NET/SET (JRF & LS) eae Research Fellowship & Lectureship LIFE SCIENCES Ashish Nagesh Prashant Kumar Quisher J. Hossain e K. PATEL ‘ Dr. REE t0t one ee veer sai 3xarihant ARIHANT PUBLICATIONS (INDIA) LIMITED| >< arihant ARIHANT PUBLICATIONS (INDIA) LIMITED All Rights Reserved of © PUBLISHER 7 ne 'No part ofthis publication may be re-produced, stored in a retrieval system or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, web or otherwise without the written permission of the publisher. Arihant has obtained all the information. inthis book from the sources believed to be reliable and true, However, Avant or its editors ‘of authors or illustrators dont take any responsibilty for the absolute accuracy of any information published and the damage or loss suffered thereupon. All disputes subject to Meerut (UP) jurisdiction only 45 ADMINISTRATIVE & PRODUCTION OFFICES Regd. Office “Ramchhaya' 4577/15, Agarwal Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-1 10002 Tele: 011- 47630600, 43518550; Fax:O11- 23280316 Head Office Kalin, T? Nagar, Meerut (UP) - 250002 ‘Tel:0121-2401479, 2512970, 4004199; Fax:0121-2401648, AK SALES & SUPPORT OFFICES. M6 ISBN 978-93-12146-51-4 Mm PRICE 875.00 Published by ARIHANT PUBLICATIONS tina) LTD. For further information about the books published by Arihant,Jog on to ‘wnwwvarihaiitbooks.com or e-mail at infowarthantbooks.comDr. RAJESH K. PATEL conte Te ctcones Veer ‘Surat-395007, INDIA tee PREFACE NET (National Eligibility Test) determines eligibility for lectureship and for award of Junior Research Fellowship URF) for indian nationals in order to ensure minimum standards for the entrants in the teaching profession and research, The Council of Scientific and industrial Research (CSIR) conducts the UGC-CSIR NET for other Science subjects, namely, Life Sciences, Physical Sciences, Chemical Sciences, Mathematical Sciences and Earth Sciences jointly with the UGC. UGC-CSIR NET Tutor for Life Sciences has been designed to help the students get away with their intial qualms & hiccups about the UGC-CSIR NET. In the course of preparation of this book we have followed the pattem & syllabus ofthe examination forthe maximum benefit of ‘the aspirants, cficuty level of the questions fas also been kept in mind, Salient Features of the Book + Only book nthe matkat wich has complete &exhaustive theory exactly onthe UGC-CSIRNET pate dificuty level +> Forcomplete understaning all units have been divided int inva chapters with uficient suumber of Multiple Choice Questions + Alltypesofmutipe choice questions covered vi, single option correct, matching type statement based questions et. ‘+ Only book nthe market which has Previous Year! Solved Papers & Explanations toa the Sample {uesons provdedion SRR website, We are thankful to Arihant Publications (India) Limited for giving us this opportunity to make such a book which will help the students to get 100% success, We would like to thank Shahid Saifi (Project Coordinator) for giving us their full support during this project. Any suggestion for the enhancement of the quality of this book is most welcome. Ashish Nagesh Prashant Kumar Quaisher J. Hossain| 1. Basic Physical and Chemical Conceptsin Biology 1-68 Structure of Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Bonds » Composition, Structure and Functions of Biomolecules, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids and Vitamins « Biomolecular Weak Interactions (van der Waals; Flectrostatic force, Hydrogen Bonding, Hydrophobic Interaction, etc) Principles of Biophysical Chemistry (pH, Buffer, Reaction Kinetics, Thermodynamics, Colligative Properties. 2. Bioenergeticsand Catalysis 69-93 Bioenergetics, Glycolysis, Oxidative Phosphorylation, Coupled Reaction, Group Trarisfer, Biological Energy Transducer - Principles of Catalysis, Enzymes, Mechanism of Enzyme Catalysis, Isozymes, Enzyme Kinetics, Enzyme Regulation. 3. Organization and Metabolism of Biomolecules 94-134, Conformation of Proteins, Ramachandran Plot, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary Structure of proteins Conformation of Nucleic Acids (A, 8, DNA) Stability of Protein and Nucleic Acid + Metabolism of Biomolecules Carlsohydrates, Lipids, Aminto Acids, Nucleotides and Vitamins. (UNIT) 4, TheCell:Structureand Function 135-166 Membrane : Structure and Function, Structure of Model Membrane, Lipid Bilayet and Membrane Protein Diffusion, Osmosis, lon Channels, Active Transport, lon Pumps, Mechanism of Sorting and Regulation of Intracellular Transport, Electrical Propearties of Membranes « Structure and Function of Intracellular Organelles: Cell Wall, Nucleus, Mitochondria, Golgi Bodies, Lysosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Peroxisomes, Plastids, Chloroplast, Vacuoles, Cytoskeleton and its Role in Motility. 5, StructureofChromosomeandCellCycle 167-192 ganization of Gene and Chromosome: ttre of Chroma and Chromosomes nique and Repetitive DNA, Heterochromatin vs Euchromatin, Opefon Concept, Interrupted Genes, Gene families, ‘Transposons « Cell Cycle and Cell Division: Mitosis, Meiosis, ‘in Cell Cycle and Control of Cell Cycle Microbial Physiology: Growth, Yield and Characteristic, Strategies of Cell Division, Stress | Response.7. 8 9. NIT ae fae ot K. PATE! De RATT eSSOr es opener oe erty South Voor Nargnag 590007, INDIA DNA Replication, Repair and Recombination 193-220 DNA Replication, Unit of Replication + Enzymes Involved « Replication Origin and Replication Fork + Fidelity of Replication « Extra chromosomal Replicon « DNA Damage, DNA Repair = Homologous and Site-Specific Recombination. RNA Synthesis and Processing 221-243 Transcription Factors and Machinery, Formation of initiation Complex, Transcription Activator and Repressor RNA Polymerase Capping, Elongation and Termination (RNA Processing RNA Esiting, Splicing and Polyadenylation) + RNA Transport. Protein Synthesis and Processing 244-262 Translation « Genetic code - Ribosome - Formation of initiation Complex «Initiation Factors and their Regulation « Elongation and Elongation Factors « Termination - Aminocylation of fRNA « RNA-identity = Aminoacyl tRNA Synthetase and Translational Proofreading + Translational Inhibitors : Antibiotics + Post-translational Modification of Proteins, Control of Gene Expression . is 263-284 Regulated Stages of Gené Expression Prokaryotie anid Eukaryotic Genes + Regulating the Expression of Gene + Regulation of Expression of Viral and Phage Genes + Role of Chromatin in Gene Expression Gene Silencing. (UNIT IV, 10. u. 12. Host Parasite Interactions 285-301 Recognition and Entry of Different Pathogens Like Bacteria, Viruses into Animal and Plant Host Cells + Alteration of Host Cell Behaviour by Pathogens « Virus Induced Cell Transformation « Pathogen Induced Diseases in Animals and Plants, Cell Signaling and Cellular Communication 302-328 Hormones and their Receptors + Cell Surface Receptor, G-protein Coupled Receptors » Second Messengers « Signal Transduction Pathways + Regulation of Signaling Transduction » Bacterial and Plant ‘Two Component Systems + Bacterial Chemotaxis and Quorum Sensing - Cell Adhesion and Adhesion Molecules + Extracellular Matrix + Integrins « Principles of Cell Communication « Haematopoiesis and its Regulation + Gap Junctions « Neurotransmission and its Regulation. Cancer 329-344 Genetic Rearrangements in Progenitor Cells » Cancer Genes (Oncogenes) - Tumour Suppressor Genes + Apoptosis « Virus Induced Cancer « Cancer and the Cell Cycle « Therapeutic Interventions of Uncontrolled Cell Growth (Cancer Treatment).13, Immune System 345-376 Innate and Adaptive immenity « Primary and Secondary Immune defences + Antigens, Antigen Processing and Presentation » 8 and T-Cell Epitopes « Structure and Function of Antibody Molecules, Generation of Antibody Diversity « Monoclonal Antibodies and Antibody Engineering + Antigen- Antibody Interactions » MHC molecules « B and T-cell Receptors, Activation and Differentiation of B ‘and T-Cells « Humoral and Cell Mediated Immune Responses (Cellular Basis) « The Complement System + Toll-Like Receptors « Cell-Mediated Effector Functions « Inflammation Cytokines, Interferons. Hypersensitivity and Autoimmunity + Parasitic (malaria) and Viral (HIV) infections « Vaccines Immunodeficiencies. 14, Conceptsand Early Developmentin Plants and Animals 377-421 Basic Concept of Development Potency, Commitment, Specification, Induction and Competence, Determination and Differentiation, Morphogenetic Gradients; Cel Fate and Cell Lineages, Stem Cells, Genomic Equivalence and the Cytoplasmic Determinants, Imprinting; Mutants and Transgenics in | Analysis of Development + Gametogenesis, Fertilization and Early Development : Production of Gametes in Animals, Production of Gametes in Plants, Cell Surface Molecules in Sperm Egg Recognition in Animals; Double Fertilization in Plants; Zygote Formation or Morphogenetic Fields Gastrulation and Formation of Germ Layers in Animals; Embryogehesis and Establishment of Symmetry in Plants; Seed Formation and Germination, (UNIT VI) 15, Morphogenesisand Organogenesisin Plantsand Animals 422-463 Morphogenesis and Organogenesis in Animals Cell Aggregation and Differentiation in Dictyostelium; ‘Axes and Pattern Formation in Drosophila, Amphibia and Chick; Organogenesis, Vulva Formation in. Caenorhabditis elegans; Eye Lens Induction, Limb Development and Regeneration in Vertebrates; Differentiation of Neurons, Post Embryonic Development-Larval Formation, Metamorphosis; Environmental Regulation of Normal Development; Sex-Determination + Morphogenesis and Organogenesis in Plants : Organization of Shoot and Root Apical + Meristem; Shoot and Root Development Leaf Development and Phyllotaxy; Transition to Flowering, Floral Meristems and Floral Development in Arabidopsis and Antirrhinum + E, Programmed Cell Death, Ageing and Senescence. 