Lesson 1 : Intermolecular Forces of Liquids and Solids Liquid Water - Tubig

Solid Water - Ice

Phase - a homogeneous state of a certain system, related to Gas Water - Steam
other parts of a system, a uniform phase O C 1 atm

Intermolecular force
- an attractive force between a molecules of the same
substance of a certain mixture, molecule to another
Intramolecular - “within” force that puts together a molecule.

Kinetic Molecular Model Postulates 0.99984 g/cm3 0.917 g/cm3

1. Matter is made up of tint molecules
2. Particles are in constant motion Lesson 2 : Intermolecular Forces of Solid
3. Kinetic energy is proportional to temperature
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distance between the Terminologies
particles. Fluid - a substance that could flow
Crystal - a solid material whose components are arranged in a
Condensed Phases - solid and liquid highly ordered manner in microscopic level
Ionic Crystal - a solid composed of positively and negatively
Properties of Molecular Behavior charged ions held by electrostatic force
Matter Solid Liquid Gas Electrostatic bonding - attraction between oppositely charged
Shape/Volume - Fixed - It has fixed - it assumes ions held in a chemical compound
volume and volume, the volume Ionic Bond - electrostatic force in ionic compounds
shape assumes the and shape of Covalent Bond - a bond with one or more pairs of electrons
regardless of shape of the container shared by two atoms
container occupied part Crystal Lattice - regular repeating structure of a crystalline
of the solid
container Unit cell - smallest sub unit of a crystal lattice
Density - high density - high density - low density
Compressibility - cannot be - cannot be - easy Kinds of How Solid Can be Arranged by
compressed compressed
1. Arrangement of Particles
* there might 2. Behavior When Heated
be provisions
for Kind of Particle Behavior When Example
compression Solid Arrangement Heated
but it limited Crystalline arranged in melts when Diamond,
Motion of - vibration in - motion is - motion is Solid fixed geometric submitted to Sugar, Salt,
Molecules place random, at random, is designs/ heat at specific Tawas, Gem
medium fast and patterns or temperature Stone
speed and cover large lattices then
limited distances properties
distance change
Amorphous arranged in Soften Rubber
Kinds of Intermolecular Forces random gradually, melt band, Plastic
1. Dipole-Dipole Forces (shapeless) orientation, over a wide
- exists between polar molecules (one partially super cool liquid range of
negative and positive) temperature
- example : HCl (Hydrogen Chloride)
2. Hydrogen Bond Kinds of Crystals
- only exists if there is Hydrogen
- Hydrogen + highly electromagnetic atom (N, O, F) Type of Form of Forces between Properties Example
- example : NH3 (Ammonia) , H20 (Water) Solid Unit Particles
3. Ion- Dipole Forces Particle
- London - fairly soft
- ion (charged molecule +/-) + polar molecule
Dispersion - low to
- example : NaCl (Sodium Chloride moderate,
4. London Dispersion Forces high melting
- Dipole-dipole
- attraction between non polar molecules point Argon
- example: two He atoms - poor Methane
Molecular Atoms or - Hydrogen thermal and Sucrose
Molecule Bond electrical
Properties of Liquid Dry Ice
conduction
1. Surface tension - ability to resist on external force and
- very hard
assume a lesser surface area - very high
2. Viscosity - resistance of liquid to flow (thickness and Atoms Diamond
melting
connected Carbon
thinness) Covalent point
by a Quartz
3. Vapor Pressure - the pressure exerted by its vapor in Bonding - poor
Covalent- network of Silicone
equilibrium by its solid or liquid Network thermal and
covalent Oxide
4. Boiling Point electrical
bonds (SiO2)
conduction
- vapor pressure = atmospheric external force
- hard but
- the higher higher the force, the higher the boiling brittle
point needed to break the bond Forces are Salts
- high
positive Calcium
5. Heat of Evaporization - amount of hear needed to vaporize a melting
and Nitrate
mole of a substance Ionic negative Electrostatic point
6. Capillary Action - ability of liquid to pass through narrow Crystal Attraction -poor
ions
tubes and rise from openings thermal &
electrical
- example: IV tube, gasoline tubes, H20 in plant stems
conductors
- soft to very
a. Cohesion - intermolecular force between like molecules hard
(liquid-liquid) - low to high
b. Adhesion - force between unlike molecules (liquid-solid) melting
point All
* meniscus -excellent metallic
Metallic atoms Metallic bonds thermal and
- convex ( ) = cohesive force > adhesive force elements
Crystals electrical
- concave ( ) = cohesive force < adhesive force conductor
- horizontal ( ) = cohesive = adhesive - malleable
- ductile
Why is water an unusual liquid?
- a good solvent (dissolves)
- high specific heat ( 1 cal/g C or 4.18 J g C at 1 C)
- boiling point is unusually high at 100 C
- water is less dense and floats in liquid water
Lesson 3 : Phase changes Physical Properties of Solution
- transformation from one phase to another
A solution is a homogeneous(uniform in appearance) picture of
two or more substances. Solution has a solute ( substance
dissolved in a solution and present in smaller amount)and a
solvent (dissolving medium)

Solubility of solute is affected by:

