and Public Speaking published
in 1989 has enlisted nine rhetorical techniques that can be used by speaker as style to attract
the audience such as alliteration, tricolon, ellipsis, asyndeton, anaphora, balance, rhetorical
question, hyperbole and repetition (Cook, 1989). The functions of the nine rhetorical techniques
are as per in the table below:-
Alliteration words begin with the same consonant sound

Tricolon three parallel words, phrases, or clauses
Ellipsis omission of words without changing the meaning.
Asyndeton conjunctions elimination with grammatical accuracy.
Anaphora repetition of the same beginning of a sentence
Balance segments equal in length, grammatical structure and meaning.
Rhetorical Question question asked without expecting an answer (punchline)
Hyperbole Exaggeration of statement
Repetition Repetition of same words or clause
Memoria : Canon of Memory
Memoria is the canon that specializes in analysing the ability of speaker’s access to the
contents of speeches via memorizing and recalling facts of the speech aptly (Leach, 2000).
Nevertheless, memoria receives least attention among the all five Canons of Rhetoric from
modern scholars. According to Schloemann, device such as teleprompter is created to assist
humans in “memorizing” their public speaking text in today’s modern world in the sense as
to create illusion to the public that the speaker is addressing directly towards them without
breaking any eye contact or seemingly reading a manuscript (Schloemann, 2002). Despite that,
Amaireh suggested that a speaker should take note prior to delivery in order to sustain the
memorability of the speech (Amaireh, 2013).
Pronuntiatio : Canon of Delivery
Pronuntiatio is the last canon of rhetoric. According to Leach, it is usually associated with
oral discourses (Leach, 2000) while Buchanan added that vocal elements emphasized in this
canon of delivery are pronunciation, accentuation, emphasis, pauses, vocal tone and key,
and management of the voice (Buchanan, 2005). Comparatively to the first three important
canons of rhetoric namely inventio, dispositio and elocutio, researches on canon of delivery is
relatively new. Moreover, Nadeau stated that Aristotle did not explicitly stated pronuntiatio as
a constituent of rhetoric (Nadeau, 1964) but on the contrary, the Roman scholars Cicero and
Quintilianus who were responsible in perfecting The Classical Rhetorical Theory highlighted
that pronuntiatio could evoke emotional persuasion effects if the speaker knows how to integrate
it with the three rhetorical devices (Porter, 2009).
STUDIES USING NEO-ARISTOTELIAN RHETORICAL CRITICISM
There are a few researches conducted by scholars using the Neo-Aristotelian rhetorical
criticism approach. An analysis entitled The Rhetoric of Spiro T. Agnew: A Neo-Aristotelian
Analysis of Agnew’s Views Concerning the Media was conducted in 1990 on the 39th Vice
President of the United States, Spiro Agnew’s two speeches that were delivered to attack television
network’s erroneous reporting and the power monopoly by certain few media companies. The
analysis revealed that although Agnew’s delivery of the speeches was mundane, his reliance on
rhetorical figures and logos proved that speeches can be effective if all the five canons of rhetoric
are implemented aptly (Voorhees, 1991). Although the author did make an excellent thorough
rhetorical analysis on Agnew, it is found that canon of memory was not included as the Neo-
Aristotelian tool of analysis without any justification in the thesis. The decision to implement
the canons of rhetoric is the author’s prerogative but it should be accompanied with explicit
reason for doing such. In A Neo-Aristotelian Criticism of Barack Obama’s Rhetoric in The State
of the Union Addresses of 2010-2014, the authors attempted to uncover Barack Obama’s artistic
and inartistic proofs from the speeches (Saenla and Rojjanaprapayon, 2015). Therefore, inventio
was supposed to be the focus of the research. Nevertheless, the authors extensively supplied
readers with analysis from the perspective of dispositio and elocutio. Although the authors did
answer the objective of the research but the presence of serendipity data is too overwhelming
and it derails the focal direction of the research. Another example of serendipity data in Neo-
Aristelian rhetorical criticism is from the research conducted by Giles who assessed Tunisian
President Marzouki’s speech in which he attempted to reinvent himself with a new persona
through a carefully-tailored speech delivery (Giles, 2014) In the research, Giles revealed another
rhetorical device that rarely analysed called kairos which means right timing. Serendipity data