16. Physiological Metabolismin Plants 464-516 Photosynthesis: Light Harvesting Complexes, Mechanisms of Electron Transport: Photoprotective Mechanisms; CO, Fixation, C, C, and CAM Pathways « Respiration and Photorespiration: Glycolysis:A ‘Cytosolic Process, Citric Acid Cycle; Plant Mitochondrial Electron Transport, ATP Synthesis, Alternate ‘Oxidase; Photorespiratory Pathway + Nitrogen Metabolism: Nitrate and Ammonium Assimilation; Amino Acid Biosynthesis. 17. Growth Hormone and Photobiology 517-557 Plant Hormones Biosynthesis, Storage, Breakdown and Transport, Physiological Effects and Mechanisms of Action + Sensory Photobiology « Structure, Functions and Mechanisms of Action of Phytochromes » Cryptochromes and Phototropins « Stomatal Movement - Photoperiodism and Biological Clocks.UNIT VIII! 18. Solute Transport and Stress Physiology 558-586 Solute Transport and Photoassimilate Translocation: Uptake, Transport and Translocation of Water, lons, Solutes and Macromolecules (from Soil, through Cells, Across Membranes, through Xylem and Phloem) ‘Transpiration; Mechanisms of Loading and Unloading of Photoassimilates - Secondary Metabolites - Biosynthesis of ferpenes, Phenols and Nitrogenous Compounds and their Roles » Stress Physiology: Responses of Plants to Biotic (Pathogen and Insects) and Abiotic (Water, Temperature and Salt Stresses: Mechanisms of Resistance to Biotic Stress and Tolerance to Abiotic Stress. 19. Digestion and Respiratory System 587-609 Digestion « Absorption « Energy Balance + BMR - Transport of Gases « Exchange of Gases + Neural and Chemical Regulation of Respiration » Compatison of Respiration in Different Species. 20. Blood Vascular System 610-640 Blood Plasma + Blood Corpuscles + Haemoglobin « Haemostasis « Haemopoiesis « Blood Group system Myogenic Heart « Heart as a Pump « Comparative Anatomy of Heart Structure » Cardiac Cycle + Neural and Chemical Regulation of Heart Beat + ECG—Its Principle and significance + Blood Pressure. 21, Excretory Systemand Thermoregulation 641-666 Excretory System: Comparative Physiology of Excretion, Kidneys, Formation of Urine, Waste + Elimination, Micturition, Regulation of Acid-Base Balance « Thermoregulation: Comfort Zone, Body Temperature Regulation (Acclimatization) Thermoregulation in Humans. Stress and Adaptation. 22, Neuroendocrine System and Reproduction 667-715 Nervous system: Neurons, Central Nervous System, Brain, Spinal Cord, Peripheral Nervous System, ‘Autonomic system, Action Potential, Neural Control of Muscle Tone and Posture « Sense Organs: Vision, Hearing and Tactile Response « Endocrinology Mechanism of Hormone Action, Endocrine Glands, Reproduction Male and Female Reproductive System, Types of Birth control. 23. Mendelism and its Extensions 716-729 Mendelian Principles: Dominance, Segregation, Independent Assortment + Concept of Gene: Allele and ‘Multiple Alleles, Pseudoallele, Complementation Tests - Extensions of Mendelian Principles: Codominance, Incomplete Dominance, Gene Interactions, Plelotropy, Genomic Imprinting, Penetrance and Expressivty, Phenocopy, Linkage and Crossing over, Sex Linkage, Sex-Limited Inheritance, Sex Influenced.24, Gene Mapping, Extrachromosomal inheritance and Microbial Genetics 730-746 Gene Mapping Methods: Linkage Maps Using Crossing Over Tetrad Analysis, Mapping with Molecular : ‘Markers, Mapping by Using Somatic Cell Hybrids « Extrachromosomal Inheritance: Inheritance of Mitochondrial and Chloroplast Genes, Maternal Inheritance + Microbial Genetics: Transformation, Transduction, Conjugation, Sex-duction. 25, Human and Quantitative Genetics 747-756 i Human Genetics: Pedigree Analysis, Lod Score for Linkage Testing, Karyotypes, Genetic Disorders Quantitative Genetles:Polygenic Inheritance, Heritability and its Measurements, QTL Mapping. 26. Genetic Variation 787-717 Mutation Causes of Mutant Types—Lethal, Conditional, Biochemical, Loss of Function, Gain of Function, Germinal Verses Somatic Mutants, Insertional Mutagenesis, Detection of Mutation - Structural and Numerical Alterations of Chromosomes: Deletion, Duplication, Inversion, Translocation, Ploidy and their GeneticImplications. » Recombination, UNIT Xi | 27. Classification of Livings 778-821 Principles and Methods of Taxonomy: Concepts of Species and Hierarchial Taxa, Biological | Nomenclature « Levels of Structural Organization: Unicellular, Colonial and Multicellular Forms; Levels of Organization of Tissues, Organs and Systems; Comparative Anatomy + Outline Classification of Plants and Animals. 28. Indian Sub-Continentandits Organisms 822-853 Natural History of indian Sub-continent: Major Habitat Types of the Sub-continent, Geographic Origins and Migrations of Species; Common indian Mammals and Birds; Seasonality and Phenology of the Sub- Continent + Organisms of Health and Agricultural Importance. “UNIT X 29, TheEnvironmentand Population 854-884 ‘The Environment: Physical and Biotic Environment; Biotic and Abiotic Interactions « Habitat and Niche: | Concept of Habitat and Niche; Niche Width and Overlap; Fundamental and Realized Niche; Resource | Partitioning; Character Displacement - Population Ecology: Characteristics ofa Population; Population Growth Curves; Population Regulation: Life History Strategies (rand k Selection}; Concept of Metapopulation - Demes and Dispersal, Interdemic Extinctions, Age Structured Populations. |30. Community Dynamics 885-899 Species Interactions: Types of Interactions, Interspecific Competition, Herbivory, Camnivory, Pollination, Symbiosis » Community Ecology: Nature of Communities; Cormmunity Structure and Attributes; Levels of Species Diversity and its Measurement; Edges and Ecotones - Ecological Succession: Types; ‘Mechanisms; Changes Involved in Succession; Concept of Climax. . Ecosystem Physiology 900-933 Ecosystem : Structure and Function, Food Chain, Ecological Pyramids, Food Web, Energy Flow and Mineral Cycling, Primary Production and Decomposition, Ecological Efficiency, Structure and Function of ‘Some Indian Ecosystems : Grassland Ecosystem, Aquatic Ecosystem, Biogeography : Major terrestrial Biomes, Aquatic Biomes, Theory of Island Biogeography, Blogeographical Zones of india. 32. Pollution and Biodiversity Conservation 934-961 ‘Applied Ecology: Environmental Pollution: Global Environmental Change; Biodiversty-Status, ‘Monitoring and Documentation; Major Drivers of Biodiversity Change; Biodiversity Management j ‘Approaches « Conservation Biology. UNIT XI 33, Origin of Lifeand Evolutionary Thoughts 962-974 / Emergence of Evolutionary Thoughts: Lamarck; Darwin-Concepts of Variation, Adaptation, Struggle, | Fitness and Natural Selection; Mendelism; Spontaneity of Mutations; the Evolutionary Synthesis» Origin | of Cells and Unicellular Evolution: Origin of Basic Biological Molecules; Abiotic Synthesis of Organic. Monomers and Polymers; Concept of Oparin and Haldane; Experiment of Miller (1953); the First Cell; | Evolution of Prokaryotes; Origin of Eukaryotic Cells; Evolution of Unicellular Eukaryotes; Anaerobic Metabolism, Photosynthesis and Aerobic Metabolism. 34, Evolution: Methods of Studying and Mechanisms 975-999 Palaeontology and Evolutionary History: The Evolutionary Time Scale; Eras, Periods and Epoch; Major Events in the Evolutionary Time Scale; Major Groups of Plants and Animals; Stages in Primate Evolution including Homo + Molecular Evolution: Concepts of Neutral Evolution, Molecular Divergence and ‘Molecular Clocks; Molecular Tools in Phylogeny, Classification and Identification; Protein and Nucleotide Sequence Analysis; Origin of New Genes and Proteins; Gene Duplication and Divergence - The Mechanisms: Population Genetics - Populations, Gene Pool and Gene Frequency; Hardy-Weinberg Law; Gene Frequency Change through Natural Selection, Migration and Random Genetic Drift; Adaptive Radiation and Modifications; Isolating Mechanisms; Speciation; Allopatric Speciation Sympatric; Speciation Convergent Evolution; Sexual Selection; Co-Evolution.| | | 35. Behaviourand Evolution 1000-1023 ‘Approaches and Methods in Study of Behaviour; Proximate and Ultimate Causation; Altruism and Evolution-Group Selection, Kin Selection and Reciprocal Altruism; Neural Basis of Learning, Memory, Cognition, Sleep and Arousal; Biological Clocks; Development of Behaviour; Social Communication; Social Dominance; Use of Space and Terrtorality; Mating Systems, Parental Investment and Reproductive Success; Parental Care; Aggressive Behaviour; Habitat Selection and Optimality in Foraging; Migration, Orientation and Navigation; Domestication and Behavioural Changes. UNIT Xi 36. Applied Biology 1024-1082 Microbial Fermentation and Production of Small and Macro Molecules + Application of Immunological Principles (Vaccines, Diagnostics). Tissue and Cell Culture Methods for Plants and Animals » Transgenic Animals and Plants, Molecular Approaches to Diagnosis and Strain Identification » Genomics and its ‘Application to Health and Agriculture, Including gene Therapy « Bioresources and Uses of Biodiversity + Breeding in plants and Animals, Including Marker-assisted Selection + Bioremediation and Phytoremediation. « Biosensors. UNIT Xiil 37. Molecular Biology and Recombinant DNA Methods 1083-1119 + Isolation and Purification of Nucleic Acid (RNA, DNA) * Analysis of RNA, DNA and Protiens, Gel Electrophoresis, Isoelectric Focusing. * Molecular Cloning * Preparing cDNA Libraries, Plasmid, Vectors Phagemids, Cosmid and YACS. + Expression of Recombinant Protiens Isolation of Specific Nucleic Acid Sequences, Detection of Post- translation Modification of Proteins, DNA Sequencing, Site-Directed in vitro Mutagenesis Gene Knock Out, Microarray * Isolation, Separation and Analysis of carbohydrates and lipids. 