1. Nature of solute or solvent
2. Temperature (KE)
3. Pressure

Components of a solution may be solid liquid or gas. However,

the resulting phase of the solution depends on the phase of the
solvent

Types of Solutions
Solute Solvent Solution Examples
gas gas gas Oxygen in
nitrogen
S - L = melting gas liquid liquid Carbon dioxide in
L - S = freezing water
gas solid solid Hydrogen in
L - G = evaporation / vaporization palladium
G - L = condensation liquid liquid liquid Ethanol in water
liquid solid solid Mercury in silver
G - S = deposition solid liquid liquid Salt in water
S - G = sublimation solid solid solid Copper in tin
condensation (bronze)
Exothermic - gawas ang heat , exit
freezing Solution can be classified as
melting 1. Unsaturated - contains less solute that the solvent’s capacity
Endothermic - inside to dissolve. The solution can still dissolve more
evaporation solute.
2. Saturated- contains the maximum amount of solute that the
When can Phase Change Happen? solvent can dissolve at a certain temperature.
- adding heat 3. Supersaturated - contains more dissolved solute than is
- reducing heat present in a saturated solution. This is a type that is
unstable such that the excess solute can crystallize in
1. H + KE = change of temperature the solution by adding a “seed crystal” (seedling) or by
scratching the sides of the container.
2. H ( just physical appearance) = phase change, bond
between breaks apart Energy of Solution Formation - For two substances to form
solution, they must have the same nature in terms of polarity
3. H+ KE = particles slow down = temperature
The formation of liquid solution takes place in 3 steps:
4. H (just physical appearance) = phase change, forms bonds 1. overcoming the inter molecular forces in the solvent to give
room for the solute (expanding the solvent0
2. Separating the solute into its individual components
(expanding the solute)
3. Allowing the solute and the solvent to interact to form the
solution

Energy is either release or absorbed in forming a solution.

Solutions are important in our daily lives. We have to take note
of the energy changes involved in their formations.

∆ H 1 + ∆ H 2 =heat change (∆ H 3 )
Step 1 and 2 are endothermic processes (they require
energy to overcome the forces in expanding the solvent and
solute). Step 3 is an exothermic process (involved in the
formation of new solute solvent interactions which usually
release energy )

Each of the steps involved in heat change - enthalpy change.

The enthalpy of solution is the enthalpy change associated with
the formation of the solution. It is equal to the sum of all values
of the three steps.

∆ soln=∆ H 1+ ∆ H 2 + ∆ H 3
Positive∆ H is endothermic
Negative ∆ H is exothermic

Concentration of Solutions
- we need to know how to properly consume, use and dispose
- solutions may be expressed in different units of concentration.

Percentage Solution - one way to describe the concentration of

a solution Is byb percent of a solute in the solvent. The percent
can further be determined by

1. The ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution
2. The ratio of the volume of the solute to the volume of the
solution
3. The ratio of the mass of the solute to the volume of the
solution
1. Percent by Mass or Percent by Weight (%,w/w)

mass of solute
% of mass= x 100
mass of solution 4. Parts per Million (ppm)

Where, mass of the solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent mass of solute 6
ppm= x 10
Examples: mass of solution(¿ grams)
* A 100 gram sample of a 10% by mass aqueous solution of
nitric acid (HN03) contains 10 grams of NHO3 and 90 grams of
1 mg 1 mg
water. 1 ppm= =
kg L
Examples:
* 4 mg of NaCl is dissolved in 8kg of solution. What is the
concentration of NaCl in ppm?

*If 28.5 g of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 is dissolved in enough

water to make 185 g of solution, what is the percent by mass of
Ca(OH)2 in the solution.

* Suppose that a solution was prepared by dissolving 25 g of

sugar into 100 g of water. What is the percent by mass?

5. Mole Fraction, x
nA nB
x A= xB = x + x =1
2. Percent by Volume (%,v/v) n A +n B n A=n B A B
volume of solute m
% by volume= x 100
volume of solution (n) moles can be obtained by :
MM
Examples:
Examples:
* A wine contains 12% alcohol by volume. Calculate the volume
*What is the mole fraction of the solute in a 40% by mass
(in mL) of alcohol in 350mL of the wine.
ethanol (C2 H6O) solution in water.

* If a solution is made by adding 40mL of ethanol to 200mL of

water, the percent volume is?

3. Mass-Volume Percent (Percent Weight (volume) % w/v)

mass of solute (¿ grams)

% by mass − volume= x 100
volume of solution(¿ mL)
Example:
* A 50mL of 12% by mass-volume solution was used in an
experiment. How many grams of solute does the solution
contain?

*Calculate the mole fraction of sulfuric acid in an 8% solution

of sulfuric acide solution and water.

6. Molality (m)
 - number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent, it
does not change the solution’s temperature and mass.

moles of solute
molality ( m)=
mass of solvent (¿ kg)
n solute mol m
m= m= d=
m solvent kg v

Examples for molality:

* calculate the molal concentration of a solution that contains
18 grams of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in 100 ml of water.

Solution Stoichiometry
1. Express the given amount of substance in moles
2. Convert the moles of the given substance to the moles of the
desired substance using a stoichiometric factor derived from
the balanced chemical equation.
3. Convert the moles of the sought substance to any other
desired units or expression
* How many grams of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are needed to
prepare a 0.7 molal solution using 700 grams of water
* Calculate the mass (in grams) of Calcium nitrate Ca(NO 3)2
that can be produced by reacting 136 ml of 4 M nitric acid
HNO3 with excess calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2. (molar mass of
Ca(OH)2 is 164.1 g/mol)

Balanced equation

1. Use the molarity and volume of the solution to get the

number of moles of HNO3

7. Molarity, M 2. find the number of moles of Ca(NO3)2 using the

- number of moles of solute per L of solution. It is stoichiometric factor
useful in doing stoichiometric calculations involving
solutions
- the volume of a solution can change with
temperature value to expansion or contraction

mole of solute
M=
volume of solution ∈L
* Determine the molar concentration of a solution that contains
25 grans if Potassium Hydroxide ( KOH) in a 250 mL solution.
(molar mass= 56 g/mol)
3. Find the mass of Ca(NO3)2 using its molar mass

Conversion Schemes