Andministrative & Business Communication Module

Debreberhan University Distance Education Module
Table of Contents
Contents Page
Module Description .................................................................................................................................... IIII

Module Organization ................................................................................................................................... III
Module Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... IV
Distinguishing Features of the Module ......................................................................................................... V
UNIT ONE .................................................................................................................................................... 1
AN OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATION................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Meaning and Definitions of Communication.......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Significance of Communication.............................................................................................................. 8
1.3 Communication in Management ........................................................................................................... 15
UNIT SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 19
UNIT TWO ................................................................................................................................................. 23
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS ....................................................................................................... 23
2.1. The Process of Communication ........................................................................................................... 23
2.2. Barriers of Communication.................................................................................................................. 28
2.3 Interpersonal Communications and Team Work .................................................................................. 37
UNIT SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 40
UNIT THREE ............................................................................................................................................. 44
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION .............................................................................. 44
3.1. The 7 C‘s .............................................................................................................................................. 44
UNIT SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 61
UNIT FOUR ............................................................................................................................................... 66
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION .......................................................................... 66
4.1. Internal and External Communication ................................................................................................. 66
4.2. Formal flow of communication............................................................................................................ 69
4.2.1. Down Ward Communication ............................................................................................................ 70
4.2.2. Upward Communication ................................................................................................................... 71
4.2.3. Horizontal Communication ............................................................................................................... 73
4.2.4. Diagonal Communication ................................................................................................................. 74
Administrative and Business Communication Page I

4.3. Informal Communication ..................................................................................................................... 75

UNIT SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 79
UNIT FIVE ................................................................................................................................................. 83
PUBLIC RELATIONS ............................................................................................................................... 83
5.1Publics .................................................................................................................................................... 83
5.2 Public Relations .................................................................................................................................... 84
5.3 Media Relations .................................................................................................................................... 89
UNIT SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 98
UNIT SIX ................................................................................................................................................. 101
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION............................................................................................................ 101
6.1 Overview of Media of Communication .............................................................................................. 101
6.2. Verbal Communication ...................................................................................................................... 102
6.2.1 Oral Communication ........................................................................................................................ 102
6.2.1.1. Speech .......................................................................................................................................... 103
6.2.1.2. Telephoning vs. Face - to - face conversation.............................................................................. 105
6.2.1.3. Active listening ............................................................................................................................ 106
6.2.1.4. Interviews..................................................................................................................................... 111
6.2.1.5 Meetings........................................................................................................................................ 111
6.2.2. Written Communication.................................................................................................................. 112
6.2.2.1 Business letter writing................................................................................................................... 114
6.2.2.2 Memo and Report Writing ............................................................................................................ 119
6.3. Non- verbal communications ............................................................................................................. 122
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 132
Administrative and Business Communication Page II

Module Description
This module is prepared for first degree distance students in Debre Berhan University faculty of
business and economics management program who take administrative and business
communication course.
The aim of this module is to assist learners in the development of communication competence by
providing information mainly regarding the different forms of communication in an organization
and their appropriate use.
It will equip students with the basic principles and practical and effective skills that are needed
for communication in one‘s academic, work and business life (written and verbal). It will,
therefore, help learners to enhance business communication skills to enable them to operate
confidently in the business world.
This module is designed to in a way students can easily learn the basic concepts required for
effective communication in their life particularly in business.
More specifically, the module will make learners familiar with the concept of communication,
the importance, process, barriers, principles of communication, and several types of
communication, meeting, interview, telephoning, formats and basic parts of letter, and memo
among others.
Module Organization
Dear learner, this module consists of six Units:
 Unit One: An overview of communication including the meaning of communication,

significance of communication, and communication in management.
 Unit Two: The communication process, barriers of communication and interpersonal
communication and team work.
 Unit Three: Elements of communication particularly the 7 C‘s
 Unit Four: Types of communication in an organization
 Unit Five: Public relations
 Unit Six: Media of communication
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Activities containing practical questions and application problems (where necessary) follow each
topic in each chapter. The Check lists and self-test questions are also incorporated at the end of
each chapter.
We have given you the detail solutions for the self-test questions at the end of the module. It
would be best if you do the self-test questions before checking the answers.
Module Objectives
Upon successful completion of this module, the learner will be able to:
 Describe the concepts and importance of communication.

 Outline the process of communication.
 Identify barriers of communication and ways to minimize communication
barriers.
 Identify and describe principles (7Cs) of communication.
 Describe internal and external communications.
 Explain verbal and nonverbal communications.
 Applying the principles of communication information work or in life
 Demonstrate knowledge of business writing principles which include
comprehension of writing methodologies, structure, and applicable styles.
 Demonstrate the knowledge of communication in managing employees in a
modern business context
 Relate and make network with others at work.
 Give and receive instruction correctly.
 Maintain a working relationship with clients.
 Use of two-way communication feedback.
 Recognize and appreciate cultural, personal, gender, other difference in
communication.
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Distinguishing Features of the Module
Dear learner, we have employed several features of organization and design in order to make the
presentation interesting to you. The keys below are used throughout the material and will make
your learning faster and easier.
Refers to In-text Question(s). These are questions that are interspersed within the
text of the lecture to help you review and master small chunks of knowledge, skills
and values.
Refers to Take Note. It helps to highlight significant points that you need to keep
 in mind. When making your study notes, take down these points as well.
Refers to Activity. The activities are also interspersed throughout the lectures to
 encourage group discussions, open-ended learning, project work, et cetera. Please
endeavor to carry out all the suggested activities individually and in groups, as
required. This will help you to master what you are learning.
Refers to Checklist. These are questions given at the end of the unit, in order to
 check whether you have mastered the whole content of the unit or not.
Refers to Self-Test Question(s). These are tasks set to cover work done in the
 entire lecture. The set tasks provide summative evaluation of what you have
learned in the lecture.
This is the key to the activities and self-check exercises.
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UNIT ONE
AN OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATION
Content Structure
1.1 Meaning and Definition of Communication
1.2 Significance of Communication
1.3 Communication in Management
Unit Summary
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Define the term communication

Differentiate between business communication and general communication.
Identify and describe the objectives of business communication
Explain the significance of communication
Describe the role of communication in management
1.1 Meaning and Definitions of Communication
 Meaning of Communication
Communication is the life blood of social as well as corporate world. We exist because we
communicate. Even our silence communicates a lot. We all have a layman‘s idea of what
communication is, but let us try to understand the concept fully so that we can use it effectively.
Dear learner, what do you understand by the term ‗communication‘?

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The word Communication is derived from a Latin word ―cummunicare‖ which means ―to share‖.
Therefore, the word communication means sharing of ideas, messages and words expressed
through a language, which is easily comprehensible to the listener.
Communication is the process by which we exchange meanings, facts, ideas, opinions or

emotions with other people. It is an essential condition of our existence and the most important
activity of ours.
 Communication is a learned skill. Most people are born with the physical ability to talk,
but we must learn to speak well and communicate effectively. Speaking, listening, and our
ability to understand verbal and nonverbal meanings are skills we develop in various ways. We
learn basic communication skills by observing other people and modeling our behaviors based
on what we see. We also are taught some communication skills directly through education, and
by practicing those skills and having them evaluated.
Everybody knows that most of the time, through speech or writing or any other means like
exchange of a common set of symbols; we are sharing information with other human beings. It
is, therefore, first and foremost a social activity. Man as a social animal has to communicate.
 Definitions of Communication
Communication teachers and scholars, in 1995, developed a definition of the field of
communication to clarify it as a discipline for the public. Communication as an academic
discipline relates to all the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and
knowledge.
The field of communication focuses on how people use messages to generate meanings within
and across various contexts, cultures, channels, and media. The field promotes the effective and
ethical practice of human communication.
Communication is defined as ―The flow of material, information, perception, understanding and
imagination among various parties‖.

Some important definitions of communication given by prominent writers are as follows:-
1. ―Communication is the means by which people are linked together in an organization to

achieve a common purpose.‖ Chestar I. Bernard
2. ―Communication is the broad field of human interchange of facts and opinions and not the
technologies of telephone, radio and the like.‖Charles E. Redfield
3. ―Communication is the act or action of transmitting information.‖ Leslie W. Rue
4. ―Communication is a process involving the transmission and accurate replication of ideas
reinforced by feedback purporting to stimulate actions to accomplish organizational goals.‖
Scott
5. ―Communication is the transmission and reception of ideas, feelings and attitudes both
verbally and non-verbally eliciting a response. It is a dynamic concept underlying all kinds
of living system.‖ Sigbond
ACTIVITY 1
 Define communication in your own words.
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Simply, Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more

persons. Communication is the act of being understood. It is a process of transmitting message
from sender to receiver with the message being understood by the receiver. Communication is a
process, which involves sharing of information between people through a continuous activity of
speaking listening, and understanding. It is the giving receiving, or exchange of information
opinions or ideas by writings, verbally, non-verbally visual means, or any combination of the
three, so that the material communicated is completely understood by everyone concerned.
Communication starts with a sender, who has a message to send to the receiver. The sender must
encode the message and select a communication channel that will deliver it to the receiver.