is double-edge information because although at times serendipity data could be a deviation
of focus for a research, it could also be a contribution to the body of knowledge. Apart from
that, Roberson implemented the classical criticism in acquainting women’s liberation rhetoric
to LGBT identities in terms of challenging status quo (Roberson, 2007). Despite the thorough
analysis conducted, the author supported his criticisms by relating to his own life experience.
Hence, it shows that the author fails to bracket himself from bias.
Methodologies Used to Analyze Tun Dr. Mahathir’s Speeches
As a renowned orator, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad’s speeches are attractive to the scholars.
There are many studies conducted with different methodologies to analyse his speeches. For
example, Imani and Habil used Charteris-Black’s critical metaphor analysis and found that
Tun Dr. Mahathir has often implement health metaphors in his business speeches (Imani and
Habil, 2014) whereas Basri attempted to incorporate Perelman’s theory of argumentation as
tool of analysis on Tun Dr. Mahathir’s Oxford speech against the western patronizing attitudes
towards developing countries (Basri, 1996). On one hand, it is also found that many scholars
were inclined to implement critical discourse analysis to study Tun Dr. Mahathir’s speeches.
Shukry examined Tun Dr. Mahathir’s discursive strategies employed in “war on terror”
speeches in retaliation against sentiments initiated by President Bush (Shukry, 2013) while
Haque and Khan fathomed how Tun Dr. Mahathir integrated Muslim identity in his speeches
in response towards Occidentalism (Haque and Khan, 2004). David and Dumanig also used
critical discourse analysis when they studied Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad’s speeches catered
to address national unity (David and Dumanig, 2011). On the other hand, scholars also were
keen to analyse Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad’s speeches from rhetorical perspectives. By using
critical discourse analysis, Ghazali studied the languages used by Mahathir to address social
issues (Ghazali, 2004) while Alkhirbash et al. identified the rhetorical devices used to enhance
Mahathir’s persuasive discourses (Alkhirbash et al., 2014).
Neo-Aristotelian Criticism Based on Malaysian Artifacts
However, it is found that there are not many researches adopting the classical Neo-
Aristotelian approach to analyse Tun Dr. Mahathir’s speeches. Nonetheless, there are a few that
are relevant to this study. For example, Ahmad used Neo-Aristotelian approach to decipher Tun
Dr. Mahathir’s rational appeals or logos in the annual UMNO speeches delivered throughout his
23 years of premiership (Ahmad, 2005). In order to support the analysis, Ahmad also fathomed
Tun Dr. Mahathir’s rhetorical structures and techniques that played eminent parts as persuasive
devices in engaging with the public. Khor studied speeches delivered by Malaysian financial
institution CEOs by using modified version of Neo-Aristotelian approach where only two
canons of rhetoric namely inventio and dispositio were used as tools of analysis (Khor, 2012).
Both Ahmad and Khor did not implement all the five canons of rhetoric in Neo-Aristotelian
approach of their researches.
SUMMARY
In a nutshell, this conceptual paper proposes a rhetorical analysis of Tun Dr. Mahathir’s
speeches by considering rhetorical criticism of the classic Neo-Aristotelian. By using the three
tenets of Classical Rhetorical Theory or The Five Canons of Rhetoric, this paper proposes
to analyse Tun Dr. Mahathir’s application of evidence and reasoning in his Malay dilemmas
speeches based on Aristotelian inventio (invention of ideas in the speeches), the rhetorical
structures in his Malay dilemmas speeches based on Aristotelian dispositio (organization or
arrangement of speech contents) and the rhetorical techniques in his Malay dilemmas speeches
based on Aristotelian elocutio (the style of speech). As previous rhetorical studies on Tun Dr.
Mahathir’s speeches predominantly focused on the era of his 23 years of premiership, this
research is significant for it attempts to unearth the world’s oldest prime minister’s rhetorical
strategies in the speeches he delivered throughout the period when his popularity with his own
people that he cared so much grew waned. True to Winston Churchill’s famous line in the 1940
“Finest Hour” speech, it was the “darkest hours” of his political prowess.
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PACA A Journal of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association

