Subtopic 7.

2
7.2 ()
Digestive system
7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 () Contents
7.2.2 () 7.2.0 The big picture ()
7.2.1 The processes of the alimentary canal ()
7.2.3 ()
7.2.2 Digestive system ()
7.2.4 () 7.2.3 Other processes in the digestive system ()
7.2.4 Summary and key terms ()
7.2.5 ()
7.2.5 Checklist ()

Section 7.2.0

The big picture

There is a close link between what an animal eats and the structure of its alimentary canal (the passage along which
food passes, from the mouth to the anus). Humans can feed on grain, fruit and meat. However, some animals feed only
on grass (herbivores) – for example, horses and cattle. As a result, the alimentary canal of herbivores is very different to
that of humans. The total length of the human alimentary canal is around 9 m, while the alimentary canal of a horse is
around 40 m long (Figure 1). 
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7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()

Figure 1. Horses cannot break down cellulose in plant cell walls, so they rely on microorganisms in their gut to do this for them.
A lot of research is focused on the role of bacteria in the human gut.

Do cows really have four stomachs? It’s true! Click on the hotspots in Figure 2 for a tour around the four chambers of a
cow’s stomach and what happens in them.
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7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 () 
7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 () 

 Reuse Rights of use

Figure 2. Cows have four stomachs.

Before you move on to the next section, read through the learning outcomes below and answer the section questions to
check that you have the prior knowledge required to understand this subtopic.

 Learning intentions
By the end of this subtopic, you will be able to:
 identify the main organs of the digestive system (alimentary canal)

describe how the main and associated organs contribute to overall function of the digestive system
7.2 ()
explain the processes or stages of the digestive system performed by each of the main organs.
7.2.0 ()
To see the full list of learning objectives, go to the Checklist (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-
7.2.1 ()
fe2023/book/human-nutrition/digestive-system/checklist/).
7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()
  
7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 () Section questions

- Hide 3 questions

Question 1
Multiple choice

Which of the following is a source of protein?

Choices

Correct choice #1

Chicken

Answer explanation

The portion of the chicken humans eat is muscle, which is made of protein. Lettuce is a source of carbohydrate,
fibre and vitamins. Bread and apple are sources of carbohydrate.

#2
Lettuce
 #3
Bread

7.2 ()
#4
7.2.0 () Apple

7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 () Question 2
Short text
7.2.3 ()
True or false?
7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 () The substrate attaches to the active site on an enzyme.

Correct answers

True
true
T
t
Answer explanation

In a biological reaction, the substrate (reactant) attaches to the active site on an enzyme. This position on the enzyme is
very specific to the conformational shape of the substrate, similar to a key and a lock.

Question 3
Multiple choice

Which word describes the point at which an enzyme is functioning at the highest point?

Choices

Correct choice #1
 Optimum

7.2 ()
Answer explanation

7.2.0 () In an enzymatic reaction, the substrate collides with the active site on the enzyme. Increasing temperature,

7.2.1 ()
increases these collisions to a certain point, before enzyme denatures. This point is known as the optimum
temperature.
7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()
#2
Fastest
7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()
#3
Ideal

#4
Peak

Section 7.2.1

The processes of the alimentary canal

Names and functions

 Table 1 shows the names of processes that happen in the alimentary canal, and their definitions.

7.2 ()
Table 1. Processes in the digestive system and their definitions.
7.2.0 ()
Name of process Definition
7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 () ingestion taking substances (food and drink) into the body through the mouth

7.2.3 ()
digestion breaking food down into nutrients
7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 () absorption the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the
blood

assimilation the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are needed

egestion passing out food that has not been digested or absorbed

Ingestion
Food and drink are taken into the body through the mouth by ingestion. Once there, they form into a bolus which is then
swallowed. Waves of muscle contraction in the walls of the oesophagus push the bolus into the stomach (Figure 1).
7.2 ()

7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()

Figure 1. The process of food moving in the oesophagus.

This video shows an X-ray movie of someone chewing and swallowing.