There must be a receiver for communication to occur. The sender should consider the receiver
both while structuring his message from a technical standpoint as well as in delivering it. When
the receiver is not considered there is either no response or wrong response The understanding
element in communication – sharing of understanding would be possible only when the person to
whom the message is meant understand it in same sense in which the sender of the message want
him to understand.
Communication involves something more than mere transmission of message and physical
receipt thereof. In communicating facts, the message may be encoded with words, numbers, or
digital symbols; in communicating feelings; it may be encoded as body language or tone of
voice.
In the changing business environment of multinational competition and globalization,
communication tends to become an important component of an organization. Like the functional
areas of production, marketing and finance, communication too is shaping into a distinct area, in
the form of business or organizational or corporate communication.
Business includes those organizations, which are engaged n in the production and distribution of
goods and services to earn profit. Therefore, Business communication means, ―Flow of
information, perception etc. either within a business organization or outside the organization
among different parties‖.
Why communication is called life blood of a business organization?

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A business organization is a group of people associated to earn profit. Various kinds of activities
have to be performed by the people of an organization so as to earn profit. It includes those
organizations, which are engaged in the production and distribution of goods and services. These
activities need an effective and systematic communication.

Without efficient communication, one cannot even imagine to do work and hence will be unable
to earn profit. Since the aim of business organizations to earn profit, the organization will die
without profit and this death is a result of the absence of communication. This is why
communication is called life blood of a business organization.
Therefore, business communication means ―Flow of information, perception etc. either within a
business organization or outside the organization among different parties‖. Business
communication means the sharing of information between people within an enterprise that is
performed for the commercial benefit of the organization. In addition, business communication
can also refer to how a company/business organization shares information to promote its product
or services to potential consumers.
 When communication takes places among business parties concerning business affairs
or business related issues is known as business communication. It is nothing but, the
communication between the people in the organization for the purpose of carrying out the
business activities.
According to William Scott as quoted by in his book organizational theory ―Administrative

communication /business communication is a process which involves the transmission and
accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will
accomplish organizational goals.‖
We can extract the following points from the above definition:
(I) Flow between two or more parties.
In business communication the materials flow from one person to another person or from many
persons to different people. This flow may either be inside the organization or outside the
organization.
(II) Flow of information, perception, imagination etc.
Flow of information takes place when a party transfers the material to another mind. Flow of
perception means transfer of different feelings. Finally, flow of imagination that occurs when a
painter conveys his/her imaginations through a portrait.

Business communication is a specialized field and branch of general communication. It is hardly

possible to make a basic difference between the two. Though the process and the principles that
regulate them are similar, general communication is different from business communication /
administrative communication. Their difference lies in their application to situations.
General communication is concerned with many roles at large. On the other hand business
communication is concerned with business activities like internal business activities: maintaining
and improving the morale of employees, giving order to workers, prescribing methods and
procedures, announcing policies and organizational changes, and etc… as well as external
business activities: selling and buying goods and services, reporting the government and
shareholders on the financial condition of the business operations and etc.
Business Communication has the following objectives.
1. Stronger Decision Making

Your ability to communicate effectively increases productivity, both yours and your
organization.
2. Increased Productivity
With good communication skills, you can anticipate problems, make decisions, co-ordinate work
flow, supervise others, develop relationships and promote products and services.
3. Steadier Work Flow
Communication acts as tool for the effective work related flow of information.
4. Strong Business Relationships & Enhanced Professional Image
You can shape the impressions you and your company makes on colleagues, employees,
supervisors, investors, and customers in addition to perceiving and responding to the needs of
these stakeholders (the various groups you interact with) without effective communication,
people misunderstand each other and misinterpret information. Ideas misfire or fail to gain
attention and people and companies flounder.
5. Clearer Promotional Materials
Your organizations need for effective reach of company name and public promotions are based
on effective promotional material such as advertisements , bill boards , online add , posters etc
are all communicated for effective message delivery and meaning.

6. Provide Advice
Giving advice is based on individual-oriented and work-oriented, advice should not be given to
the person for pinpointing his mistakes rather it should be helpful for his improvement. Effective
advice promotes understanding and it can be a two way process if the subordinate staff given
freedom.
7. Provide Order
Order is an authoritative communication pattern and it is directive to somebody always a
subordinate to do something. Orders will be written and oral orders, general and specific orders,
procedural and operational orders, mandatory and discretionary order. Order should be clear and
complete, execution should be possible and given in a friendly way.
8. Suggestion
Suggestion is supposed to be very mild and subtle form of communication. Suggestions are
welcomed for it is not obligatory to accept them, it can be voluntary and anonymous and
submitted through suggestion boxes.
9. Persuasion
Persuasion may be defined as an effort ‗to influence the attitudes, feelings, or beliefs of others, or
to influence actions based on those attitudes, feelings, or beliefs. Persuasion can be done to
others if you are convinced, you do not imposed, you are not rigid are prepared to meet half-way
and you can look at the situation from the other person‘s angle also.
10. Education
Education is a very conscious process of communication; it involves both teaching and learning
by which organizations provide to their employees in the form of training. Education is given for
management, employees and outside public.
11. Warning
If the employees do not abide by the norms of the organization warning is a power
communication tool and it can be general and specific. Specific warning should be administered
in private and after thorough investigation. The aim of the warning should be the organization
betterment.

12. Raising Morale and Motivation

Morale stands for mental health and it is a sum of several qualities like courage, resolution,
confidence. High morale and effective performance go hand to hand. Motivation is a process that
account for an individual intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.
13. To Give and Receive Information
Communication‘s main idea is to give and receive information because managers need complete,
accurate and precise information to plan and organize employee need it to translate planning in
to reality. Information will cover all aspects of the business.
14. To Provide Counseling
Counseling is given to solve employee‘s mental stress and improve the employee‘s productivity.
15. To Improve Discipline
Finally discipline is the foremost part of any business communication. The various disciplinary
codes are effectively communicated to employees through disciplinary codes.
Generally, developing business communication skill is as much about the ability to develop good
content as it is about good form. Business documents must maintain certain standards and should
be, at most, recognizable internationally.
ACTIVITY 2

Explain the difference between business and general communication.
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1.2 Significance of Communication

Dear learner, as you have seen communication is the process by which information is transmitted
between individuals and organization, so that an understanding response results. It is the process
which involves transmission and accurate replication of ideas, ensured by feedback for the
purpose of eliciting action which will accomplish organizational goals.

The purpose of communication is to get your message across to others clearly and
unambiguously. Doing this involves effort from both the sender of the message and the receiver.
Oral communication has long been our main method for communicating with one another. It is
estimated that 75% of a person‘s day is spent communicating in some way. A majority of your
communication time may be spent speaking and listening, while a minority of that time is spent
reading and writing. These communication actions reflect skills which foster personal, academic,
and professional success.
And communication is a process that can be filled with error, with messages often misinterpreted
by the recipient. When this isn't detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, wasted effort and
missed opportunity.
In fact, communication is only successful when both the sender and the receiver understand the
same information as a result of the communication. By successfully getting your message across,
you convey your thoughts and ideas effectively. When not successful, the thoughts and ideas that
you send do not necessarily reflect your own, causing a communications breakdown and creating
roadblocks that stand in the way of your goals – both personally and professionally.
What do you think is the importance of communication to an individual employee, and

to an organization?
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Importance of communication has always been realized in all times because it is the most vital
means by which people are connected together in society. You cannot have human relations
without communication. Today communication plays a crucial role in almost all aspects of life.
Work in business, government or organizations are impossible without communication. People
have to communicate with each other, exchange information, make decisions and talk about
innovations. Management is a complex practice of communicating with other people. In an age

when the business environment is turbulent in terms of competition, new technologies political
instability, workforce diversity, the need for good communication skills is being increasingly felt
by mangers at all levels.
The ability to communicate effectively in various business situations has to be developed. For
organization to perform and to have a competitive advantage managers and workers have to be
well equipped with communication skills. Many of the problems that occur in an organization
are the direct result of people failing to communicate effectively and efficiently. Big corporations
e.g. textile sector and multinational organizations need better communication skills in their
employees so that they are able to work in teams and with people from diverse background.
Good communication skills in today‘s business world, has been found to directly impact
productivity.
Good and effective communication is required not only for good human relations but also for
good and successful business. In spite of the increasing importance placed on communication
skills, many individuals continue to struggle, unable to communicate their thoughts and ideas
effectively – whether in verbal or written format. This inability makes it nearly impossible for
them to compete effectively in the workplace, and stands in the way of career progression.
Getting your message across is paramount to progressing. To do this, you must understand what
your message is, what audience you are sending it to, and how it will be perceived. You must
also weigh-in the circumstances surrounding your communications, such as situational and
cultural context.
Many of the problems that occur in an organization are the direct result of people failing to
communicate. Faulty communication causes the most problems. It leads to confusion and can
cause a good plan to fail. Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas
from one person to another. It involves a sender transmitting an idea to a receiver. Effective
communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the
sender intended to transmit.
So, the communication is important because you coach, coordinate, counsel, evaluate, and
supervise through this process. It is the chain of understanding that integrates the members of an
organization from top to bottom, bottom to top, and side to side.