38. Histochemical andImmunotechniques 1120-1131 * Histochernical and Immunotechniges: Antibody Generation Immunoprecipitation, Detection of Molecules Using Flowcytometry, Western Blot, Immunofluorescence, ELISA and RIA Detection of Molecules in Living Cel, in situ Localization by Techniques such as FISH and GISH. 39. Biophysical Methods 1132-1144 * Analysis of Biomolecules Using UV/Visible, Spectroscopy Fluorescence, Citcular Dichroism, Spectoroscopy NMR Spectroscopy and ESR Spectroscopy, Structure Determination Using X-ray Diffraction and NMR; Analysis Using Light Scattering, Different Types of Mass Spectrometry and Surface Plasmon Resonance Methods. | | | | | | | | | |40, Statistical Methods 1145-1162 © Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersal; Probability Distributions (Binomial Poisson and Normal]; ‘Sampling Distribution; Difference between Parametric and Non-Parametric Statistics; Confidence Interval; Errors; Regression and Correlation Levels of Significance; ‘test Analysis of Variance; X? Test; Basic Introduction to Multivariate Statistics, 41. RadiolabellingTechniques 1163-1167 + Detection and Measurement of Radioisotopes, Incorporation of Radioisotopes in Biological Tissues and Celis 42. MicroscopicTechniques 1168-1181 « Light Microscopy, Resolving Powers; Aldehyde Fixation and Staining, Freeze-Etch and Freeze-Fracture Methods for EM, Image Processing Methods in Microscopy. 43. Electrophysiological Methods 1182-1190 * Single-Neuron Recording, Patch-Clamp Recording, ECG, Brain Activity Hecording, Lesion and Stimulation of Brain, Pharmacological Testing, PET, MRI, CAT. 44, Methodsin Field Biology 1191-1201 + Methods of Estimating Population Density of Animals and Plants, Ranging Patterns Sampling Methods in the Study of Behaviour Habitat Characterisation-Ground and Remote Sensing Methods. 45. Computational Methods 1202-1207 + Nucleic Acid and Protein Sequence Databases, Data Mining Methods for Sequence Analysis, Web- Based Tools for Sequence Searches, Motif Analysis and Presentation, » Sample Questions Provided on CSIRwebsite . 1208-1237 «Solved Paper 2011 (June) 1238-1266 + Solved Paper 2011 (December) 1267-1296 «= Solved Paper 2012 (June) 1297-1328 + Solved Paper 2012 (December) 1-18 + Solved Paper2013 (June) 1-16 + Solved Paper 2013 (December) 1-18 + SolvedPaper2014(June) 1-19 © Solved Paper2014 (December) 318 * Solved Paper 2015 (June) 19-34 * Solved Paper 2015 (December) 35-50 = Solved Paper 2016 (June) 1-13 » Solved Paper 2016 (December) 14-27 © Solved Paper 2017 (June) 28-42N E Tavis WHY, WHEN ‘The National Educational Testing Bureau of University Grants Commission (UGC) conducts ‘National Eligibility Test (NET) to determine eligibility for lecturership and for award of Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) for Indian nationals in order to ensure minimum standards for the entrants in the teaching profession and research. This test is conducted in Humanities, {including languages), Social Sciences, Forensic Science, Environmental Sciences, Computer Science and Applications and Electronic Science. ‘The Council of Scientific and industrial Research (CSIR) conducts the UGC-CSIR NET for other Science subjects, namely Life Sciences, Physical Sciences, Chemical Sciences, Mathematical Sciences and Earth Atmospheric Ocean & Planetary Sciences jointly with the UGC. The tests are conducted twice in a year generally in the months of June and December. For candidates, who desire to pursue research, the Junior Research Fellowship URF) Is available for 5 years subject to fulfillment of certain conditions. UGC has allocated a number of fellowships to the Universities for the candidates who qualify the test for JRF. The JRFs are awarded to the meritorious candidates from among the candidates qualifying for eligibility for lecturership in the NET. JRFs are available only to the candidates who opt for it in their application forms. The test for Junior Research Fellowship is being condiscted since 1984, The Government of India, through its notification dated 22nd July, 1988 entrusted the task of conducting the eligiblity test for lecturership to UGC. Consequently, UGC conducted the first National Eligibility Test, common to both eligibility for Lecturership and Junior Research Fellowship in two parts, that is, in December 1989 and in March 1990. NET Schedule UGC conducts NET twice a year, ie, in the months of June and December. The notifications ‘announcing the June and December examinations are published in the months of March and September respectively in the weekly journal of nation-wide circulation, vz, “employment News. NET Results Declaration Schedule a ‘The result of June, UGC NET is declared generally in the month of October. Similarly. ‘December, UGC NET result is usually declared in the month of April. The UGC NET results published in the’Employment News’ are also available on UGC website. NET FOR SCIENCE SUBJECT ‘The NET in major Sclence subjects, viz, Chemical Sciences, Earth Atmospheric Ocean and Planetary Sciences, Life Sciences, Mathematical Sciences and Physical Sciences Is conducted Jointly with the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi. The concerned notifications are issued separately by CSIR. | |Basic Physical and _ Chemical Concepts in Biology Structure of Atoms, Molecules and Syllabus Chemical Bonds ‘8 Structure of Atoms, Molecules i A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom and Chemical Bonds. 1 distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus. The @ Composition, Structure and term is also used to refer to @ pure chemical substance composed of atoms with the same Functions of Biomolecules, i number of protons. Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, i In total, 118 elements have been observed so far, of which 94 occur naturally on Earth. ‘Nucleic Acids and Vitamins. | Ab elements have stable isotopes, namely all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 82, Biomolecular Weak Iterations except clements 43 and 61 (technetium and promethium). Bloments with atomic” (van cer. Waals, Electrostatic | umber 88 or higher (bismuth and above) ate inherently unstable, and undergo foree, Hydrogen Bonding, Tadioacive deca. The elements from atomic number 83 to 04 have no stable nucle, Dut” Hydrephbe interaction, et). ‘are nevertholess found in nature. Of the total stable elements in nature, fifteen are present in all living things, and a further 8-10 are only found in particular organisms. | More than 99% of the atoms in animals’ bodies are accounted for by just four ‘elements—hydrogen (H), oxygen (0), carbon (C) and nitrogen (N), © Principles of _ Biophysical Chemistry (pH, Buffer, Reaction Kinetics, Thermodynamics, Colligative Properties). Table 1.1 Elemental Composition of Earth's Crust | SS senen oT percentiywace [Element |. Pereentby mass Ongen wer Polassum 258 siicon | z762 | agnesiam 208 ‘Aluminium | ‘8.07 Titanium 0.62 won 50s | Hydrogen | oe Calcium 3.65 Phosphorus | 0.13 Sodium 275 Carbon Ll 0.0942 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Life Sciences Table 1.2 Elemental Composition of Earth’s Ocean Water Table 1.4 Elemental Composition of the Human Etement | POSEY | clement dl [Seer iment PasssSuphw O06 oxygen) t | 4042 Cau 0.08 Carbon | | 194 |Potessun | de Hydrogen | ine | | 102 |eromine | a.0067 Nirogen a |sodum = | oa Magnesium 03282 {Carton | 9.0028 Caleium 15 |Magnesm | 0.05 Phosphous | 1.2 | Table 13 Composition of Earth’s Atmosphere on, copat,_ no's Sts Forming ionie * oe Chlorine gains ‘lection, leaving it with aclosed shell ‘bond Fig. 1.7 lonie bonding Covalent Bonds Covalent chemical bonds involve the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms, in contrast to the transfer of electrons in ionic bonds. Such bonds lead to stable ‘molecules if they share electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas configuration for each atom. Hydrogen gas forms the simplest covalent bond in the diatomic hydrogen molecule. The halogens such as chlorine also exist as diatomic gases by forming covalent bonds. The nitrogen and oxygen which makes up the bulk of the atmosphere also exhibits covalent bonding in forming diatomic molecules.8 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Life Sciences He + oH Forming covalent bond Constitaont atame share a pair of electrons, closing the shell for each hybridization’ Hybridization occurs to'minimize elebtrén pair repulsions when atoms are brought together to form rolecales. Each of these hybridization schemes corresponds to one of tne five fundamental VSEPR geometries, Sigma (o) bonds arise from the ‘end/-on’ overlap betweon adjacent orbitals. This leads to a region of high electron density along the inter-nuclear axis (cylindrically, symmetrical. Pi (=) bonds arise from the ‘side-on’ overlap betwoon adjacent orbitals. This loads to two regions of high eloetron density on opposite sides of the inter-nuclear