 My Swallow Study
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7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()

This short video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8YNH7nCVrbQ) animates the movement of a bolus (mixture of

food and saliva) down the oesophagus through the process of a series of muscle contractions.

Digestion
There are two types of digestion. Physical digestion involves breaking down food into smaller pieces without any
chemical changes. This happens in:

the mouth
the stomach, where movements of the stomach walls break food into small pieces.
 You can find out more about physical digestion in subtopic 7.3 (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-

7.2 ()
fe2023/book/human-nutrition/physical-digestion/the-big-picture/).

7.2.0 ()
Chemical digestion involves breaking down large insoluble molecules in food into small soluble molecules, with the
7.2.1 () help of enzymes (see topic 5 (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-fe2023/book/enzymes/enzymes/the-big-
7.2.2 () picture/)). This happens in:

7.2.3 ()
the mouth
7.2.4 ()
the stomach
7.2.5 () the small intestine.

Food leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine in liquid form.

You can find out more about chemical digestion in subtopic 7.4 (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-
fe2023/book/human-nutrition/chemical-digestion/the-big-picture/).

Absorption
Absorption involves the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the blood. It
happens in the small intestine.

You can find out more about absorption in subtopic 7.5 (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-fe2023/book/human-
nutrition/absorption/the-big-picture/).
 Assimilation
7.2 () Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules from the blood into the cells of the body where they are used,
7.2.0 () becoming part of the cells. This process happens throughout the body. For example, amino acids are converted into

7.2.1 ()
proteins in the liver (see subtopic 13.1 (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-fe2023/book/excretion-in-
humans/excretion-in-humans/the-big-picture/)).
7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()
Egestion
7.2.4 ()
Egestion involves passing out food that has not been digested or absorbed. These materials leave the body as faeces.
7.2.5 ()
Faeces are stored in the rectum ready for you to go to the toilet. The faeces then pass through the anus.

 Study skills
Take care not to confuse egestion with excretion. Egestion involves removing substances that have not become
part of the body – they are just passing through. Excretion involves removing products of the body’s chemical
reactions (metabolism) from the body.

Check your understanding of these processes with the activity below.

 Activity
Match the parts of the alimentary canal with the functions that take place there:
7.2 ()

7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()

Mechanical Chemical
Ingestion
digestion digestion

Mechanical Chemical
Chemical digestion
digestion digestion

 Check

 
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7.2.0 ()
Section questions
7.2.1 () - Hide 3 questions

7.2.2 () Question 1
Multiple choice
7.2.3 ()
What is ingestion?
7.2.4 ()

Choices
7.2.5 ()
Correct choice #1

The intake of food or drink into the mouth.

Answer explanation

Ingestion is how animals get the nutrients they need.

#2
The breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules.

#3
The movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the blood.

#4
The movement of digested food molecules from the blood into the cells of the body, where they are used.

Question 2
Short text
 State the name of the process that happens in the small intestine but not in the stomach.

7.2 ()
Correct answers
7.2.0 ()
absorption
7.2.1 () assimilation
Answer explanation
7.2.2 ()
Chemical digestion happens in the stomach and small intestine, but absorption only happens in the small intestine.
7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 () Question 3
Fill in the blanks
7.2.5 ()
The breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules is called  1 chemical digestion.

Accepted answers and explanation

#1 chemical

Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules.

Section 7.2.2

Digestive system
 Digestive system
7.2 ()

7.2.0 () The alimentary canal or gut is the tube in which food passes through the body. Food enters the mouth and leaves at the
anus. The journey that food takes is:
7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()
mouth
→
oesophagus
→
stomach
→
small intestine
→
large intestine
→
anus
7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 () The small intestine consists of parts including the:

7.2.5 ()
duodenum
ileum.

The large intestine consists of parts including (in addition to the anus) the:

colon
rectum.