The importance of communication in any managerial process can hardly be over-emphasized. If

an organization is to operate as an integrated unit, it is necessary that the top management should
keep the lower level supervisors and employees well informed of its ultimate objectives and what
it wants each person to accomplish toward their realization.
Virtually all actions taken in an organization are preceded by communication:

a. For instruction: The instructive function unvarying and importantly deals with the
commanding nature. It is more or less of directive nature.
Under this, the communicator transmits with necessary directives and guidance to the
next level, so as to enable them to accomplish his particular tasks. In this, instructions
basically flow from top to the lower level.
b. For integration: It is consolidated function under which integration of activities is
endeavored. The integration function of communication mainly involves to bring about
relationship among the various functions of the business organization. It helps in the
unification of different management functions.
c. For information: The purposes or function of communication in an organization is to
inform the individual or group about the particular task or company policies and
procedures etc.
Top management informs policies to the lower level through the middle level. In turn, the lower
level informs the top level the reaction through the middle level. Information can flow vertically,
horizontally and diagonally across the organization. Becoming informed or inform others is the
main purpose of communication.
d. For evaluation: Examination of activities to form an idea or judgment of the worth of
task is achieved through communication. Communication is a tool to appraise the
individual or team, their contribution to the organization. Evaluating one‘s own inputs or
other‘s outputs or some ideological scheme demands an adequate and effective
communication process.
e. For direction: Communication is necessary to issue directions by the top management or
manager to the lower level. Employee can perform better when he is directed by his
senior.
Directing others may be communicated either orally or in writing. An order may be common
order, request order or implied order.

f. For teaching: The importance of personal safety on the job has been greatly recognized.
A complete communication process is required to teach and educate workers about
personal safety on the jobs. This communication helps the workers to avert accidents, risk
etc. and avoid cost, procedures etc.
g. For influencing: A complete communication process is necessary in influencing others
or being influenced.
The individual having potential to influence others can easily persuade others. It implies
the provision of feedback which tells the effect of communication.
h. For image building: A business enterprise cannot isolate from the rest of the society.
There is interrelationship and interdependence between the society and an enterprise
operating in the society. Goodwill and confidence are necessarily created among the
public. It can be done by the communication with the different media, which has to
project the image of the firm in the society. Through an effective external communication
system, an enterprise has to inform the society about its goals, activities, progress and
social responsibility.
i. For employees’ orientation: When a new employee enters into the organization at that
time he or she will be unknown to the organization programs, policies, culture etc.
Communication helps to make people acquainted with the co-employees, superior and
with the policies, objectives, rules and regulations of the organization.
 The following are the importance of communication for an individual.
a. Helps in getting a desired job
Getting a desired job is not an easy task. It requires a person to be excellent, especially in terms
of communication abilities. Communication abilities can be classified into five categories that is
reading, writing, speaking, listening and observing. If a candidate is a good reader of not only
text books and reference books but also of newspapers and magazines, this would help him
developing confidence level at the time of interview. Writing skills are necessary for preparing
an appropriate Bio data and covering letter, so that a better initial impression could be created.
No doubt, conversational skill right at the time of interview is equally countable towards success
of the candidate. Listening abilities on the other could prove to be fruitful especially when the
interviewer is making a comment or asking a question.

In short we can say that the presence of above mentioned five communication skills could give a
better chance of being selected during an interview.
b. Help in maintaining social relationships
We as human beings live in a cobweb of relationships rather social relationship. These social
relations compel us to act simultaneously in the capacity of father, child, husband, uncle,
neighbor, cousin, teacher, and nephew and so on.
All these relationships especially near one‘s could be maintained properly if we can
communicate well to all these relations, that we are here to take care of them and our services are
always there to help them in case of any needs.
Personal enjoyment is communication based. Just think of a person kept in isolation without any
chance for communication with his friends and relatives. It is really a punishment, a prison life.
Communication helps us interact with our surroundings, thus create positive relationships, share
love, build up friendship and depend each other to enjoy life.
c. Helps in getting on the job promotion
Perhaps finding a job would not be a big deal in case of if the candidate is well connected and
belongs to a well off family. But promotion on the job requires some extra skills on the part of
the candidate. Amongst those skills, communication abilities rank on the top. If a person can
speak well during interactive and presentation sessions, can reports properly, he will
automatically be in the eyes of the management and whenever a chance for promotion comes, he
will be on the top of the list.
d. Helps in solving other’s problems
It is commonly observed that around us there are so many people whom we like to meet; their
company is a source of enrichment for us. When we are with them we feel secured. The only
reason for such types of feelings is that such type of people are not only good listeners but they
also know it well that whenever they would speak, it would only be for the sake of encouraging,
not discouraging others, only for solving other‘s problems and not for creating problems for
others. Such people are no doubt excellent communicators.
The achievement of organizational objectives largely depends upon the fact that human efforts
are properly coordinated and integrated. The working and maintaining of human relationships in
organization based on the organization structure is possible through communication.

Communication is a necessary element in human relationships. The more the organization grows
the more complexities it has – to deal with it communication is required to a great extent.
The importance of communication in an organization in general can be summarized as follows.
a. Efficiency functioning of the organization-The efficient functioning of the organization

totally depends on the effective communication system.
Communication helps everyone in the organization to understand his role clearly and
provides a path through which an enterprise can attain the objectives of the organization.
b. Quick decision and implementation-A continuous flow of information enables the
executives to take decisions quickly and implement them without delay. Therefore,
effective communication is a pre requisite for solving managerial problem.
c. Good industrial relations-it is always desirable on the part of management to avoid
disputes rather than finding solutions after they occur. In this context, communication
plays a vital role. It provides reliable and accurate information and thereby prevents
disputes and promotes good industrial relations in an organization.
d. Develops Managerial Skills-According to modern management thinkers;
communication which is a learning process helps executives to acquire more knowledge.
It also facilitates executives to share the acquired knowledge with their subordinates
which results in increase in the overall managerial skill of people in the organization.
Thus proper communication system develops managerial skill.
Generally, communication is essential for development of the society. We attain cultural, social
and economic prosperity by sharing out experiences. How can we share experience without
better communication?
Can you imagine a world without media? The basic mission of mass media is to create ties in
human society sharing news. In modern world, media have some more roles to play. Media
defines our political system, form public opinion, support public demands and set agenda of our
social life. In short, no social activity, be it marketing, business, education, politics, media
profession…, is possible without communication.

1.3 Communication in Management

Dear learner you have already grasped the significance of communicating for an individual as
well as for an organization. Now it is time to look at how communication goes hand-in-hand
with management.
 Communication needs to be effective in business. Communication is essence of

management. The basic functions of management (Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and
Controlling) cannot be performed well without effective communication. Business
communication involves constant flow of information. Feedback is integral part of business
communication. Organizations these days are very large. It involves number of people. There are
various levels of hierarchy in an organization.
Greater the number of levels, the more difficult is the job of managing the organization.
Communication here plays a very important role in process of directing and controlling the
people in the organization. Immediate feedback can be obtained and misunderstandings if any
can be avoided. There should be effective communication between superiors and subordinated in
an organization, between organization and society at large (for example between management
and trade unions). It is essential for success and growth of an organization. Communication gaps
should not occur in any organization.
In today‘s enterprise, information must flow faster than ever before. Even a short stoppage on a
fast moving production line can be very costly if lost out. It is therefore, essential that production
problems be communicated quickly for corrective action. Another important element is the
amount of information, which has greatly increased over the years frequently causing an
information overload. What often needed is not more information, but relevant information. It is
necessary to determine what kind of information the manager needs to have for effective
decision making. To obtain this information frequently requires getting information from
managers, supervisors and subordinates and also from departments and people elsewhere in an
organization.
Business Communication is goal oriented. The rules, regulations and policies of a company have
to be communicated to people within and outside the organization. Business Communication is
regulated by certain rules and norms.