Human Comm Vo. 2 Issue 2

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HUMAN

PACA A Journal of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association

Human Communication is a publication of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association

Manuscripts should be e-mailed to the editor at (paca@upm.edu.my). The submitted manuscripts

Instructions for Authors

Pacific and Asian Communication Association

3rd Vice President 4th Vice President

Advisors Secretary General

Regional Vice President Regional Vice President

Rita Mei-Ching Helena Pan

Nittaya Campbell Che Su Mustaffa

Carmencita P.Del Villar

Editor of Editorial Assistant

Muhammad Khairuddin Yusof Carmencinta P. Del Villar

Editorial Review Board Member Editorial Review Board Member

Michael J. Beatty Abdul Mua’ti @ Zamri Ahmad

Deborah Borsioff Jerry L. Ellen

James W, Chesebro Theodore A.Avtgis

Michael J. Beatty Melissa Beall

Deborah Borsioff James W, Chesebro

Editorial Review Board Member Editorial Review Board Member

Leeva Chung Takehide Kawashima

Ann Bainbridge Frymier Carolyn J. King

Carmencita P. Del Villar

Hafizan Mohamed, Syed Arabi Idid , Kamaruzzaman Manan

Shahrill Ramli, Abdul Muati Ahmad, Hamisah Hasan

Link Between Young Filipinos’

Keywords: Compliance-gaining strategies, Power-distance, cultural orientation, Filipino compliance typology

Introduction and Rationale

In human relationships, power is apparent in a variety of ways. Communication experts have

Marwell & Schmitt developed 16 compliance-gaining strategies which were believed to

1. Promise where the target complies if there is a reward waiting

These 16 strategies were further classified into 5 clusters:

Schenck-Hamlin, et al developed what they called a ‘model of properties’ of compli-

1. Strategies based on sanctions

3. Strategies based on explanation

4. Strategy based on circumvention

It should be noted that the compliance-gaining-strategies mentioned above were developed

The Del Villar Compliance-gaining strategies are:

To determine if the Del Villar typology of compliance-gaining strategies were similar

A. Aristotle’s Modes of Persuasion

Four strategies fall under the Logos or reasoning:

Six strategies fall under the Pathos or emotion:

B. Marwell & Schmitt’s Dimensions of compliance-gaining behavior

Del Villar’s Typology Marwell & Schmitt’s Dimensions

4. Credibility  Liking when the actor is friendly and helpful thus

5. Rules, Responsibility, Obligation  Moral appeal suggests morality to get compliance

9. Intimidation, Discipline,  Threat where an ultimatum is issued to achieve

10. Compassion  Altruism asks for compliance due to the actor’s

Table 2: Comparison between Del Villar and Schenck-Hamlin et al’s typologies

Del Villar’s Typology Schenk-Hamlin, et al’s Typology

The following specific questions are addressed:

Power-distance as a Cultural Orientation of Filipinos

Filipino Typology of Compliance-gaining strategies (Del Villar, 2012.a)

Del Villar’s 2012 study developed a typology of Compliance-gaining strategies based on

Strategy 1: Reason & Substance

Factor 5: Rules, Responsibility, & Obligation

Factor 7: Gifts, Compliment, & Incentive

Factor 9: Intimidation, Discipline, and Punishment

Factor 10: Compassion

Factor 11: Family & Loyalty

Factor 13: Power-based Strategy

Factor 14: Interest & Quality

The five most preferred Compliance-gaining strategies of young Filipinos