Figure 1 shows the human digestive system. It consists of the alimentary canal and parts that food does not pass
through, but which are important in the digestion of food:

salivary glands
liver
gall bladder
pancreas.
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7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()

Figure 1. The parts of the human digestive system.

 Activity
Drag the names of the parts of the digestive system to their correct places. 
7.2 ()
Small Gall bladder
intestine
7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()
Stomach Large intestine
7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 () G
Oesophagus Rectum

7.2.5 ()

G
Liver Pancreas

 Check

 Reuse

The following video shows the movement of food through the digestive system by the process of peristalsis, waves of
muscle contraction.
 3D Medical Animation - Peristalsis in Large Intestine/Bowel || ABP ©
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 Study skills
Make sure you can identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs. Watch the animation of
the digestive system below and see if you can identify the parts.
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Section questions
- Hide 3 questions

Question 1
Short text

State the name of the part of the alimentary canal that consists of the duodenum and ileum.

Correct answers
 small intestine

7.2 ()
the small intestine
Answer explanation
7.2.0 ()
The duodenum and ileum are parts of the small intestine. The large intestine consists of the colon, rectum and anus.
7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 () Question 2
Multiple choice
7.2.3 ()
Which organ is part of the digestive system but not a part of the alimentary canal?
7.2.4 ()
Choices
7.2.5 ()
Correct choice #1

Liver

Answer explanation

The liver has important functions in digestion but is an organ associated with the alimentary canal, rather than
being a part of it.

#2
Stomach

#3
Colon

#4
Rectum

Question 3
 Multiple choice

In which part of the alimentary canal is the rectum found?

7.2 ()

Choices
7.2.0 ()
Correct choice #1
7.2.1 ()
Large intestine
7.2.2 ()
Answer explanation
7.2.3 ()
The small intestine contains the duodenum and ileum. The oesophagus connects the mouth to the stomach, and the
7.2.4 ()
anus connects the large intestine to the outside of the body.
7.2.5 ()

#2
Small intestine

#3
Oesophagus

#4
Anus

Section 7.2.3

Other processes in the digestive system

 There are four parts shown in Figure 1 of section 7.2.2 (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-fe2023/book/human-

7.2 ()
nutrition/digestive-system/digestive-system/) that are part of the digestive system, but not part of the alimentary canal:

7.2.0 ()
salivary glands
7.2.1 () liver
7.2.2 () gall bladder

7.2.3 ()
pancreas.

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()
Salivary glands
The salivary glands produce saliva, which is secreted into the mouth. Saliva mixes with ingested food to make it soft
and easier to swallow. Saliva contains amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into simple reducing sugars.

This animation shows the positions of the salivary glands in the mouth.
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Liver and gall bladder

The liver is the heaviest organ in the body after the skin. It has hundreds of functions but its main function in digestion
is the production of bile. This substance is important for the efficient digestion of fat (see subtopic 7.4
(/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-fe2023/book/human-nutrition/chemical-digestion/the-big-picture/)). Bile is
stored in the gall bladder before it is released through the bile duct into the duodenum (Figure 1).
7.2 ()

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7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()

Figure 1. The liver and gall bladder.

Pancreas
The pancreas is an organ that secretes pancreatic juice. This liquid helps with the chemical digestion of proteins, fats
and carbohydrates. It is alkaline because it contains a high concentration of hydrogencarbonate ions, HCO3– . This helps
to neutralise acid in food leaving the stomach (Figure 2).
7.2 ()

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7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()

Figure 2. The location and structure of the pancreas.

The pancreas also has an important role in the control of glucose levels in the blood (see subtopic 14.4
(/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-fe2023/book/coordination-and-response/homeostasis/the-big-picture/)).

 Activity
7.2 ()

7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()

Creates bile to break down fats and neutralise acid

Absorbs water and salts from undigested food Absorbs nu

Transports food to the digestive system Secretes hormones and d

Stores undigested food for excretion Uses enzymes and acid to

 Check
  

7.2 ()

7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()
 Study skills
7.2.2 ()
In ​topic 5 (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-fe2023/book/enzymes/enzymes/the-big-picture/)  you
7.2.3 () learned that enzyme function is affected by low pH environments.