In early times, business communication was limited to paper-work, telephone calls etc. But now
with advent of technology, we have cell phones, video conferencing, emails, and satellite
communication to support business communication. Effective business communication helps in
building goodwill of an organization.
To be effective, a manager needs information necessary to carryout managerial functions and

activities. Yet even a causal glance at communication systems shows that managers often lack
vital information for decision making, or they may get too much information, resulting in over
load. It is evident that managers must be discriminating in selecting information. A simple way
for a manager to start is to ask, ―What do I really need to know for my job?‖ or, ―what would
happen if I did not get this information on a regular basis?‖ It is not maximum information that a
manager needs but pertinent information. Clearly, there is no universally applicable
communication system; rather, it must be tailored to the manger‘s needs.
As it has been said communication is the lifeblood of an organization. If we could somehow
remove communication flows from an organization, we would not have an organization. When
communication stops, organized activity ceases to exist. Individual uncoordinated activity
returns in an organization. So, Communication in an organization is as vital as blood for life.
A manager should not only concentrate on successful communication with its external clients,
customers and stakeholders. The employees of the business actually are internal clients and
should also be treated with care. Many scholars refer to this as internal marketing, a very
important feature of good business communication. Employees‘ well-being and work satisfaction
play a large role in their productivity and how loyal they will be towards the business. The role
of the manager is to ensure good relationships with and among employees. A healthy working
environment is equally important. Previous research has indicated that employees also have other
career aspirations than only a salary.
Anyone involved in management – whether it‘s for a large or small company – knows well the
relational complexities involved. Sometimes you have to give criticisms on an employee‘s
performance, other times you get the privilege of praising another employee‘s performance.
You‘re often tasked with overseeing projects both large and small, while directing a diverse
group of individuals and personalities in the process. Needless to say, communication skills are
essential for any management position.

While communication in management is not always easy, you may find yourself having to work
with difficult people, or with unmotivated people. But if you come to the table with the right
tools to do the job, you will have an effective team of individuals proud of the work they do for
you, and you can feel your own sense of pride in developing these key business relationships in
the workplace.
The following are the Key Areas of Communication in Management
 Relationship Building
Relationship building is a key discipline to master. It helps you establish trust and friendship
with your employees. They will come to you with problems, and when the time comes that you
must give negative feedback they will actually be able to hear you out. On the flip side of that
coin, when it comes time to give positive feedback, your employees will take it to heart and it
will motivate them to do better work. In any work environment, as a manager is important to
build these relationships early on.
 Employee Engagement
One aspect of the manager-employee relationship has to do with including employees in on
project management and development - allowing them to give their input. This doesn‘t
necessarily mean that you have to accept every idea that comes across your desk, but the fact that
you are sincerely listening to concerns positions you as a respected and trusted leader within the
company. In short, if employees truly feel like they are a part of the process, they will connect to
projects in a more meaningful way, and do high-quality work.
 Employee Recognition
Every manager should learn how to properly recognize employees in the workplace. However,
it‘s not enough to simply recognize and praise an employee in your office; you must make every
effort to make recognition a very public event. Recognizing an employee for their hard work
shows that you value their contributions to the organization. Again, this is another
communication strategy that will motivate employees to do better.
 Employee Coaching
Finally, there is the discipline of employee coaching. Unfortunately, not every employee
candidate is going to walk into the office with a flawless performance record. They may fall
down and make a mess a few times before really grasping the tools needed to succeed in the
workplace. You, as a manager, are an instrumental part of that success. Successful managers

should be having in-depth conversations with employees about performance about once every
quarter at least. It‘s important that you keep these conversations as informal as possible, so you
can actually connect with the employee you‘re trying to coach.
 Communication is Motivating
Communication is a life force. If employees know where they stand in the work place, and they
feel comfortable in that environment, they will be motivated to do good work. Solid
communication skills are not just good for the life of the company, but they help you understand
how everything is going within the company. It gives you some real-world ―data,‖ so to speak.
ACTIVITY 3
 Briefly discuss how communication is the essence of management.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
There are some tips for effective managerial communication at workplace:

Remember a manager‘s task is not only to sit in closed cabins and shout at subordinates.He
needs to interact with his team members on a regular basis. Speak to your colleagues more often.
Find out what they are up to? Treat all your team members as one. There is absolutely no harm in
taking lunch with your team members. This way you tend to discuss lot many things apart from
routine work.
 Promote the concept of morning meetings at workplace. Morning meetings help you
interact with your team members on an open platform where everyone has the liberty to
express his/her views. Communicate with your team members and help them plan their
day. Let them come out with their problems. Walk up to their workstations once or twice
in a day.
 Increase your listening skills. A good listener is always a good communicator. It is
really important to listen to the other person carefully before speaking. Interrupting a
conversation breaks the momentum and the message loses its impact.

 Working in a team leads to effective managerial communication. Employees working

in isolation hardly interact with their fellow workers and superiors. Make sure your team
members discuss things amongst themselves and work together. Instruct them to keep
you in the loop as well.
The employees must mark a cc to their immediate reporting managers to keep them
updated of the latest developments at the workplace.
 Master the art of writing emails. Also train your team members how to write an official
mail. There is a huge difference between a personal and official mail. The subject line
needs to be relevant for people to open the mail. Do not call your team members one by
one for any kind of communication. Address them together.
 Think before you speak. Make sure whatever you communicate is relevant. Avoid using
complicated words and terminologies in your speech. The message has to be clear and
precise for effective managerial communication. Be straightforward and communicate
clearly as to what you expect out of your team members.
 No communication is complete unless the message is understood clearly by the
recipients.
There should be absolutely no room for confusion in effective communication. Once you
are through with your speech, give some time to your team members for them to ask
whatever they have not understood.
UNIT SUMMARY
The word Communication is derived from a Latin word ―cummunicare‖ which means ―to share‖.
Therefore, the word communication means sharing of ideas, messages and words expressed
through a language, which is easily comprehensible to the listener. It is the act of being
understood. It is a process of transmitting message from sender to receiver with the message
being understood by the receiver.
Communication is a learned skill. Most people are born with the physical ability to talk, but we
must learn to speak well and communicate effectively.
Business communication means the sharing of information between people within an enterprise
that is performed for the commercial benefit of the organization.

It can also refer to how a company/business organization shares information to promote its
product or services to potential consumers.
Business communication is the specialized branch of general communication that is especially
concerned with business activities.
Importance of communication has always been realized in all times because it is the most vital
means by which people are connected together in society. You cannot have human relations
without communication. Today communication plays a crucial role in almost all aspects of life.
Work in business, government or organizations are impossible without communication
Communication is essence of management. The basic functions of management (Planning,
Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling) cannot be performed well without effective
communication. To be effective, a manager needs information necessary to carryout managerial
functions and activities.
 CHECK LIST
Put a tick mark in the boxes for the tasks that you can perform
QUESTIONS YES NO
Can you define the term communication?
Can you differentiate business communication and

general communication?
Can you identify and describe the objectives of

business communication
Can you explain the significance of communication
Can you describe how communication the essence

of management
If all your answers are ―Yes‖, you can proceed. Otherwise you have to go back to the
appropriate topics to revise.

 UNIT ONE
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
Questions here under are general exercises set from this chapter. Read each carefully and give
the appropriate answers and compare your answers with the answer key given at the end of the
module.
Part I: Say true if the Statement is correct and false if it is not
1. Business communication is a specialized field and branch of general communication.
2. Communication is a learned skill.
3. The purpose of communication is to get your message across to others clearly and
unambiguously.
4. No communication is complete unless the message is understood clearly by the
recipients.
5. You cannot have human relations without communication.
6. General communication is the communication between the people in the organization for
the purpose of carrying out the business activities.
7. Education is a one benefit from process of communication.
8. It is estimated that 75% of a person‘s day is spent communicating.
9. Communication can never be the essence of management.
10. It is possible to make a basic difference between the general communication and
business communication.
Part II: Choose the best answer from among the given alternatives
1. Administrative communication involves

A. Flow of information
B. Perception and imagination
C. The materials flow
D. A and B
E. All of the above
2. As a manager to have an effective managerial communication at workplace you should:
A. Increase your listening skills
B. Promote morning meetings at workplace

C. Encourage working in a team

D. All of the above
E. A and D
3. Almost all actions taken in an organization are preceded by communication for:
A. Integration D. Information
B. Evaluation E. All of the above
C. Instruction
4. One is not a key area of communication in management.
A. Employee engagement D. Employee coaching
B. Relationship building E. None of the above
C. Employee motivation
5. Business communication has all of the following objectives except
A. Unstable work flow
B. Clearer Promotional Materials
C. Stronger Decision Making
D. Increased Productivity
E. Provide Order
6. There must be a receiver communication to happen.
A. True
B. False
C. Cannot be determined
7. Communication is called life blood of a business organization because:
A. It is the flow of information, perception
B. In the absence of communication, an organization will not make profit and survive
C. A business organization is a group of people associated to earn profit
D. All of the above
E. All except C

UNIT TWO
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Content Structure
2.1 The process of communication
2.2 Barriers to Communication
2.3 Interpersonal Communications and Teamwork
Unit Summary
Learning Objectives
After you study this unit, you will be able to:
Elucidate the elements of communication process

Identify and describe the barriers of communication
Know how to overcome barriers of communication
Understand what interpersonal communication is
Define small group communication
Differentiate interpersonal communication and small group communication
2.1. The Process of Communication

The word process indicates that it is an activity that is connected with a series of steps that are
deliberately undertaken to reach a goal.
Process of Communication simply means who will communicate what – using what tools – to
whom – when - and – with what effect. When we answer these questions for each of our
communications we are in addition focusing on two things.
Communication is a two way process of exchanging ideas or information between two human
beings. It is the sharing or exchange of ideas or information among two or more people. This is
often referred to as a process because it involves eight core elements that interact in a complex
manner and is often unconsciously done.
 The elements in the communication process are: sender, receiver, message, method,
aim, noise, situation, and feedback. The whole process of communication can be depicted
through the following diagram.