axis (not cylindrically symmetrical). Table 1.5 Shape and Examples of Molecules Predicted from VSEPR Theory Fig. 18 Covalent bending Valence Bond Theory (G) The electron-pair bond forms through the interaction of an unpaired electron on each of two atoms, (ii) The spins of the electrons have to be opposed. Gi) Once paired, the two electrons cannot take part in ‘additional bonds. (iv) The electron-exchange terms for the bond involves only ‘one wave funetion from each atom. (v) The available olectrons in the lowest energy level form the strongest bonds. (vi) Of two orbitals in an atom, the one that can overlap the ‘most with an orbital from another atom will form the strongest bond, and this bond will tend to lie in the direction of the concentrated orbital. Hybridization ‘The ‘mixing’ or “blending” of atomic orbitals to accommodate the spatial requirements im a molecule is known as Table 1.6 Five Fundamental VSEPE Geometries TRIRRTST eiear 7 Moree jetron Pair | Formula 3 AGE | lax, [Tigona plinar |, and $0, Tax Fretaeeral [CH and Sch, fade | tear Hs and PF pyramidal Axe, |Weshaped | H,Oand iH, role, Ss We Trigonal Fa, and ; bipyramidal |e(2oy, AXE Irregular SF, and SCI, I toad Jaxies [Tshaped | are and Bry [axses [Liner er, andl, € AK, Octahedral SF, andFeF,* Vase | sum prac | nay [axce, | Square LV + Tettahodiat 2 | — Linear bipyre : SO Swen ~~ | LB | ramidal er °° CcBasic Physical and Chemical Concepts in Biology 9 Number of Effective Pair Arrangement of Pair Water Water is the most abundant substance in living systems, making up 70% or more of the weight of most organisms. The first living organisms doubtless arose in an aqueous environment, A.water molecule is tetrahedron with oxygen at its center. ‘The two hydrogens and the unshared electrons of the remaining two sp'-hybridized orbitals. Tho 105-degree angle between the hydrogens diffors slightly from the idesl tetrahedral angie, 109.5 degrees. ‘The water molecule and its ionization products, H* and OH", influence the structure, self-assembly, and properties of all cellular components, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, ‘The noncovalent interactions responsible for the strength and specificity of ‘recognition’ among biomolecules are decisively influenced by the solvent properties of water, including its ability to form hydrogen bonds with itself and with solutes. Water hes a higher melting point, boiling point, and heat of vaporization than most other common solvents. ‘These unusual propertios aro a consequence of attractions hetween adjacent water molecules that give liquid water ‘great internal cohesion which is the cause of intermolecular attractions. Water is a dipole, a molecule with clectrical charge distributed asymmetrically about its structure, The strongly electronegative oxygen atom and a partial positive changed hydrogen atom. Water, a strong dipole, has a high dielectric constant. The dielecirie constant for hexane is 1.9; for ethanol is 24.8; and for water is 78.5. Water, therefore greatly decreases the force of attraction betwoon charged and polar species relative to water-free environments with lower dielectric constants. Its strong dipole and high dielectric constant enable water to dissolve large quantities of charged compounds such as salts. Hybridization (symbolic) | Hybridization (figure) ala Polar biomolecules dissolve readily in water because they can replace water-water interactions with more energetically favorable water-solute interactions, Tn contrast, non-polar ‘biomolecules interfere with water-wator interactions but are unable to form water-solute interactions—consequently, nonpolar molecules are poorly soluble in water. In aqueous solutions, nonpolar molecules tond to cluster together. Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak. Those in liquid water have a bond dissociation energy (the energy required to ‘break a bond) of about 23 d/mol, compared with 470 ki/mol for the covalent OOH bond in water or 348 ki/mol for.a covalent COC bond. The hydrogen bond is ahout 10% covalent, due to overlaps in the bonding orbitals, and about 90% electrostatic, Each hydrogen atom of a water molecule shares an electron pair with the central oxygen atom. The oxygen nucleus attracts electrons more strongly than does the hydrogen nucleus (a proton); that is, oxygen is more electronegative. ‘The sharing of electrons between H and O is therefore, unequal; each hydrogen bears a partial positive charge (26°) ‘and the oxygen atom bears a partial negative charge equal to the sum of the two partial positives (25°). As a result, there is an electrostatic attraction between the oxygen atom of one water molecule and the hydrogen of another, called a hydrogen bond. ‘When water is heated, the increase in temperature reflects the faster motion of individual water molecules. At any given time, most of the molecules in liquid water are engaged in hydrogen bonding, but the lifetime of each hydrogen ‘bond is just 1 to 20 picoseconds; upon breakage of one ‘hydrogen bond, another hydrogen bond forms, with the same partner or a new one, within 0.1 ps.10 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Life Sciences Water Influences the Structure of Biomolecules Water forms about 60-70% of biomass. It directly or indirectly influences the biomolecular structures. Stabilizes Biological Molecules ‘The covalent bond is the strongest force that holds molecules together. Non-covalent forces, while of lesser magnitude, sake significant contributions to the structure, stability, and functional competence of macromolecules in living cals. ‘These forees, which can be either attractive or repulsive, involve interactions both within tho biomolecule and between it and the water that forms the principal component of the surrounding environment, Folding of Biomolecules Most biomolecules are amphipathic that is, they possess regions rich in charged or polar funetional groups as well as regions with hydrophobic character. Proteins tend to fold with tho R-groups of amino acids with hydrophobie side chains in the interior. Amino acids with charged or polar amino acid side chains (@g., arginine, glutamate, serine) generally are present on the surface in contact with water. A similar pattern prevails in a phospholipid bilayer, where the charged head groups of phosphatidy!sérine or phosphatidyl ethanolamine contact water while their hydrophobic fatty acyl side chains cluster together, excluding water. This pattern maximizes the opportunities for the formation of energetically favorable charge-dipole, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen bonding interactions between polar groups on the biomolecule and water. It also minimizes energetically ‘unfavorable contact between water and hydrophobie groups, H oH No~ Ni Fig. 19. Lett Associaton of wo dipolar water molecules bya hyeragen bond (dated ine), Right Hydrogen bonded cher of four water Note that water can serve simultaneously both as a hydrogen, donor and as a hydrogen acceptor, N New Fig. 1.10 Additional polar groups participate in hydrogen bonding. Shou are hydrogen bonds formed between an alcohel and water, between two molecdes of ethanol and ‘between the pestide carbonyl oxygen and the poptide ‘iragen nydrogen of an adjacent amino acid Table 1.7 Bond Energies for Atoms of Biologic Significance ~Eneoy i” & ° i & 364 While tho hydrogens of non-polar groups such as the ‘methylene groups of hydrocarbons do not form hydrogen bonds, they do affect the structure of the water that, surrounds them. Water molecules adjacent to a hydrophobic ‘group are restricted in the number of orientations (degrees of freedom) that permit thom to participate in the maximum number of energetically favorable hydrogen bonds, Maximal formation of multiple hydrogen bonds can be maintained only by inereasing the order ofthe adjacent water molecules, with a corresponding decrease in entropy. It follows from the second law of thermodynamics that the optimal free energy of a hydrocarbon-water mixture is a fanetion of both maximal enthalpy (from hydrogen bonding) and minimum entropy (maximum degrees of freedom). Thus, nonpolar molecules tend: to form droplets with minimal exposed surface area, reducing the number of water molecules affected. For the same reason, in the aqueous environment of ‘he living cell the hydrophobic portions of biopolymers tend to bbe buried inside the structure of the molecule, or within a lipid bilayer, minimizing contact with water. f t 5Basic Physical and Chemical Concepts in Biology =| 1 Composition, Structure and Functions of Bio jiomolecules form the base of cellular organization. ‘They inglude carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of organic compounds found in living organisms. General formula of carbohydrates is C,(H,0),. Carbohydrates are a major source of metabolic energy, for both plants and animals. Singlo units of sugar, such as glucose, are called monosaccharide, Sugars can be readily linked together to form disaccharides (contains two monosaccharides), oligo- saecharides (contains several monosaccharides) and polysaccharides (contains many monosaccharides). 