EVOLUTION

Bio 211, Monsoon 2016

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/anims/altitudevideo2_pop.php

To read more visit

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/huertasanchez_01
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
➤ Descent with modification from
a common ancestor
➤ encompasses
➤ small-scale evolution
(changes in gene frequency
in a population from one
generation to the next) &
➤ large-scale evolution (the
descent of different species
from a common ancestor
over many generations)
➤ Evolution helps us to
understand the history of life.
 IS ALL CHANGE OVER TIME EVOLUTION?

Trees lose leaves Mountains erode

Descent through
genetic inheritance

Descent through
modification
Family genealogy Diversity of life

University of California Museum of Paleontology's Understanding Evolution (http://evolution.berkeley.edu).

CENTRAL IDEAS OF EVOLUTION
➤ Life has a history
➤ Species share common
ancestors
➤ Process of evolution
produces a pattern of
relationships between
species
➤ Modifications are
inherited
UNDERSTANDING PHYLOGENIES

Root = ancestral lineage Branching => Speciation

Tracing patterns of shared ancestry Shared and unique

between lineages ancestors
TREES ARE NOT LADDERS
➤ Tree-like, not ladder-like

➤ No “levels of advancement”

➤ left- right = right-left

HUMANS ARE PRIMATES
➤ Did humans evolve from chimps?
➤ No. Humans and chimpanzees
are evolutionary cousins and
share a recent common
ancestor that was neither
chimpanzee nor human.

➤ Are humans higher or more

evolved than chimps?
➤ No. Since our lineages split,
humans and chimpanzees
have each evolved traits
unique to their own lineages.
BUILDING TREES
➤ Biologists build trees by collecting data about characters of
each organism
➤ Characters are heritable traits that can be compared across
organisms, such as physical characteristics (morphology),
genetic sequences, and behavioral traits.
BUILDING TREES
➤ Use Homologous characters
➤ homologous: characters in different
organisms that are similar because they were inherited
from a common ancestor that also had that character

➤ But not all characters are homologous: e.g. Bat & bird wings
➤ Bird and bat wings are analogous —
that is, they have separate evolutionary origins,
but are superficially similar.
➤ Analogies are the result of convergent evolution.
MECHANISMS
➤ Descent with modification from a common ancestor, but
exactly what has been modified?
➤ Evolution only occurs when there is a change in gene
frequency within a population over time.
➤ These genetic differences are heritable and can be passed
on to the next generation — which implies long term
change.
WHICH IS EVOLUTION?
In year 2,
1. Beetles on a diet
beetles are
1 year drought, smaller. But all
not enough food have equal
chances to
reproduce &
survive

2. Beetles of a different colour

Some
90% green gene, generations
10% brown gene later: 70%
brown gene
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
➤ Mutation

➤ Migration

➤ Genetic Drift: chance changes from

generation to generation

➤ Natural Selection:
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
➤ Mutation
Prerequisite: Genetic variation to begin with

➤ Migration

➤ Genetic Drift: chance changes from

generation to generation

➤ Natural Selection:
Causes of Genetic Variation

1. Mutation: changes in the DNA.

A single mutation can have a large effect
But typically, evolutionary change is based on the
accumulation of many mutations
Mutations are random
Mutations need not matter to evolution
eg: Golden Apple - somatic
mutations, non-repro cells, not
passed through seeds
Causes of Genetic Variation

1. Mutation: changes in the DNA.

Only Mutations that matter to large-scale evolution are
ones that can be passed down, via repro cells: germ-line
mutations
Can have no effect
Minor Effect: change in ear shape
Big-scale effects: DDT resistance
Causes of Genetic Variation

1. Mutation: Causes
DNA fails to copy accurately
- natural occurrence

External influences can create mutations

- specific chemicals, radiation cause DNA
to break down
Causes of Genetic Variation

2. Gene Flow: movement of genes from one population to

another
eg: pollen being blown, people moving, etc
movement of novel gene variants
Causes of Genetic Variation

3. Sex and Genetic Shuffling

- recombination of traits
- not always positive
- can be bad or neutral
- important: introduces new
gene combinations every generation
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: GENETIC DRIFT
➤ Genetic Drift: chance changes from
generation to generation

➤ some individuals, by chance, leave more descendants

➤ random process
➤ results in evolution, but doesn’t produce ADAPTATIONS
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: GENETIC DRIFT
➤ chance changes from generation to generation
➤ reduces variation
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: GENETIC DRIFT
➤ affects small populations more - faster, more drastic effects
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: GENETIC DRIFT
➤ Genetic Drift: Bottlenecks
➤ Population bottlenecks occur when a population's size is
reduced for at least one generation.

➤ Eg: elephant seals and hunting;

signature in genes
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: GENETIC DRIFT
➤ Mass extinction event 12,000 yrs ago affected mammals
➤ Cheetahs: Poor sperm quality, focal palatine erosion,
susceptibility to infectious diseases, kinked tails
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: GENETIC DRIFT
➤ Founder effects
➤ New colony started by few of the original population.
➤ reduced genetic variation from the original population.
➤ a non-random sample of the genes

➤ Eg: Dwarfism in
Amish people
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: NATURAL SELECTION
1. Variation in traits

2. Differential survival and reproduction

3. Heredity

4. End result
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: NATURAL SELECTION
FITNESS
➤ How good a genotype is at leaving behind offspring, relative
to other genotypes

➤ survival, mate-finding, reproduction

➤ not strongest, fastest, biggest
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: SEXUAL SELECTION
Special case of Natural Selection
Sexual selection acts on an organism's ability to obtain or
successfully copulate with a mate.
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: SEXUAL SELECTION
Sexual selection can cause harmful features to evolve -
eg: bright colours/songs
increase predation risk

Two factors affect sexual selection

1. Male competition
2. Female Choice
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
BOOK: On the origin of species (+ 34 others)
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION: ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Long before Darwin: farmers and breeders

Selection for specific traits

Can be done in labs

Mendel? Breeding peas ->

understanding of inheritance
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
LIMITATIONS OF NATURAL SELECTION
Selection, not perfection
Might not produce perfectly engineered trait

Lack of necessary genetic variation

Constraints due to history
Trade-offs
LIMITATIONS OF NATURAL SELECTION
Why are “Bad” genes still present?
1. Heterozygote advantage

Sickle cells: 1 copy=malaria resistance, 2=anemia

2. Maintained by mutation
3. Gene flow
4. Natural selection hasn't had enough time to remove this
5. Doesn’t reduce fitness
NATURAL SELECTION IS EVERYWHERE
Eg: Antibiotic resistance

Nothing in Biology makes sense except in the

light of evolution - T. Dobzhanksy
Charles Darwin
http://www.evolution-of-life.com/en/observe/video/fiche/darwin-on-the-evolution-
trail.html

Natural Selection & Sexual Selection

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxHdzw7E0wU