Figure 2.1The Communication Process
 The Senders: First, information exists in the mind of the sender. This can be a concept,
idea, information, or feelings. The very first step in the process of communication is
generation of thought in the sender‘s mind. These thoughts may be about a request, order,
inquiry production or any other such activity.
Sender is the person who initiates the process of communication. The sender is the person
who comes up with the information that he wants to share. This person decides who the
recipient should be, what form of communication is appropriate and what medium,
designs or encodes the message. He or she conceptualizes the message. He/she generates
an idea in his mind regarding production invention, innovation, request, order, enquiry
etc. So, he/she is the first factor of communication process and his function is to generate
an idea.

Therefore, it is necessary that the idea should be clear, and convertible into message. For
this purpose, the sender needs to apply his knowledge and imaginative power.
 The Message/ Encoding: this is the essence of any communication; therefore it has to be
palatable to the receiver and should be relevant to the recipient.
The thought generated in the mind of sender is ambiguous and unable to be
communicated unless it is put into a receivable form. This step is known as encoding
where the sender converts his thought into a message by means of a language.
The idea in the mind of sender is transformed into words that is called message. The
sender decides on the length, style, organization and tone of the message. The message
may be presented in many ways, depending on the subject, purpose, audience, personal
style, mood and cultural background.
For example, a sender thinks about having a job. Now, he will put his thought on a paper.
That is called job application. In his way, his thought becomes a message.
 Aim: the sender must appreciate the essence of sending a message for example to
educate, inform, persuade or correct. The aim of the message helps the sender to design it
in the most appropriate way.
 Medium or Channel: Once a thought is converted into message, it should be transmitted
to the receiver through a suitable medium. This refers to the means by which the message
will be delivered or move from the sender to the receiver. This is an important element
because it determines whether or not the message will be perceived or interpreted
correctly.
Examples are emails, phones, fax etc. to a large extent, the medium used in sending a
message says something about the importance or the weight of the message. Often
messages sent by letter are regarded to be more official and serious than ones over the
phone or via text messages.
List factors which are considered in selecting a medium of communication.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

A wrongly chosen medium can interrupt the process of communication. Selection of

medium depends upon message, audience, urgency and situation. In selecting an
appropriate channel, the sender must assess the following factors, as the situation
demands:
- need for immediate transmission of message, (Fax instead of letter)
- need for immediate feedback, (Phone instead of fax)
- need for permanent record of the message, (Written rather than oral)
- degree of negotiation and persuasion required, (Personal meeting - face-to face)
- the destination of the message, and (Far flung area – letter only)
- the nature of the content of the message (Has to be a contract –written)
In addition, the sender should take into consideration his/her skill in using each of the
alternative channels, as well as the receiver‘s skill in using each of the channels.
Communication rarely takes place over only one channel; two or three even four channels
are normally used simultaneously. Example: in face-to-face interactions, we speak and
listen but we also gesture and receive these signals visually.
 The Receiver: is the person who gets the message from the sender, decodes it,
understands it and interprets it. He/she is responsible for decoding the message and if the
message does not reach the intended recipient, the communication is rendered ineffective.
The way the receiver interprets and perceives the message is very important and the ideal
situation is that he/she should make the right interpretation.
Having received the message from the sender, the receiver attempts to understand and
interpret the message. This process of converting the language of message into thoughts
is known as decoding. For instance, the receiver, having received job application, reads
the application and understands the message conveyed by the applicant.
During the transmitting of the message, two processes will be received by the receiver:
content and context. Content is the actual words or symbols of the message which is
known as language - the spoken and written words combined into phrases that make
grammatical and semantic sense. We all use and interpret the meanings of words
differently, so even simple messages can be misunderstood. And many words have
different meanings to confuse the issue even more.

Context is the way the message is delivered and is known as Paralanguage - it includes
the tone of voice, the look in the sender's eye's, body language, hand gestures, and state
of emotions (anger, fear, uncertainty, confidence, etc.) that can be detected. Although
paralanguage or context often causes messages to be misunderstood as we believe what
we see more than what we hear; they are powerful communicators that help us to
understand each other. Indeed, we often trust the accuracy of nonverbal behaviors more
than verbal behaviors.
 Noise and Barriers: -While transmitting the information to the receiver, the sender faces
lots of barriers. These noise and barriers are explained as under:
i. On sender’s side: - Noise and barriers may take place during the process of encoding.
Some of them may be caused by distraction, lack of concentration, typing mistake,
poor language etc.
ii. In the medium: - Some barriers are caused by medium such as poor transmission on
T.V. and radio misprinting in newspapers etc.
iii. On receiver’s side: - The receiver can also create certain barriers to the receiving of
message such as poor reading ability, emotions, lack of concentration etc.
 Timing and Situation: knowing the right time and situation when to communicate
messages influences the extent to which the communication will be effective. Sending the
right message at the wrong time can result in misinterpretation of the message.
 Feedback: Remember: A message is never communicated unless it is understood by the
receiver. Question arises then, how do you know a message has been properly received?
Process of communication is incomplete until the receiver responds to the sender. This
response may be negative, positive, or for further enquiry. It means when the receiver of
job application welcomes or regrets the sender, the process of communication is deemed
to be complete. This shows whether or not the communication was effective or indicates
whether or not the receiver interpreted the message correctly. It will tell the sender that
the receiver understood the message, its level of importance, and what must be done with
it.
So the feedback loop is the final link in the communication process. Feedback is the
check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally
intended.

The purpose of feedback is to change and alter messages so the intention of the original
communicator is understood by the second communicator. It includes verbal and
nonverbal responses to another person's message.
Having understood the message, the receiver responds to the sender in yes or no or asks
further questions. This process is called feedback.
There are five main categories of feedback. They are listed in the order in which they
occur most frequently in daily conversations.
1. Evaluation: Making a judgment about the worth, goodness, or appropriateness of the
sender's statement.
2. Interpretation: Paraphrasing - attempting to explain what the sender's statement
means.
3. Support: Attempting to assist or support the sender.
4. Probing: Attempting to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify
a point.
5. Understanding: Attempting to discover completely what the sender means by his/her
statement.
 ACTIVITY 1
Discuss each of the categories of feedback by paraphrasing what you have read in the
above section.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.2. Barriers of Communication
Personnel in a workplace communicate with peers, managers, and supervisors, members of the
public, suppliers and others. Barriers to communication can cause problems and
misunderstanding with effective communication.
Nothing is so simple that it cannot be misunderstood. - Freeman Teague, Jr.

ACTIVITY 2

Think of a situation when you tried to communicate with another person or when
somebody tried to communicate with you, and it failed. Think about the problems or barriers that
interfered with the communication.
a) Outline the situation and list the reasons why you think it failed.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
b) List the solutions which would have made the communication successful.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Anything that prevents understanding of the message is a barrier to communication. Barriers can
exist in the sender, in the transmission of the message, in the receiver, or in the feedback. Many
physical and psychological barriers exist.
In the process of communication, caution needs to be exercised as barriers to communication are
either consciously or unconsciously erected by the sender or the receiver. These barriers hamper
the growth of communication and relegate it to the status of a conversation where feedback is not
expected. If either the speaker or the listener has problems in adjusting his frequency with the co-
interacting, barriers would automatically be erected.
Conceptualizing a message, information or idea for purposes of communicating is one thing, but
getting the right or correct interpretation of the conceptualized message is another thing. This is
because often messages are misinterpreted or the wrong message gets to be delivered to the
recipient due to different things.
For any kind of communication to be successful, it is essential that the receiver attributes the
same meaning to the message as intended by the sender of the message.

But all acts of communication are not perfect or successful. At times, some meaning is lost as the
message encounters various barriers along its passage between the sender and the receiver. Such
barriers may arise at any of the stages through which a message passes during the process of
communication. This is also called miscommunication.
This results in communication being ineffective. Therefore, it is important to be aware of the
common barriers to effective communication.
 The following are the common barriers to effective communication.

 Use of jargon- this happens when words or phrases that may not be understood by an
average person are used. For instance, if a doctor uses technical words or phrases in
explaining to a patient, the patient may not understand what the doctor is trying to say.
 Emotional and Psychological barriers- This happens when emotions or mind sets
influence communication. For example, a brilliant student may be emotionally distressed
and psychologically challenged due to the critical illness of a beloved one, this will make
him or her to engage on ineffective written communication in an exam or test.
 Physical and environmental barriers- there are many things in the environment that
may cause communication breakdown for instance, wall, noise or even weather. Noise
can make it difficult to listen during communication , while hot weather often make
people unrest less or doze which makes it difficult to communicate especially in a
classroom set up.
 Religion, Cultural and Taboo- Often times, this results in communication break down
because some ideas and information shared may be acceptable in one religion or culture
but not in another. For instances, religious messages and understanding is different
among Christians and Muslims.
 Language- This is one of the most common causes of communication breakdown.
Messages or information in one language may have completely different meanings in
another and may be offensive. Thus, extra care must be taken in translating messages
from one language to another. For instance in Bemba the word ‗PESONDE‘ means on
ÉARTH‘ but a similar Lamba word ‗POSONDE‘ means ‗OUTSIDE‘.