1. Monosaccharides ‘The simple sugars, or monosaccharide are polyhydroxyaldehydes (aldoses) or _polyhydroxyketones {(ketoses). All have the composition (CH,0),, hence, the {amily name carbohydrate. A typical sugar, and the one with ‘he widest distribution in nature, is glucose. Ho q 9 No \4 D-Mannose (Man) 1 H—2C—OH +— has the opposite HO—C—H I configuration at -2 | noes H HO ects mtnon Boker G® nop configuration at C4 u—c—on eee ppt Ea | Soe ScH0H ieee D-Glucowe (Glo) Gooding tothe configuration 10S showing shout this carbon atom, one numbering femoved from the terminal of atoms. position Fig. 4.11 Structures of D and L-glucose les ‘The six-membered ring formed in this way (pyranose rings) are especially stable, but five membered furanose ring also exist in many carbohydrates. Ho NF He GOB, | LA Hoon Hi 7 ’ Ho oe HOCH HOH | tot Se S CHK 9 CH,OH HO- OH -Giuoose (Glo) nu | 6g (free aldehyde form) H Fig. 1.42. Pyranese ring forms (hemiacetal forms) ‘The two configurations sbout this carbon atom are designated a and b as indicated above. In an equilibrium mixture, ring forms of most sugars predominate over open chains. Although polysaccharides are composed almost ‘exclusively of sugar residuos in ring forms, the open chain forms aro somotimes metabolic intermediates. on wg Dns Fr) katows thats H—C—=0 Petru! and metbote I relative of Deglucese H—O— CH Hoccu in baney and frat julses i tiene enemas H—C—O—H_ sion (abiosusm) a | See arn ing ad = inches ligeeceharden and —o—H HE OF poms. can Fig, 133 D-fructose Because of their many polar bydroxy] groups, most sugars are very soluble in water. However, hydrogen bonds between molecules stabilize sugar erystals making them insoluble in non-polar solvents, Intermolecular hydrogen bonds between chains of sugar rings in cellulose account for much of the strength and insolubility of these polysaccharides.| | | 12 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor. Life Sciences cHo : ce n—b—on i cart ; Glyceraldehyde HO CHO non Sette H—6—oH xd on cH cuoH xythrose ‘turecse x0 a exo 1o—b—# n-¢—on no~b—n ton wo-¢—n Ho—-G—H! bon nG—on t-G—on bon bon Gaon Avabinose (Ara) ‘Xylose (Xyl) Lyxose (Lyx) oxo © ¢HO.=S HO GH HO.ScHO. HO n—b—on no—b—n x—b—on nob neon no—b—n bon nob webeon nb—on womb Ho-G—H n—G—on H—b—on nota nob we G-o8 n—b—on ob~on nbn ween no-e—H nota noha H=p-on Hp M—b—on moon H—E—on boon abo ton dyox Gon axon onan Gaon Gaon Gaon ‘Aitrove (A) Allo (Al) Glugose (le) Mannose Man) Close (Cl) Idose Ido) Galacowe (Ga) Talose (Ts) Fig. 1.14 Formulas for the D-aldases, Prefixes derived from the names of these aldoses are used in describing various other sugars including ketoses GH,oH cH,On HOH c=0 o=0 CH,OH g-0 9-08 HO- 6-H g-0 H-0_on 00H c—on (H,0n bon GH,0H HOH pil Exythrulose Ribulose Xylalose ‘oot ehirab HoH Gro Gon cao CH,OH fro G=0 eno fno H-G-OH HOCH H-G—oH HOt H-G—OW H-G—OH HO-¢—H HO-C—H H-p-OH H-6—OH -H-G—oH H-¢-on CHOH CH,OH CH,OH CH,OH Pricose Fructose Sorbose Tagaiose Fig. 1.35 Formulae for the open forms ofthe O-ketosesBasic Physical and Chemical Concepts in Biology Natural Derivatives of Sugars ‘The aldshyde group of an aldose can be oxidized readily to carboxyl group to form an aldonic acid, Among the several aldonie acids that ocear naturally is 6-phosphogluconie acid. ‘Sugar chains with —COOH at both ends are called aldaric acids, e.g., lucaric acid. The—OH group in the 2 position of glucose may be replaced by —NH, to form 2-amino- 2deoxyglueose, commonly called glucosamine (GleN) or by =NH—CO—CH, to form N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc). Similar derivatives of other sugars exist in nature. In many polysaccharides, sulfate groups are attached in ester linkage to the sugar units, The sulfo (—S0,—) sugar 6-sulfo-a- ‘D-quinovose is found in lipids of photosynthetic membranes. ‘The sugar alcohols, in which the carbonyl group has been reduced to —OH, also occur in nature, For example, D-Glucitol (D-Sorbitol), the sugar alcohol obtained by reducing either D-Glucose or L-Sorbose, is a major product of photosynthesis and widely distributed in bacteria and throughout the eukaryotic kingdom. It is present in large amounts in berries of the mountain ash and in many other fruits, It exists in a high concentration in buman semen and ‘accumulates in lenses of diabetics. D-Glucitol and other sugar alcohols arise in some fangi during metabolism of the corresponding sugars. Mannitol, another product of photosynthesis, is also present in many organisms. ‘wo common 6-deoxy sugars which lack the hydroxy] group at C-6 are rhamnose and fucose. Both are of the ‘uni P L-eonfiguration but are derived metabolically from D-glucose ‘and D-mannose, respectively. Vitamin-C (ascorbic acid) is another important sugar derivative. Neuraminic acid is a 9-carbon sugar made by transferring a 3-carbon piece onto a hexosamine. Its N-acetyl and NV-¢lycolyl derivatives are called sialie acids. 2. Disaccharides/Oligosaccharides ‘Two molecules of a-D-glucopyranose can be joined, in an indirect synthesis, to form maltose. Maltoge is formed by the hydrolysis of starch and is otherwise not found in nature. There are only three abundant naturally occurring disaccharides which are important to the metabolism of plants and animals. Lactose (milk), Suerose (green plants) and Trehalose (fungi and insects) HOH,C 0. HOWC 0. H Hg a OH ‘OH i HC oH e-D-Giucopyranose (2 molecules) Nae HoH? HOH, 0. — ek 7 x o on on H / a On 1, 4-Glyeosidi linkage Fig. 2.16 Maltose,a disaccharide 13 Disaccharides are linked by glycosidic (acetal) linkages. The agmbo! 0-1, ove, to the fact that in maltose the glycosidic linkage connects carbon atom 1 (the anomeric ‘carbon atom) of one ring with C-£ of the other and that the configuration about the anomeric carhon atom isa. While the ‘a and ring forms of free sugars can usually undergo ready interconversion, the configuration at the anomeric carbon ‘atom is frozen’ when a glycosidic linkage is formed. Lactose, whose structure follows, can be described as a disaccharide containing one galaciose unit in a P-pyranose ring form and whose anomeric carbon atom (C-1) is joined to the 4 position of glacose, giving a f-1, 4 linkage: on cH,0n Q HO: He £0. out TY Of, 0H Ht \ Notea configuration st this reducing end of the molecule of elactooe 01 oH d D-Galactose D-Glucose Fig. a7 a-Lactose ‘The systematic name for lactose, O--D-gelactopyranosyl ((-+4)-«-D.glucopyranose, provides a complete description of the stereochemistry, ring sizes, and mode of linkege @-D-Galp-(1-4)--D-Glep). In sucrose and in a, a-trehalose the reducing groups of two rings are joined. Each of these sugars exists in single form. ‘Sucrose serves as the major transport sugar in green plants, while ‘Trehaloce plays 2 similar role in inseets, similar to Deglucose in our blood. 1 HOCH, 0 HOHC’ 0. R 10 oo CHO HK f. ‘oH on Sucrose: Glepa-sf2raf HOCH,, HO. ° oH WEN —o on Ht OH ‘oO CH,OH Fig. 118 o’, o-Trehelose: Gleapal-roiGlet ‘Trehalose or ‘mushroom sugar; is found not only in fungi but also in many other organisms. It serves as the primary transport sugar in the haemolymph of inseets and also acts a8 ‘antifreeze’ in many species. Disaccharides, as well as higher oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, are thermodyamically unstable with respect to hydrolysis, for example, for lactose in aqueous solution: Lactose + H,0 —» D-Glucose + D-Galactose; AG? = 8.7 + 0.2 kJ mol at 25°C| 14 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor. Life Sciences ‘The joining of additional sugar rings through glycosidic linkages to a disaccharide leads to the formation of oligosaccharides, which contain fow residues, and to polysaccharides, which contain many residues. Among the well-known oligosaccharides are the substituted sucroses raffinose, Galp(1-96) Glep(12) Fruf, and stachyose, Galp(1-+6) Galp(1-»6) Glep (12) Fra/ Both sugars are found in many legumes and other green planis in which they are formed by attachment of the galactose rings to sucrose. Oligosaccharides have many functions. For example, Gram negative bacteria often synthesize oligosaccharides of 6-12 ‘glucose units in 6-1, 2 linkage joined to sn-1-phosphogiyeery] groups. They are found in the periplasmic space botween the inner and outer cell membranes and may serve to control osmotic pressure. Oligosaccharides of 10-14 a-1, 4-linked D-galacturonic acid residues servo as signals of coll wall damage to plants and trigger defensive reactions against bacteria in plants. Just as alcohols can be linked to sugars by glycoside formation, amines can react similarly to give glycosylamines (N-glycosides) Lactose and Maltose are reducing sugars, while sucrose non-reducing. 