3 Stoichiometry

a) Sum formula & reaction equation

b) Molar mass
c) Number of moles
d) Yield & limiting reactand
e) Preview aqueous solutions
3 Stoichiometry: a) reaction equation
• gr: stoicheion – element; metron - measure
• Sum formula indicates number of atoms of a given element, proportions
important
• Also valid for reaction equations:
e. g. (1) Zn + 2 HCl → (1) ZnCl₂ + (1) H₂
• Only integer numbers as prefactors!
• Additionally possible symbols: aggregate state (g, l, s); aq = aqueous
solution, D on reaction arrow: under heating; ↑ release of gas;
↓ precipitation (solid falls out of solution)
• Important: element (number) and mass conservation!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3 Stoichiometry: a) reaction equation
• Examples:
– Fe2O3 + 2 Al → 2 Fe + Al2O3
– CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
– 2 Al + 6 H2O → 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2
– C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
– ...
3 Stoichiometry: b) molar mass
• example: Ca₃(PO₄)₂ calcium phosphate
m = 3 m(Ca) + 2 m(P) + 8 m(O) = 310.18 u
(Ca: 40.08 u; P: 30.97u; O: 16.00 u)
• Percentage composition:

% element = number * mass element * 100 %

mass compound
• From quantitative analysis sum formula can be determined (keep in mind measurement
uncertainty!)
• remark: sum formula P₂O₅, molecular formula P₄O₁₀ (requires more details/knowledge)
• Combustion analysis (organic substances):
%C + %H + %O = 100 % (if only those elements present)
reaction products CO₂ + H₂O, oxygen content from difference to 100 %
3 Stoichiometry: c) number of moles
• Relation between number of particles and mass
• Mol(e) concept, lat. moles = mass
• 1 mol = 6.022… * 10²³ particles
• exact definition: 1 mol is the number of atoms in 12.000 g of isotope ¹²C
• example: Ca₃(PO₄)₂ 1 mol corresponds to 310.18 g
• molar mass: 310.18 g/mol
• Important equation: n = m/M with number of moles n, mass m and molar mass M
multiple ways of use of this equation (!)
• additional: c = n/V with c concentration, V volume;
c = 1 mol/l is also called a 1 molar solution
• from here on: no more use of unit u for elemental mass!
3 Stoichiometry: d) Yield
mass product
• % yield = theoretical mass on complete reaction * 100 %
• Issues reducing yield:
• residuals on glassware etc.
• Volatile or insoluble reactants/products
• wrong ratio of reactants
• Competing reactions
e. g. 2 P + 3 Cl₂ → 2 PCl₃
but: PCl₃ + Cl₂ → PCl₅ !!
3 Stoichiometry: e) preview aqueous solutions
• typical solvent, different examples
• dissolution:
• Salts – dissociation: NaCl (s) → Na⁺ (aq) + Cl⁻ (aq)
• molecules: dissolve molecular, e. g. sugar
• but: HCl → H⁺ (aq) + Cl⁻ (aq) acid!
• precipitation: solubility reached/passed
2 KI (aq) + Pb(NO₃)₂ (aq) → PbI₂ ↓ + 2 KNO₃ (aq)
better: 2 K⁺ + 2 I⁻ + Pb²⁺ + 2 NO₃⁻ → PbI₂ ↓ + 2K⁺ + 2 NO₃⁻
• Reactions for qualitative analysis:
AgNO₃ (aq) + KCl (aq) → AgCl ↓ + K⁺ (aq) + NO₃⁻ (aq)
very low solubility, proof of existence of Cl⁻ (or Ag⁺)
3 Stoichiometry: e) preview aqueous solutions
• Type of reaction: acid-base reaction
• acid: releases H⁺ in water
• base: releases OH⁻ in water
• neutralization: acid + base → water + salt
HCl + NaOH → H₂O + NaCl
H₂SO₄ + 2 NH₃ → 2 H₂O + (NH₄)₂SO₄
• gas formation:
HCl + NaHCO₃ → H₂O + NaCl + CO₂↑
(H₂O + CO₂ → H₂CO₃, carbonic acid, unstable)
3 Stoichiometry: e) preview aqueous solutions
• Type of reaction: redox reaction
• reduction + oxidation: change of oxidation number
reduction – gain electrons, oxidation – loss of electrons
• example: Ca + 2 H⁺ → Ca²⁺ + H₂
2Ca + O₂ → CaO
• oxidizing agent: oxidizes other substances, will itself be reduced
(likewise reducing agent)
3 Stoichiometry: e) preview aqueous solutions
• Redox reaction: to consider
• Determine oxidation number (ON)
• elemental: ON = 0 (also H₂, P₄, …)
• monoatomic ion: ON = charge
• Polyatomic ions: ON = ∑ charge of individual elements (NO₃¯, PO₄³¯, SO₄²⁻, …)
• Non-metals: O typ. -2, H +1 (both with exceptions), F always -1,
other halogens (Cl, Br, I) also +1, +3, +5, +7
• sum of all charges on left side of reaction must match sum of all charges on
right side of reaction!!!
• Activity series (next page): the more up, the easier is oxidation
example: Cu + 2 AgNO₃ (aq) → 2 Ag + Cu(NO₃)₂ (aq)
3 Stoichiometry: e) preview aqueous solutions

Remark:
All metals above hydrogen react in acid, all
below require oxidizing acids (e. g. at least
HNO₃, nitric acid)
3 Stoichiometry: e) preview aqueous solutions
• General comments to solve reaction equations:
• Consider reactants: electrolyte? Acid/base?
• Are oxidation numbers changing?
• Is there a precipitation/is a gas released? …
• There is typically not one approach to solve reaction equations:
learning process, repeating principles, try!!!
• important: at the end you can test yourself if everything is correct!
Number of each element & charges on left and right sides have to
match!