 Gender Differences- this refers to the difference in sex (male and female). For example,
a man may say certain things to fellow men which may not be perceived offensive but if
the same is told to women, it may be perceived to be offensive.
 Information overload- This is yet another common cause of communication breakdown.
When too much information is communicated at the same time, there are chances that
the recipient may not understand this information. For example if a boss gives too many
tasks or instructions to his subordinates at one go, there are high chances that the
subordinates will not effectively carry out the instructions or tasks.
 Inadequate Information- this is the opposite side of a coin to information overload. This
occurs when little information is given. For example, if a person is told to prepare
chicken for lunch, but no specific instructions are given on the method (boiled, grilled or
fried), this information may be considered to be inadequate or general.
 Information Distortion- This occurs when the original information or message is altered
along the communication process. This often happens in oral communication especially
when people are asked to orally pass on the information to different people. For
example, the original message could be ―DO NOT BE SELFISH‖ while the final
message could be ―YOU ARE SELFISH‖.
 Denotations, Connotation and Abbreviations- Denotations refer to when people mean
what they say while Connotations refers to situations in which people mean different
things from what they say. While Abbreviations are short forms of words or names etc.
For example ASAP (As Soon as Possible), 24/7 (the whole week), kid (a child),
Networking (socializing), Minting Money (High Returns) etc.
These barriers can be thought of as filters, that is, the message leaves the sender, goes through
the above filters, and is then heard by the receiver. These filters muffle the message. And the
way to overcome filters is through active listening and feedback.
We can also look at the barriers of communication with respect to the different elements of
communication process as follows.
A. Encoding Barriers
The process of selecting and organizing symbols to represent a message requires skill and
knowledge. Obstacles listed below can interfere with an effective message.

1. Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver

A breakdown in communication may result when a message is not adapted to its receiver.
Recognizing the receiver‘s needs, status, knowledge of the subject, and language skills assists the
sender in preparing a successful message. If a customer is angry, for example, an effective
response may be just to listen to the person vent for a while.
2. Lack of Basic Communication Skills
The receiver is less likely to understand the message if the sender has trouble choosing the
precise words needed and arranging those words in a grammatically-correct sentence.
3. Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject
If the sender lacks specific information about something, the receiver will likely receive an
unclear or mixed message. Have you shopped for an item such as a computer, and experienced
how some salespeople can explain complicated terms and ideas in a simple way? Others cannot.
4. Information Overload
If you receive a message with too much information, you may tend to put up a barrier because
the amount of information is coming so fast that you may have difficulty comfortably
interpreting that information. If you are selling an item with twenty-five terrific features, pick
two or three important features to emphasize instead of overwhelming your receiver.
5. Emotional Interference
An emotional individual may not be able to communicate well. If someone is angry, hostile,
resentful, joyful, or fearful, that person may be too preoccupied with emotions to receive the
intended message. If you don‘t like someone, for example, you may have trouble ―hearing‖
them.
B. Transmitting Barriers
Things that get in the way of message transmission are sometimes called ―noise.‖
Communication may be difficult because of noise and some of these problems:
1. Physical Distractions
A bad cellular phone line or a noisy restaurant can destroy communication. If an E-mail message
or letter is not formatted properly, or if it contains grammatical and spelling errors, the receiver
may not be able to concentrate on the message because the physical appearance of the letter or E-
mail is sloppy and unprofessional.

2. Conflicting Messages
Messages that cause a conflict in perception for the receiver may result in incomplete
communication. For example, if a person constantly uses jargon or slang to communicate with
someone from another country who has never heard such expressions, mixed messages are sure
to result. Another example of conflicting messages might be if a supervisor requests a report
immediately without giving the report writer enough time to gather the proper information. Does
the report writer emphasize speed in writing the report, or accuracy in gathering the data?
3. Channel Barriers
If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of communication, communication may cease.
Detailed instructions presented over the telephone, for example, may be frustrating for both
communicators. If you are on a computer technical support help line discussing a problem, it
would be helpful for you to be sitting in front of a computer, as opposed to taking notes from the
support staff and then returning to your computer station.
4. Long Communication Chain
The longer the communication chain, the greater the chance for error will be. If a message is
passed through too many receivers, the message often becomes distorted. If a person starts a
message at one end of a communication chain of ten people, for example, the message that
eventually returns is usually liberally altered.
C. Decoding Barriers
The communication cycle may break down at the receiving end for some of these reasons:
1. Lack of Interest
If a message reaches a reader who is not interested in the message, the reader may read the
message hurriedly or listen to the message carelessly. Miscommunication may result in both
cases.
2. Lack of Knowledge
If a receiver is unable to understand a message filled with technical information, communication
will break down. Unless a computer user knows something about the windows environment, for
example, the user may have difficulty organizing files if given technical instructions.
3. Lack of Communication Skills
People who have weak reading and listening skills make ineffective receivers.

On the other hand, those who have a good professional vocabulary and who concentrate on
listening, have less trouble hearing and interpreting good communication. Many people tune out
who is talking and mentally rehearse what they are going to say in return.
4. Emotional Distractions
If emotions interfere with the creation and transmission of a message, they can also disrupt
reception. If you receive a report from your supervisor regarding proposed changes in work
procedures and you do not particularly like your supervisor, you may have trouble even reading
the report objectively. You may read, not objectively, but to find fault. You may misinterpret
words and read negative impressions between the lines. Consequently, you are likely to
misunderstand part or all of the report.
5. Physical Distractions
If a receiver of a communication works in an area with bright lights, glare on computer screens,
loud noises, excessively hot or cold work spaces, or physical ailments, that receiver will
probably experience communication breakdowns on a regular basis.
D. Responding Barriers
The communication cycle may be broken if feedback is unsuccessful.
1. No Provision for Feedback
Since communication is a two-way process, the sender must search for a means of getting a
response from the receiver. If a team leader permits neither any interruptions nor questions while
discussing projects, he may find that team members may not completely understand what they
are to do. Face-to-face oral communication is considered the best type of communication since
feedback can be both verbal and nonverbal. When two communicators are separated, care must
be taken to ask for meaningful feedback.
2. Inadequate Feedback
Delayed or judgmental feedback can interfere with good communication. If your supervisor
gives you instructions in long, compound-complex sentences without giving you a chance to
speak, you may pretend to understand the instructions just so you can leave the stress of the
conversation. Because you may have not fully understood the intended instructions, your
performance may suffer.

The various inadequacies that can be identified through communication evaluation are required
to be analyzed in terms of these various factors - obstructions and barriers - that impede flow of
communication. Any managerial action in this regard can be effective only when it strikes at the
very root of the factors that lie at the very root of the problem. From this viewpoint,
identification of different factors is necessary. Recognizing barriers to effective communication
is a first step in improving communication style.
Can you mention some general ways to overcome communication barriers so that
communication will be effective?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Dear learner, the barriers of communication can be overcome using a number of ways. Now it is
time to discuss the guidelines to overcome them. To deliver your messages effectively, you must
commit to breaking down the barriers that exist in each of these stages of the communication
process. Let‘s begin with the message itself. If your message is too lengthy, disorganized, or
contains errors, you can expect the message to be misunderstood and misinterpreted. Use of poor
verbal and body language can also confuse the message.
Barriers in context tend to stem from senders offering too much information too fast. When in
doubt here, less is oftentimes more. It is best to be mindful of the demands on other people‘s
time, especially in today‘s ultra-busy society. Once you understand this, you need to work to
understand your audience‘s culture, making sure you can converse and deliver your message to
people of different backgrounds and cultures within your own organization, in your country and
even abroad.
Despite the several barriers to effective communication, people can still engage in effective
communication. There are many tips for good and effective communication.

The following are rules or guidelines for Good Communication.