3. Polysaccharides (Glycans) ‘The simple sugars commonly used inthe assenibly“6t polysaccharides include D-glucose, D:mannose, D-galactoee, D-fructose, D-xylose, L-arabinose, related uronie acids, and amino sugars. ‘These monomer units ean be put together. in ‘many ways, either as homopolysaccharides containing a single kind of monomer or as heteropolysaccharides containing two or more different monomers. Homopolysaccharides Celt walls of yeasts contain mannans in which the main a-1, Glinked chain carries short branches of one to three mannose units joined ina-1, 2, a-1, 3 and sometimes'a-1, 6 linkages. ‘The cell walls of some seaweeds contain af+1, 3-linked xylan instead of cellulose, Bructoso, @ 6-carbon sugar, is present as fivemembered furanoso rings in inulin, the storage polysaccharide of the Jerusalem artichoke and other Compositae, andaleo in sweet potatoes. ‘The major structural polysaccharide in the exaskeletons of arthropods and of other lower animal forms is chitin, a linear f-1, 4-Iinked polymer of N-acetylglucosamine whose structure resembles that of cellulose, Heteropolysaccharides ‘Many polysaccharides contain repeating units consisting of ‘more than one different kind of monomer. Some of these are composed of two sugars in a simple alternating sequence. Examples sre hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid) and the chondroitin, dermatan, keratan, and heparan sulphates. They are important components of the ‘ground substance’ or intracellular cement of connective tissue in ‘animals, Fibres of cellulose, which run like rods through the amorphous matrix of plant cell walls, appear to be coated with a monolayer of hemicelluloses, Predominant among the latter is a xylogiuean, which has the basic cellulose structure but with a-1, 6linked xylose units attached to three-fourths of the glucose residues. L-Fucose may also be present in trisaccharide side chains: L-Fucc > 2Galal —> 2Xylal >. Pectins of higher plants contain frl, 4linked polygelacturonates, interrupted by occasional 1, 2-linked L-rhumnose residues. Some of the carboxyl groups of these vhamnogalacturonan chains are methylated. Arabinans and galactans are also present in pectin, A possible arrangement of cellulose fibres, homicelininses and pectic materials in a cell wall has been proposed, Table 1.8 Some of the Many Polysaccharides Found in Nature Rone TT sane SASS inka Beane ge Sach Seen ans : ae Amylose |o-ctuose jane | Amopectn | Dechicose eis eae tyeonen |anialsandactera —_|o-Glccse ore eae Callulose | Green. plants and: some |D-Glucose a4 | |actera Doxtans | Some bacteria D-clucose joe foas Pullulan: lYeast D-Glucose a-1, 6 +01, 4 Callase Green planis |o-ciucose p43 | ‘Yeast glucan Yeast ‘D-Glucose 1,3 { Schopylan cuclan and paranon D-stuose [a3 fate on my ti | residue Mannans [Algae D-Mamose lose " 2 fraaee Sarnose, fe | | |i i | i Basic Physical and Chemical Concepts in Biology 15 £ Name ‘Source. ‘Monomer [Main Linkage | Branch Linkage ylans [Green plams [Dove eLe r | Brown seaweed Inulin Dahlia planttubers | D-Fructose 92,6 critin Fungi and artwopods | N-Acety-D-Glucosamine | -1, 4 Alternating polysaccharic | Hyaluronan [Animal connective tissue | Glucuronic acid + N-Acetyiglucosamine Bad ‘Chondroitin sulphate D-Glucosamine NeAcetylD-Galactosamine |p-1, 3+, 4 Dermatan sulphate a-L-lduronate + | N-Acetyl-D-Galactosamine |p-1,3+p-4, 4 Pectin Higher plants D-galactunonate + others |/P-2, 4+ others Alginate Seaweed D-Mannuronate + L-Guluronate PA, 4+ ad, 4 ‘Agar-agar Red seawoed Galactose Bet, 4 and od, 3 Carageenan Red seaweed Galactose-+-sulphate+ — | fel, 4+ 3,3 3, 6ranhydro- D-Galactose-2-sulphate Murein Bacterial cell wall N-acetyl D-Glucosamine +/p-2,4 N-acetyl D:Muramic acic Glucans From glucose alone various organisms synthesize a whole series of polymeric glucans with quite different properties, Of these, cellulose, an unbranched f-1, 4-linked polyglucose, is probably tho most abundant. It is the primary ‘structural polysaccharide of the coll walls of most green plants. For the whole Earth, plants produce ~10" kg of cellulose per year Starch, another of the most abundant polymers of glucose, is stored by most green plants in a semicrystalline form in ‘numerous small granules. These granules, which are usually formed within colourless. ‘Membrane-bounded plastids, have characteristic shapes and ‘appearances that vary from plant to plant. One component of starch, amylose, is a linear polymer of many ta-D-glucopyranose unite in 1, 4 linkage as in maltose. Starch granules always contain a second kind of molecule known as amylopectin, Both amylopectin and glycogen (animal starch) consist of highly branched bushlike molecules. Branches are attached to a-1, 4-linked chains through a-1, 6 linkages Beta-1, S-linked glucans occur widely in nature. When a new green plant cell is formed the first. polysaccharide to be synthesized is not collulese but the f-1, 3linked glucose polymer callose. Cellulose appears later. Callose is also produced in some specialized plant tissues, such as pollen tubes, and is formed in massive amounts at the site of wounds or of attack by pathogens, The major structural component of the yeast cell wall is a 8-1, 9-linkod glucan with some f-1, 6 branches. ‘Agarose, an alternating carbohydrate polymer consisting of ~120-kDa chains, is the principal component of agar and the ‘compound that accounts for most of the gelling properties of ‘that remarkable substance. ‘A similar structure has been established for the gelforming carrageenans from red seaweed. Alginates, found in coll walls of some marine algae and also formed by certain bacteria, consist in part of a linear +1, 4linked polymer of D-mannuronate with a cellulose-like structure, Bacteria form and secrete a variety of heteropolysaccharides, ‘several of which are of commercial value because of their ‘useful gelling properties, Xanthan gum (formed by Xanthomonas campestris) has the basic cellulose structure ‘but every second glucose residue carrios an @-1, 3-linked trisaccharide consisting of 6-O-acetylmannose, glucuronic acid, and mannose in the following repeating unit: (AGIepI-AGIefn1-),, 6-O-acetyl-Man-o-L 2 t Man-f-1-4-Gleapt Acetan of Acetobacter xylinum has pentasaccharide side chains that contain L-rhamnose. A helical structure for the strands has been observed by atomic force microscopy. Polysaccharides of Bacterial Surfaces ‘The innermost layer of bacterial cell walls is a porous network of @ highly crosslinked material known as peptidoglyean or murein. The backbone of the peptidoglycan is a frl, 4-linked alternating polymer of i N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and N-acetyl D-muramic acid ‘Alternate units of the resulting chitindike molecule carry16 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Life Sciences ‘unusual peptides that are attached to the lactyl groups of the ‘N-seetylmuramic acid units and crosslink the polysaccharide chains. In E. coli and other Gram negative bacteria the peptidoglycan forms a thin (2 nm) continuous network around the cell. This ‘baglike molecule’ protects the organism from osmotic stress. In addition, Gram negative bacteria have an outer membrane and on its outer surface a complex lipopolysaccharide, 7 Lipids Lipids are organic compounds, found in living organisms that, are soluble in non-polar organic solvents. The solubility of Lipids in nonpolar organic solvents results from their significant hydrocarbon component. The hydrocarbon portion of the compound is responsible for its ‘oiliness’ or “fattiness'. The word lipid comes from the Greek lipos, which means ‘fat Biological Importance of Lipids (@) Fat under skin serve as thermal insulator against cold i) Lipids prosent in myelinated nerves act as insulators ‘or propagation of depolarization wave. (Gli) Fat serves as a source of energy for man like carbohydrates. (iv) Fat is an ideal form for storing energy in the haman body compared to carbohydrates-and proteins because, (a) Energy content of fat is higher: (b) Only fat can be, stored in o concontrated water free forin which is not possible with carbohydrates and proteins (0) Lipids are structural components of cell membrane and nervous tissue, (vi) Some lipids serve as precursors for the synthesis of complex molecules. For example, acetyl Co-A is used for the synthesis of cholesterol. (vii) Lipoproteins, which are complexes of lipids and proteins are involved in the transport of lipids in the blood and components of cell membrane. (vili)Some lipids serve as hormones and fat soluble vitamins Gx) Fats are essential for the vitamins, (x) Fats serve as surfactants by reducing surface tension, ‘Unlike proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids, most lipids are not polymers. However, they are made by linking ‘together emaller molecules. Among the ‘building blocks’ of lipids are fatty acids, glycerql, phosphoric acid and sugars. Many lipids have both polar and non-polar regions. bsorption of fat soluble ‘This gives them an amphipathic character, ie, a tendency toward both ‘nydrophobie and hydrophilic behavior, and ‘accounts for their tendency to aggregate into membranous structures, 1, Fatty Acids Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon chains. Fatty acids can be saturated with hydrogen (and therefore have no carbon-carbon double bonds) or unsaturated (have carbon-carbon double bonds). Fatty acids with more than one double ond are called polyunsaturated fatty acids. Double bends in naturally ccurring unsaturated fatty acids are never conjugated—they are always separated by one methylene group. The double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids generally have tthe cis configuration. ‘This configuration produces a bend in the molecules, which prevents them from packing together as tightly as fully saturated fatty acids. As a result, unsaturated fatty acids have fewer intermolecular interactions and, therefore, lower melting points than saturated fatty acids with comparable molecular weights. The melting points of the unsaturated fatty acide decrease as the nuraber of double bonds increases. For example, an 18-carbon fatty acid melts, at 69°C if it is eaturoted, at 13°C if it haa one double bond, at -5°C if it has two double bonds, and at -11°C if it has three double bonds. * ‘Most naturally occurring fatty acids are esterified’ or ‘combined via amie.linkages in complex lipids. For example, ‘ordinary false largely the fatty acid esters of glyeerol called triaeylglycerols (triglycerides). ‘Most fatty acid chains contain an even number of carbon atoms. In higher plants the C-16 palmitic acid and the C-18 unsaturated olei¢ and linoleic acids predominate, The C-18 saturated stearic acid is almost absent in plants and C-20 to -24 acids are rarely present uxcept in the outer cuticle of leaves. Certain plants contain unusual fatty acids which may bbe characteristic of a taxonomic group. For example, the Composite (daisy family) contain acotylone fatty acids and ‘the castor bean contains the hydroxy fatty acid ricinoleic acid. Phospholipids of photoreceptor membranes of the retina contain fatty acid chains as long as C-36, The variety of fatty acids found in animals is greater than in a given plant species. Bactéria usually lack polyunsaturated fatty acids but often contain branched fatty acids, cyclopropane containing acids, hydroxy fatty acids, end unesterified fatty acids. Mycobacterium, including the human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, contains mycolic acids. {Basic Physical and Chemical Concepts Table 1.9 Common and Naturally Occurring Fatty Acids Tabs of [Common name] Sytematic Name ‘Structure [aeee Saturated | az Lauric acid Dodecanoic acid EEO 44. 