PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY

Stratigraphy- is a branch of geology and the earth sciences that deals with the arrangement and
succession of strata or layers, as well as the origin, composition and distribution of these geological
strata

Willian Smith- The father of Stratigraphy, however, was the English engineer and geologist, Willian Smith
(1769-1893) in 1815 Smith produced the first modem Geologic Map, showing rock strata in England and
wales

PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY

Law of Superposition- sedimentary layers became progressively younger upward through a stratigraphic
sequence

Principles of Original Horizontality- at the time of deposition, sedimentary layers are horizontal, if they
are no longer horizontal they have undergone some type of deformation. The two most common types
of deformation are folding and faulting

Cross Cutting Relationships- is a principle of geology that states that the geologic feature which cuts
another is the younger of the two features

Lateral Continuity- States that layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all directions: in other words
they are laterally continuous

Law of Faunal Sucession- is a observation that assembles of fossils plants and animals follow or succed
each other in time in a predictable manner

RELATIVE DATING & ABOSOLUTE DATING

Relative Dating Methdods- placing of events in the order in which they occurred without any
relationship to the actual time

Rules of rock age identification

1. Uniformitarianism- the events in the earth's past can be understood by observing the processes seen
today
2. Law of Original Horizontality- layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally under the action
of gravity

3. Law of Superposition- in a sequence of undisturbed rocks, the oldest layer is on the bottom and the
youngest layer is on the top

4. Law of Cross cutting Relationship- any geologic feature that cross-cuts or modifies another feature
must be younger than the rocks it cuts through

5. Contact Metamorphism- happens when rock is heated up by an intrusion of hot magma and often
called thermal metamorphism

Abosolute Dating Methods- Determining the actual age of rocks or fossills using radio active decay

Ages of Rocks

The RELATIVE AGE of rock is its age compared to other rocks. use words like: "older or younger"

The ABSOLUTE AGE of rock is the number of years since the rock was formed. example "358-360 mya"

Methods of Absolute Dating

1. Radio Carbon Dating- it provides objective age estimates for carbon-based materials that originated
from living organism

Carbon 14 is a roadiostope of carbon- it is produced in the Earth's upper atmosphere when nitrogen 14
is broken down to form the unstable carbon-14 by the action of cosmic rays

2. Potassium argon Dating- method of determining the time of origin of rocks by measuring the ratio of
radio active argon to radio active potassium in the rock

example: Volcanic Eruption

Tepra- broken bits of rocks, pumice and ash that come out of the volcano
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND HAZARDS

Geologic Process- are naturally occuring events that directly or indirectly impact the geology of the earth

Geological Hazards- are extremely natural event in the crust of the earth that poses threat to life and
property

Earthquake- is the minimal to rapid shaking of the ground due to the movement of rocks along faults on
the earth's crust

Different Earthquake Hazards:

Ground Shaking- most obvious hazard

Surface Faulting- breaking of the ground

Landslide- downward movement of the soil

Liquefaction- saturation of soil with water

Tsunami- when shaking happens of the seafloor

Volcanic Eruption- occurs when magma is released from a volcano

Volcanic Hazards:

Tephra- consists of pyroclastic fragments

Pyroclastic Flow- dense, fast moving flow of solidified lava pieces

Lahar- mixture of rock and water that flows down the slope of volcano

Lava flows and domes- composed of viscous magma/lava being erupted onto surface

Poisonous gases- are gases released during volcanic eruption

Hazard- are phenomena (natural or man made) which poses threat to humans, animals, properties and
environment

Landslides- is the movement of rock down a slope

HYDROMETEOROLOGY PROCESSES AND HAZARDS

Hydrometeorology- it is a branch of meteorology and hydrology that studies the transfer of water and
energy between land surface and the lower atmosphere

Hydrometeorological Hazards- as the process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanic

nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage loss of livelihoods
and services, social and economic disruption or environmental damages

Types of Hydrometeorological Hazards

1. Tropical Cyclone- is a severe weather disturbance characterized by strong wind and heavy rains which
revolved around a central low pressure area

2. Monsoon- it is a seasonal shift in the prevailing wind direction, that usually brings with it a different
kind of weather

Types of Monsoon

Southwest Monsoon (Habagat)- hot and humid that brings frequent heavy rainfall and prevailing wind

Northeast Monsoon (Amihan)- winter monsoon weather features generally less strong, East or
Northeast breeze that is cooler and drier

Flood- it is abnormal progressive rise in the water level of a stream that may result in overflowing to the
ground

Types of Flood

1. Flash Flood- caused by heavy or excessive rainfall in a short period of time, generally less than 6hrs

2. Coastal Flood- caused by strong winds or storms that move towards a coast during high tide

3. River Flood- characterized by gradual riverbank overflows caused by extensive rainfall over an
extended period of time

4. Urban Flood- occur when the drainage system in a city or town falls to absorb the water from heavy
rain. The lack of natural drainage in an urban area can also contribute to flooding

5. Pluvial Flood- form in flat areas where the terrain can't absorb the rainwater, causing puddles and
ponds to appear, this is similar to urban flooding but it occurs mostly in rural areas

Tornadoes (ipo-ipo)- it is whirling funnel shaped cloud. it develops in low heavy cumulonimbus clouds.
The area at the buttom of this funnel of swirling air has extremely low air pressure

Storm Surge- it is an atypical rises of water over the above the predicted astronomical tides. it can reach
a heigh of atleast 8m and may cause the most destruction in coastal area
Hazard Map- is a map that highlights areas that affected by or are vulnerable to a particular hazard

Flood Hazard Map- which helps identify areas that are prone to flooding

Three Dimensional (3D) Hazard Map- is another visual guide for flooding it indicates the areas that are
most vulnerable to flooding by intensities of color: the darker color, the deeper water

Storm surge color coded earning systems- provides alert status for communities located near to
coastline

MARINE AND COASTAL PROCESSES AND HAZARD

Marine Ecosystem- are the largest of earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in the water that have a high
salt content

Coastal Processes- coastal processes are events happening in the marine environment. it occurs where
waves break on the shore.

Coastal Process

Waves- are usually caused by wind and controlled by wind speed

Tides- are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces
exerted by the moon and the sun, and the rotation of earth

Sea level changes- changes in sea level, globally or locally

Crustal movement- the movements of plates that make up the Earth's crust

Storm Surge- is a rise in sea level that occurs during tropical cyclone, Intense storms also known as
typoons or hurricanes

Coastal hazards- coastal hazard caused by different coastal processes that expose marine environment
to risk of property damage, loss of life, and ecological degradation

Coastal erosion- the process by which local sea level rise, strong wave action, and coastal flooding wear
down or carry away rocks, soils, and or/sands along the coast

Submersion- movement of coastal sediments from the visible portion of a beach to the submerged
nearshore region of the coast

Salt Water Intrusion- is the induced flow of sea water into fresh water aquafiers primarily cause by
grand water development near the coast

Aquafier- is an underground layer of permeable rock, gravel, sand or salt