 Be clear and transparent  Encourage two way communications
 Use simple language  Pick a good time to talk
 Be well prepared  Use good body language
 Be generic  Listen and be attentive
 Be assertive  Be consistent, firm and fair
 Do not assume things
 ACTIVITY 3
MrsZimba is the Branch Manager for Bank UB in Nakonde. One of the Bank‘s corporate clients
is very annoyed because the Bank delayed the wiring of money to a supplier‘s account which has
resulted in this corporate client suffering some business loss. A fax had been sent to instruct the
Bank to wire the money followed by a phone call to confirm receipt of the fax. Unfortunately,
the Bank did not act on this instruction hence the complaint. MrsZimba needs to do some
damage control and find out from her subordinates how this happened. From her enquiries, it
turns out that the person who got the fax and answered the phone did not carry out the instruction
because shortly after he got the instruction, he received an emergency call from his wife and had
to rush to the hospital. In the midst of all this confusion, he forgot to pass on the instruction to
one of his colleagues.
1) State and explain the cause of the communication breakdown in the given case.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2) What do you recommend her to do to avoid such failures in communication in the future.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2.3 Interpersonal Communications and Team Work

There are four levels of communication: intrapersonal (thoughts), interpersonal (conversations),
small group communication (like a lecture) and mass communication. ‗Talking to oneself‘ uses
the neurological/chemical apparatus of the brain as the channel of communication; talking to
another or others uses the airwaves to carry the verbal message, as well as non-verbal
communication, like body language, facial expression and so on. Mass media communication
uses print, broadcast or phone wires to communicate with a wide range of geographically
scattered people.
 Interpersonal Communications
Dear learner you have read about the classifications of communication above and with that you
will be looking at what interpersonal and small group communication are about.
As it is mentioned above, Interpersonal communication is exchange of messages between two
persons. Conversation, dialogue, interview etc. are examples of interpersonal communication.
Interpersonal communication is also referred to as dyadic communication, or communication
between two individuals. This type of communication can occur in both a one-on-one and a
group setting. This also means being able to handle different people in different situations and
making people feel at ease. Gestures such as eye contact, body movement, and hand gestures are
also part of interpersonal communication. The most common functions of interpersonal
communication are listening, talking and conflict resolution. Types of interpersonal
communication vary from verbal to non-verbal and from situation to situation. Interpersonal
communication involves face-to-face communication in a way that accomplishes the purpose and
is appropriate.
This is a type of communication that occurs between individuals, mainly involves a small
number of persons. The messages exchanged are often a mix of feelings and ideas, a number of
sensory channels are involved and feedback is immediate because the physical distance between
the individuals is often short. This form of communication distinguishes individuals who are able
to understand the emotions that are behind messages or information being shared or exchanged.
As a result participants need to be Emotionally Intelligent and appreciate the difference in
personalities and characters.

One of the common barriers to effective communication- which is often ignored is emotions and
lack of appreciation of people‘s different personalities. Emotional Intelligence (EI) plays an
important role in enhancing effective communication because it draws people‘s attention to
emotions and personalities. Often times, people are challenged to prevent their emotions from
interfering with their line of duty, especially if they are expected to interact with customers,
business partners and stakeholders.
Although EI is often associated with Interpersonal Communication, it is an important

‗ingredient‘ in all forms of communication. For instance, negative emotions can negatively
impact on a person‘s tone and voice during an oral presentation or can influence the mood of a
meeting. At the same time, negative emotions can influence the tone that one uses in composing
a business letter or an email. Therefore, emotions and behavior must be taken care of in all forms
of communication.
There are four main aspects of EI- self-awareness: self-management, social awareness and
relationship management. These aspects point out to one thing, the need to identify one‘s own
emotions and those of others, for purposes of regulating them so as to manage interaction. These
abilities go hand in hand with Interpersonal Skills such as defense skills, supporting skills,
probing skills, persuasive skills, negotiation skills, conflict and management skills. What is
common in these Interpersonal Skills is the involvement of emotions. This could probably
explain why EI is often associated with Interpersonal Communication.
The theory of Emotional Intelligence (EI) was coined in the 1990s by Daniel Goleman who
recognized the impact of emotions in communication and relationships. Today, this theory or
concept has become popular because it distinguishes individuals who are intellectually intelligent
from those who are both intellectually intelligent and successful in relating with others at
business level and personal level (family and friends). The ability to identify or perceive ones
emotions, regulate them and those of others for purposes of managing relationships and
interacting with others is referred to as Emotional Intelligence (EI).
EI is also important in distinguishing leaders. Many successful leaders and managers are
Emotionally Intelligent because they are able to read people‘s emotions, moods and their own
and regulate them. This is very important especially in situations of conflict management and
negotiation.

Apart from appreciating people‘s emotions, it is important to identify and understand people‘s
personalities. This will enhance communication because once you identify and understand an
individual‘s personality; you will know how to communicate with them. The following are the
different categories of personalities.
 Cantankerous- such people often engage in provocative type of communication as they
hardly mind other people‘s opinions or emotions.
 Over Confident- such individuals assume they are Jacks of all trade and often think they
know everything and may easily intimidate or despise others.
 Stingy or Judicious- they often like to keep ideas and information to themselves and is
not willing to engage in information sharing. They often do not want to interact and are
almost anti-social.
 Social-often talkative and noisy may cause confusion if not watched as they do not want
to keep quiet and may say a lot of irrelevant things.
 Inept-they have ideas, information and opinions, usually want to share but are unable to
articulate or express themselves.
 Logical-usually they are critical, take their time and pick details.
 Small Group Communication
Small group communication is an interaction process that occurs among three or more people
interacting in an attempt to achieve commonly recognized goals either face-to-face or through
mediated forms. This is sometimes included in the interpersonal level- the most obvious
difference is the number of persons involved in the process. The small group may be a family of
three talking at supper, or a meeting of an organization with just a few members.
 ACTIVITY 4
Write the difference and similarities of interpersonal and small group communication.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

UNIT SUMMARY
Communication is a two way process of exchanging ideas or information between two human
beings. The elements in the communication process are: sender, receiver, message, method, aim,
noise, situation, and feedback.
Anything that prevents understanding of the message is a barrier to communication. Barriers to

communication can emanate from the sender, or receiver, or other causes like noise.
Interpersonal communication is exchange of messages between two persons. Conversation,

dialogue, interview etc. are examples of interpersonal communication. The messages exchanged
are often a mix of feelings and ideas, a number of sensory channels are involved and feedback is
immediate because the physical distance between the individuals is often short. This form of
communication distinguishes individuals who are able to understand the emotions that are behind
messages or information being shared or exchanged. As a result participants need to be
Emotionally Intelligent and appreciate the difference in personalities and characters. One of the
common barriers to effective communication- which is often ignored is emotions and lack of
appreciation of people‘s different personalities. Therefore, emotional intelligence is an important
‗ingredient‘ in all forms of communication, though it is often associated with interpersonal
communication.
Small group communication, on the other hand, is an interaction process that occurs among three
or more people interacting in an attempt to achieve commonly recognized goals either face-to-
face or through mediated forms.


CHECK LIST
Put a tick mark in the boxes for the tasks that you can perform
QUESTIONS YES NO
Can you elucidate the elements of communication process
Can you identify the barriers of communication
Do you know the rules to overcome barriers of communication
Do you understand what interpersonal communication is
Can you define small group communication
Can you differentiate interpersonal communication and small group

communication
appropriate topics to revise
UNIT TWO
 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
module.
Part I: Say true if the Statement is correct and false if it is not
1. Barriers of communication can be thought of as filters.
2. The very first step in the process of communication is generation of thought in the
receiver‘s mind.
3. Lack of communication skills is both encoding and decoding barrier.

4. Receiver is the person who initiates the process of communication.

5. Face-to-face oral communication is considered the best type of communication since

feedback can be both verbal and nonverbal.
6. Being assertive is one way to overcome communication failure and be effective in

communication.
7. It is not as such important to identify and understand people‘s personalities to enhance
communication.
1. Which of the following if an encoding barrier of communication?
A. No provision for feedback D. Receiver‘s lack of interest

B. Physical distractions E. All of the above
C. Lack of sensitivity to receiver
2. Selection of medium of communication depends upon:
A. MessageandAudience D. A and B
B. Urgency E. All of the above
C. Situation
3. One is not an element in communication process
A. Sender and Receiver D. All of the above
B. Noise and situation E. All except
C. Message and feedback
4. Which one is false about an appropriate channel the sender must use?
A. Phone instead of fax if there is need for immediate feedback
B. Fax instead of letter if there is need for immediate transmission of message
C. Oral instead of written if the nature of the content of the message has to be a contract
D. Written rather than oral if there is need for permanent record of the message
E. Face-to face if degree of negotiation and persuasion required

5. Those people who often engage in provocative type of communication as they hardly mind
other people‘s opinions or emotions are with __________personality
A. Over Confident D. Stingy or Judicious
B. Cantankerous E. None of the above
C. Logical
6. It is a barrier that happens when words or phrases that may not be understood by an average
person are used
A. Physical and environmental barriers
B. Emotional and Psychological barrier
C. Denotation and Connotation
D. Information Distortion
E. None of the above
Part III: Fill in the blank space
1. __________________of the message in communication process helps the sender to

design the message in the most appropriate way.
2. The person who initiates the process of communication is ______________________.
3. During the transmitting of the message, ________________is the way the message is
delivered and is known as Paralanguage.
4. _______________is the final link in the communication process which helps to check on
how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended.
5. A barrier of communication that occurs when the original information or message is
altered along the communication process is ______________________.