7.2.4 () Discuss with a partner or in small groups, why it is important the food leaving the stomach (contains enzymes) is
neutralised (pH raised) before mixing with pancreatic juices.
7.2.5 ()

 Activity

Choose the correct statement.  Progress: 0/3

Pancreas helps with mechanical digestion.

The salivary glands secrete bile.

Bile is stored in the gall bladder.

  
   

7.2 () Section questions

- Hide 2 questions
7.2.0 ()

Question 1
7.2.1 ()
Short text

7.2.2 () State the name of the organ that produces bile.

7.2.3 ()
Correct answers
7.2.4 ()
liver
7.2.5 ()
Answer explanation

The gallbladder stores bile but the liver produces it.

Question 2
Multiple choice

Which ions make pancreatic juice alkaline when they are in high concentration?

Choices

Correct choice #1

Hydrogencarbonate ions

Answer explanation

A high concentration of hydrogen ions makes solutions acidic. The concentrations of sodium ions and chloride
ions do not affect the degree of acidity or alkalinity of solutions.

#2
Hydrogen ions
 #3
Chloride ions
7.2 ()

7.2.0 () #4
Sodium ions
7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()
Section 7.2.4

Summary and key terms

The main organs of the digestive system process necessary nutrients for living cells.
Digestion follows a series of stages, beginning with ingestion (the intake of food), digestion (breakdown of food
into nutrients), absorption (movement of nutrients into intestines, assimilation (intake of nutrients into cells) and
egestion (removal of faeces from the body).
The digestive system contains two main components, the alimentary canal and associated organs.
While the alimentary canal is essentially the ‘tube’ that processes food by physical digestion; the complete
digestive system relies on the associated organs to provide essential enzymes for chemical digestion.
These types of digestion, the function of associated organs and specific processes occurring through the digestive
system are discussed in more detail in later sections of this topic.
The associated organs release substances, such as enzymes (topic 5 (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-
fe2023/book/enzymes/enzymes/the-big-picture/)) into the alimentary canal of the digestive system to break down
food into small pieces. This is an example of chemical digestion.
  Key terms
7.2 ()

7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()
 Review these key terms. Do you know them all? Fill in
7.2 () as many gaps as you can using the terms in this list.

7.2.0 ()
1. The digestive system is composed of the
7.2.1 () along with its associated organs,

7.2.2 () such as the and small intestine..

2. Food follows a sequence of processes, starting with

7.2.3 ()
ingestion, taking food and drink into the mouth by the
7.2.4 () process of .

3. The salivary glands begin digestion by mixing food with

7.2.5 ()
an enzyme called which breaks
down starch.

4. Chewed food in the form of a bolus then passes down a

tube called the into the stomach.

5. In the small intestine, the food is mixed with

secreted by the pancreas, and bile
from the which help with the
digestion of food.

6. The process of absorption starts in the small intestine,

where and water are absorbed into
the blood, and continues in the large intestine.

7. is the movement of digested

food molecules into the cells of the body where they are
needed.

8. The final stage in the digestive system is the passing

out, or , of food that has not been
digested or absorbed.
 Assimilation pancreatic juice nutrients

egestion alimentary canal gallbladder

7.2 ()
stomach oesophagus amylase ingestion
7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()

Section 7.2.5

Checklist 

 What you should know

After studying this subtopic, you should be able to:

Core

Identify in diagrams and images the main organs of the digestive system, limited to:
alimentary canal: mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine

(duodenum and ileum) and large intestine (colon, rectum, anus)

associated organs: salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder.

Describe the functions of the organs of the digestive system in relation to: 
ingestion: the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body

digestion: the breakdown of food

 absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines into the blood

assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells

7.2 ()
egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body as faeces.
7.2.0 ()

7.2.1 ()

7.2.2 ()

7.2.3 ()

7.2.4 ()

7.2.5 ()
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