14 | marist acid | Tetradecancic acid 1 RR OOOH 58 16 |Paimiticacid | Hexadecanoic acid A oH 63 18 | Steacaeid | Octadesanole acid RAR ott 8 20 [Arachis até | Etosanole acid AAA OH, TT Unsaturated 16 Paimitoleic acid | (9Z)-hexadecenoic. | nH lo 18 Oleic acid | (@Z}-octadecenole acid 13 18 | Linoleic asi (@Z, 12z)-octadecadenoe acid open 8 18 Linclenic acid | (8Z, 122, 152)-octadecatienoic teens 11 jacid ~ ‘Arachidonic acid | 62, az, uz, coo 50 14Z;sicosatetraenole acid on eee 20 EPA jeez, az, az, az) ee a COOH |-so 172)-sicdsapentaenoic acid 7 a 2, Waxes e ° ‘Waxes are esters formed from long-chain carboxylic acids and Ret_on cH,-o—6—a* Jong-chain alcohols. For example, beeswax, the structural GHe—O8 0 Mmeterial of bechives, hes a 16-carboa eaboxylic acd GH —OH t ° ‘component and a 80-carbon aleohol component. Both fatty eho Grob alcohols and free fatty acids occur in waxes together with ‘CH,—-OH. esterified forms. These mixtures are found on exterior Glycerol ° i surfaces of plants and animals. weton GH—o—d Carnauba wax is a particularly hard wax because of its mets idiot relatively high molecular weight, arising from a S2-earbon ae aera carboxylic acid component and a S4-carbon alcohol ‘component, Carnauba wax is widely used as a car wax and in floor polishes, ~ NNN eee OAR ROO eS Awax Fig. 1.19 An ester of a fatty acd and a fatty alcohol Insects make unsaturated as well as saturated hydrocarbons. ‘The former as well as long-chain alechols and their esters often form the volatile pheromones with which insects ‘communicate, Fig. 1.20. Structure of glycerol and faty acid ‘Triacylelycerols that are solids or semisolids at room temperature are called fats. Fats are usually obtained from animals and are composed largely of triacylglycerols with either saturated fatty acids or fatty acids with only one double bond, The saturated fatty acid tails pack closely together, giving the triacylglycorols relatively high melting points, causing them to be solids at room temperature. Liquid triacylelycerols are called oils, Oils typically come from plant products such as corn, soybeans, olives, and peanuts. They are composed primarily of triaeylelycerols with unsaturated fatty acids that cannot pack tightly together. Consequently, they have relatively low melting points, causing them to be liquids at room temperature.18 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor. Life Sciences Organisms store energy in the form of triacylelycerols. A fat provides about six times as much metabolic energy as an equal weight of hydrated glycogen because fats are less oxidized than carbohydrates and, since fats are nonpolar, ‘they do not bind water. In contrast, two-thirds of the weight of stored glycogen is water. Important Lipids ‘The major three kinds of membrane lipids are phospholipids, glycolipids and steroids, while other resent in cells 1. Phospholipids ‘These are abundant in all biological membranes. A phospholipid molecule is constructed from four components: fatty acids, a platform to which the fatty acids are attached, a phosphate, and an alcohol ultached to the phosphate. The ‘two principal groups of phospholipids are the slycerophospholipids which contain the alcohol glycerol and the sphingophospholipids which contain the alcohol sphingosine. ‘The platform on which phospholipids are built may be glycerol, a 3-carbon alcohol, or sphingosine, a more complex alcohol. Phospholipids derived from glycerol ure called phosphoglycerides. A phosphoglyceride consists of a glycerol backbone to which two fatty acid chains and a phosphorylated aleohol are attached. The major phosphoglycerides are derived from phosphatidate by the formation of an ester bond between the phosphate group of phosphatidate and the hydroxyl group of one of several alcohols. The common alcohol moieties of phosphoglycerides are the amino acid serine, ethanolamine, choline, glycerol, and the inositol. Choline, serine or vthanvlamine yields a glycerophos- pholipid. The resulting three groups of phospholipids are called phosphatidylcholine (ecithin), phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine respectively. Fatty acid] Fatty acid] Giyeeral] Phosphate] ‘Aleshal] | CH-O—C— FR conizwration| | ? ‘CH;—-O—C—R" A phosphatidi¢ acid Fig. 1.21. Schematic structure ofa phospholipid ‘The alkenyl ether analogs of phosphatidylcholine are called plasmalogens. Another group of phosphatides contain the hhexahydroxycyclchexane —known—as_—‘inositol, Phosphatidylinositol, as well as smaller amounts “of phosphatides derived from phosphate esters of inositol are present in membranes ofall eukaryotes, Plays important role in regulating ‘responses of cells to hormones and other external agents. oI oe BO Apbosphutidylethanolamine (a.cephalin) 9 ¢uy-0—b—w be ol» . A phosphatidyiserine Fig. 1.22 Various phospholipids Phosphoucylglyeerols form membranes by arranging themselves in a lipid bilayer. The polar heads of the phosphoacylgiycerols are on the outside of the bilayer, and ‘he fatty acid chains form the interior of the bilayer. Cholesterol—a membrane lipid is also found in the interior of the bilayer. Tho fluidity of a membrane is controlled by the fatty acid components of the phosphoucylglycerols. Saturated fatty acids decrease membrane fluidity because their hydrocarbon, chains ean pack closely together. Unsaturated fatty acids increase fluidity because they pack lese closely’ together. Cholesterol also decreases fluidity. Only animal membranes contain cholesterol, so they are more rigid than plant ‘membranes, | t| | | i | | Basic Physical and Chemical Concepts in Biology 19 ‘A Membrane lipid is an amphipathic molecule contaitiing hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties. The two hydrophobic fatzy acid chains are approximately parallel to each other, whereas the hydrophilic moieties points in the opposite ‘direction. Sphingomyelin has a similar conformation, as of the archaeal lipid. The unsaturated fatty acid chains of phosphoacylglycerols are susceptible to reaction with Oy. Oxidation of phosphoa-cylglycerols can lead to the degradation of membranes. Vitamin-E ig an important antioxidant that protects. fatty acid chains from degradation via oxidation, Because vitemin-E reacts more rapidly with oxygen than triacylglycorols do, the vitamin prevents biological ‘membranes from reseting with oxygen 2. Sphingolipids Sphingomyelin is a phospholipid found in membranes that is not derived from glycerol. Instead, the backbone in sphingomyelin is sphingosine, an amino alcohol that contains a long, unsaturated hydrocarbon chain. In sphingomyelin, the amino group of the ephingosine backbone is linked to a fatty acid by an amide bond. In addition, the primary hydrosyl group of sphingosine Is esterified to phosphoryl choline, ‘Two of the most common kinds of sphingolipids are sphingomyelins and corebrosides (Cerebrosides are not phospholipids), CH=CH(CH,),.CHy ca 9 H—NH-O—R 0 CH, I A CH; -O—P—OCH,CH,NCH, I cH, Assphingomyelin g CH(CH,),,CH, HOH 0 bv—ten H,0H 1 H.0H he oS eS H on H fates one ‘Tho simplest glycolipid, called a cerebroside, contains a single sugar residue, either glucose or galactose. More complex glycolipids, such as gangliosides, contain a ‘branched chain of as many as seven sugar residues. 3. Glycolipids ‘The polar heads of the glycoglycerolipids lack phospho groups but contain sugars in glycosidic linkage. Chloroplasts also contain the following sulfolipid, an anionic sulfonate. ‘Marine algae as well as aquatic higher plants accumulate arsenophospholipids. 4. Prostaglandins ‘These are found in all body tissues and are responsible for regulating a variety of physiological responses, such as inflammation, blood pressure, blood clotting, over, pain, the induction of labor, and the sleep-wake cyclo. All prostaglandins have a fivemembered ring with a Seven-carbon carboxylic acid substituent and an eightearbon hydrocarbon substituent. ‘The two substituents are trans to each other. 41.24 Prostaglandin skeleton 5, Terpenes ‘These are a diverse class of lipids. They can be hydrocarbons, or they can contain oxygen and be alcohols, ketones, or aldehydes. Oxygen-containing terpenes are sometimes called terpenoids. Certain terpenes and terpenoids have been used as apices, perfumes, and medicines for many thousands of ‘years, on HO" i “oN ‘Menthol Geraniol (peppermint of) (geranium oi) Zingiberene brselinene (oil of ginger) (rilof celery) Fig. 1.25 Various teypenes Inoprene is the common name for 2-methyl 1, 3-butadiene, a compound containing five carbon atoms. That isoprene units are linked in a head-to-tail fashion to form terpenes is known as the isoprene rule.| | | 20 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Life Sciences et a eee Fig. 1.26 a-farnesene a sesquiterpene found in the waxy coating on apple skins ‘Terpenes are classified according to the number of carbons they contain. Monoterpenes are composod of two izoprene units, s0 they have 10 carbons. Sesquiterpenes, with 15 carbons, are composed of three isoprene units, Many fragrances and flavorings found in plants are monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. ‘These compounds are known 2s ‘essential oils. Ae NY Fig. 1.27 Carvone spearmint ll a monoterpene Steroids ‘Triterpenes (six isoprene units) and tetraterpenes (eight isoprene units) have important biological roles. For example, squalene, a triterpene, is a precursor of steroid molecules. ee Fig.128 Squalene Carotenoids are tetraterpenes. Lycopene, the compound responsible for the red colouring of tomatocs and watermelon, and B-carotene, the compound that causes carrots and apricots to be orange, are examples of earotonoids, B-earotene ia alzo the coloring agent tised in margarine. The many conjugated double honds in lycopene and f-carotene cause the compounds to be coloured. Lycopene seaaaanaaaen it Fig. 1.29 The carotenoldycopene and B-carotene ‘Vitamin-A Vitamin-A, D, E and K are lipid soluble. ‘Many hormones are steroids. Because steroids are non-polar compounds, they are lipids. Their non-polar character allows them to cross cell membranes, s0 they can leave the cells in which they are synthesized and enter their target cells. All steroids contain a tetracyclic ring system. The four rings ara A, B and C are six-membered rings and D is a five-membered ring. Tho rings can be trans fused or eis fused and that ‘rans fused rings are more stable. In steroids, the B, C and D rings are all trans fused. In most naturally occurring steroids, the A and B rings are algo trans fused. Fig. 1.20 Tho steroid ring system ‘The steroid hormones can be divided into five classes: eynthosized in tho adrenal cortex and are collectively known Blucocorticoids, ‘mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestins, Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids are as adrenal cortical steroids. All adrenal cortical steroids have an oxygen at C-11.Aldosterone Fig. 1.31 The conical sterokds Mineralocorticoids cause increased reabsorption of Na*, Cl ‘and by HCO} the kidneys, leading to an inerease in blood pressure, Aldosterone is an example of a mineralocorticoid. ‘The male sex hormones, known as androgens, are secreted by the testes. They are responsible for the development of male secondary sex characteristics during puberty. They also promote muscle growth. ‘Testosterone and. 5a-dihyydrotestosterone are androgens. Sacdihydrotestosterone Fig. 1.82 The androgens Estradiol and estrone are female sex hormones known as oestrogens. They are secreted by the ovaries and are responsible for the development of fomsle secondary sex characteristics. They also regulate the menstrual cycle. Progesterone Fig. 1.33. The estrogens In addition to being the precursor of all the steroid hormones in animals, cholesterol is the precursor of the bile acids. In fact, the word cholesterol is derived from the Greek words chole meaning ‘bile’ and stereos meaning ‘solid’. The bile ‘acids cholie acid and chenodeoxycholie acid—are synthesiged in the liver, stored in the gall bladder and secreted into the small intestine, where they act a5 ‘emulsifying agents so that fats and oils can be digested by ‘water-soluble digestive enzymes. Cholesterol is also the precursor of vitamin-D. Proteins ‘The amino acid units that make up a protein molecule are joined together in a precise sequence. The chain is then folded, often into a very compact form. Sometimes the chain is then cut in specifie places. Pieces may be discarded and parts may be added. A metal ion, a coenzyme derived from a ‘vitamin, or even a single methyl group may be attached to form the biologically active protein. ‘The biological functioning of a protein is determined both by the properties, of the chemical-groups in the amino acids that are joined to form the protein chain and by the way the chain is folded. ‘The ways in which the different parts of the protein interact ‘with each other and with other molecules are equally important, These interactions play a major role in determining the folding pattern and also provide much of the basis for the biological functioning of proteins. Proteins and peptides serve many functions in biological systems, Some protect organisms from their environment or impart strength to certain biological structures. Hai, horna, hooves, feathers, fur, and the tough outer layer of skin are all composed largely of a structural protein, e.., keratin, ceallagen, ete. Some proteins have other protective functions. Snake venoms and plant toxins, for example, protect their owners from other species, blood-clotting proteins protect the Eda| | | 22 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Lite Sciences vascular system when it is injured, and antibodies and protein antibiotics protect us from disease, A group of proteins called enzymes catalyzes the chemical reactions that occur in living systems, and some of the hormones that regulate these reactions are peptides. Proteins are also responsible for many physiological functions, such as the transport and storage of oxygen in the body and the contraction of muscles. Biological Importance of Proteins (a) Proteins are involved in the transport of substances in tthe body. (b) Enzymes which eatalyze chemical reactions in the body are proteins. (©) Proteins are involved in defence function, eg., Immunoglobulins. (d) Hormones are proteins. They control many biochemical events, eg., Insulin, (@) Some proteins have role in contraction of muscles. (f) Proteins are involved in the gene expression. They control gene expression and translation, eg., Histones, (q) Proteins function as anti-vitamins, eg., Avidin of egg. h) Proieins are infective agents, eg., Prions which cause mad cow disease are proteins, (@ Some toxins are proteins, eg., Enterotoxin of cholera... microorganism. () Some proteins provide structural strength and elasticity o the urgans and vascular system, e.g, Collagen. : (k) Some proteins are components of structures of tissues, eg, aekeratin. Amino Acids ‘These are molecules containing en amine group, ¢ carboxylic acid group and a side chain that varies hetwéen different amino acids. Alpha amino acids are the most common form found in nature. In the alpha amino acids, the-a-carbon is a chiral carbon atom, with the exception of glycine. In amino acids that have a carbon chain attached to the earbon (such as lysine) the carbons are labalod in order as o,f, 7,8 and £0 on. In some amino acids, the amine group is attached to the Bor yrearbon, and these are therefure, referred to as beta or gamma amino acids. is Nut 0 fFigs424° tySine-witrthe-carbon stoms eur Amino acids are usually classified by the proporties of their side chain into four groups. The side chain can make an amino acid 4 woutk weid or 4 weuk base, and a hydrophile if the side chain is polar or a hydrophobe if itis non-polar 10" 100" af HN Alanine Valine GlnorA) watery) 0 - wt HN-C—1 he, 5 7 I oH, Methionine P ‘Mot or). Phoor?) . 7 agit nat ts H—t—cH, Hi, : L : a ales ia one a coo" coo" pie ae “fo Hy me act \ 7 I ‘Tyrosine ‘Tryptophan. (Tyr or ¥) (Txpor W) Fig. 1.35 Hycophobic amino acids | I I |Basic Physical and Chemical Concepts in Biology 23 Acidic amino acids Polar amino acids with uncharged R groups 00" napa ako “hon a by, Serine “Threonine err GurerD C00" coo hg faut niten nebo ka , ba, i Lysine Arginine |. Histidine | a, (ysorK) (Arg orR) Gis or B) i aN 1 coo” HN 0 A HN No Gtutamate Asparagine Glutamine (Gort) ‘aman (GnerQ Fig. 1.36 Hycrophitic amino acids | Bvery amino acid has a carboxyl group and an amino group, and each group can exist in an acidic form or a basic form, depending on the pET of the solution in which the amino acid is dissolved. The earboxyl groups of the amino acids have values of DK, approximately 2, and the protonated amino groups have pK, values near 9. Both groups, therefore, will be in their acidic | forms in a very acidie solution: At pH = 7,the\pH of the solution is greater than the of the carboxyl group, but less than the of the protonated amino group. The earhoxyl group, therefore, will be in its basic form and the amino group will be in its acidic form. In a strongly basic solution both groups will be in their basic forms. ba ped el Renee eato = eoto “Nu, is ‘NH, + HY NH, + HY pH =0 a Zwitter ion pH=11 pH=7 ‘An amino acid can never exist as an uncharged compound, regardless ofthe pH of the solution. To be uncharged, an arnino acid ‘would have to lose a proton from an + NH group with a pK, of about 9 befureit would lose a proton from a COOH group with a pK, of about 2. This clearly is impossible: A weak acid eannat be more acidic than a strong acid, Therefore, at physiological pHL {1.3) an amino acid exists asa dipolar ion, called a Zwitter ion. A Zwitter ion is a compound that has a negative charge on one atom and & positive charge on an adjacent atom, i i | | | | nl mu ake —_ sual a ro he, oe Gh I mye me NB t . al f | pH=0 pH=4 pH =8 pH = 12 — Fig. 1.37 The Zaitter ion frm