UNIT THREE
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Content Structure
3.1 The 7 C‘S
Unit Summary
Learning Objectives
Identify the seven principles of communication

Explain the seven principles of communication
Demonstrate the principles of communication
3.1. The 7 C’s
To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific communication principles.
These principles tie in closely with the basic concepts of the communication process and are
important for both written and oral communications. They provide guidelines for choice of
content and style of presentation adapted to the purpose and receiver of your messages.
Business Communications to be effective should be complete, concise, clear, concrete, correct,

considerate, and courteous. More specifically, this means that communication should: answer
basic questions like who, what, when, where; be relevant and not overly wordy; focus on the
receiver and his or her interests; use specific facts and figures and active verbs; use a
conversational tone for readability; include examples and visual aids when needed; be tactful and
good natured; and be accurate and nondiscriminatory. Unclear, inaccurate, or inconsiderate
business communication can waste valuable time, alienate employees or customers, and destroy
goodwill toward management or the overall business.
The principles of communication used to achieve both specific and general objectives of a
message are collectively justified as the 7C’s.

 The business writing principles or seven C‘s in business communication are, therefore,
the following.
1. Correctness 5. Concreteness
2. Conciseness 6. Consideration
3. Clarity 7. Courtesy
4. Completeness
1. Correctness
At the core of correctness are the proper grammar, punctuation and spelling. Normally it is
assumed that correctness only refers to spelling, punctuation and grammar etc. but business
communication is something more than that.
 Following guideline should be considered for achieving correctness.

- Use the correct level of language
- Include only accurate facts and figures
- Maintain acceptable writing mechanics
a. Use the Correct Level of Language:
There are usually three levels of language that is formal, informal and sub-standard. Informal
level of language is the language of business letters, memos and reports. Formal language is used
for writing research papers and legal documents etc. Sub-standard level of language is not used
in any type of communication because it either refers to the street language or unacceptable
language.
Formal and Informal Words
Formal writing is often associated with scholarly writing: doctoral dissertations, master‘s thesis,
legal documents, top-level government agreements and other material where formality is
demanded.
Informal writing is more characteristic of business writing. Here you use words that are short,
well-known and conversational as in this comparison list:

Formal informal
Anticipate Expect
Ascertain Find out
Deem Think (believe)
Endeavor Try
Interrogate Ask
Procure Get
The sub formal level of language is incorrect.
Say Don‘t Say
- Isn‘t, aren‘t, amn‘t - Ain‘t

- Regardless - Irregardless
- I can hardly -I can‘t hardly
b. Include Only Accurate Facts and Figures:
The writer of a business message should specifically be careful when he is quoting any fact or
figure. Check Accuracy of facts, figures and words it is impossible to convey meaning precisely,
through words, from the head of the sender to a receiver. The situation is more critical when the
reader relies on the accuracy of facts and figures. An incorrect figure may lead even to the loss of
customer, because customer might feel that he is not dealing with business like people. For
example if a bank manager provides a wrong balance figure to his account holder, the result
might be disastrous for the bank.
c. Maintain Acceptable Writing Mechanics:
Writing mechanics include a number of considerations. For instance, use of grammar rules,
Sentences structure, composition, punctuation, spelling and all other considerations.
Two common weaknesses in writing mechanics that deserve special thought and brief attention
are mentioned here. These are incorrect spelling and careless omissions.

- Spelling errors
Business executives and customers expect you to spell correctly and may begin to question your
overall ability if you misspell – especially the customer‘s name and every day words like
convenience, questionnaire, stationery, personnel and accommodation. Errors of transposition
(‗nad‘ instead of ‗and’) are spelling errors that show carelessness.
- Careless omissions
Another way to maintain correct writing mechanics is to double –check for any careless
omissions of punctuation marks or words needed for grammatical accuracy. Sometimes even
small omission can lead to costly miscommunication.
2. Conciseness
Conciseness means ―convey the message by using fewest words‖. A concise messages save time
of both the sender and the receiver. Conciseness, in a business message, can be achieved by
avoiding wordy expressions and repetition. Using brief and to the point sentences, including
relevant material makes the message concise. Achieving conciseness does not mean to losing
completeness of message.
With the advent of information revolution, business messages are getting short day by day. This
is because of huge inflow and outflow of messages on daily basis. As you know that all
businessmen have a short time. Hence a concise message saves the time and expenses for both
the parties. Therefore, conciseness is a prime requirement.
 Following points should be considered for achieving conciseness.

- Omitting trite expressions
- Avoid unnecessary repetition
- Include relevant facts
(a) Omitting Trite Expressions
Trite expressions are also called clichés or stereo typed expressions. They are usually longer,
formal and relatively meaningless because of over use.

Example:
Trite: In accordance with your request of recent date, we are enclosing herewith our cashier‘s
cheque in the amount of Birr 20,000, representing a withdrawal of said saving A/c. No. 3595.
Improved: According to your request of April 25, cheque of Birr 20,000 is enclosed.
So as to avoid wordy expression, consider the following important mechanism.
1. Use single-word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible without changing

meaning.
E.g. Instead of ―at this time‖ you can just use only a concise word: NOW, Always try
to use ―To the point Approach‖ in business scenario perspective.
 Wordy: In due course
 Concise: Soon
 Wordy: Due to the fact that
 Concise: Because
 Wordy: In spite of the fact that
 Concise: Although
2. Avoid that and which clauses in your sentences whenever possible as the longer your
message and do not add any contribution to make the message is more understandable to
your message receiver so that they should be avoided.
Example:
Wordy: She bought desks that are of executive type.
Concise: She bought executive type desks.
3. Avoid over using: avoid over using of words at the beginning of sentences in your
message such as there is, there was, it is, it was, there are, there were and son.
Example:
Wordy: There are four rules that should be observed.
Concise: Four rules should be observed.
(b) Avoid Unnecessary Repetition
Skillful business writers avoid unnecessary repetition by rewording their message and trying to
reduce it by almost 50%. In other words first draft of the message is never final and it always
requires a second reworded reduced draft before dispatched to the receiver.

Example:
Wordy: I have your letter of October 14 and wish to say that we will be glad to give you a
refund for shirt you purchased here last week.
Improved: You can avail refund for the shirt you purchased last week.
(c) Include Relevant Facts
Relevant facts refer to those necessary facts which should be present and should never be
compromised for achieving conciseness.
3. Clarity
Clarity refers to a clear understanding of the message by the receiver. Clarity demands the use of
simple language and easy sentence structure in composing the message. In other words the
receiver should not face any problem in getting the meaning of the message.
 The clarity could be achieved by the following techniques.

- Choose words that are short, familiar and conversational
- Construct effective sentences and paragraphs
- Achieve appropriate readability
- Include examples, illustrations etc.
(a) Choose Words that are Short, Familiar and Conversational
The vocabulary of English language is so rich that a number of words are possible for a single
occasion. In today‘s business English, analysts suggest that it‘s better to use such words in
business writing, which are normally used in day to day conversation. Therefore, it is always
better to avoid difficult and high sounding words.
Example:
The bank statement shows an Overdraft of Birr10, 000.
The bank statement shows an excess withdrawal of Birr 10,000.
When you have a choice between a long word and a short word one, use the short, familiar and
conversational word that your reader or listener will quickly understand. Also, use synonyms
instead of Latin terms if they, though short, may be unfamiliar to your message receivers.

Example:
 Circa(L) – about
 Subsequent – after
 Promulgate – announce , declare
 Inadvertence – error
 e.g..(L) – for example
 Domicile – home , house
 Remuneration – pay
(b) Construct Effective Sentences and Paragraphs

Arranging your words in well-constructed sentences and paragraphs is also an essential task that
requires adaptations to your reader. Important characteristics to consider are; length, unity, and
coherence.
Length as short as desirable
Generally, short sentences are preferred. The suggested average sentence length should be about
17 to 20 words. Because of a pleasing variety of length is desirable, you can have a range of
from 3 to 30 or more words. But when a sentence exceeds 40 words, try to rewrite it in to more
than one sentence. Please also note that it is important that your sentences are not too short
either.
The number of paragraphs for a business message should not exceed more than 3-4 paragraphs.
Within one paragraph, number of sentences should not exceed more than 3-4 sentences.
Unity to express main ideas
In a sentence where simple, compound and complex unity means that you have one main idea
and any other ideas in the sentence must be closely related to it. In a paragraph, unity likewise
means you have one main idea or topic. Usually a topic sentence is a good way to express the
main idea (of course, a one-or two sentence paragraph need not have topic sentence). The
preferred position for the topic sentence in most paragraphs is at the beginning, where it receives
the best emphasis. The sentences that follow it contain the details to help develop the main idea.

However, if you think your reader will consider your main topic unfavorable or unclear, you may
be wise to place the supporting details firs and then lead up topic sentences at the end.
Coherence for clear meaning
Arrange words clearly so that the ideas clearly express the intended meaning. Place the correct
modifiers as close as possible to the word it is supposed to modify.
Example:
A1) Being an excellent lawyer, I am sure you can help us (unclear)
A2) Being an excellent lawyer, you can surely help us or as you are an excellent lawyer, I am
sure you can help us (clear)
For coherence in a paragraph each sentence should be relevant to the main idea expressed in the
topic sentences. Transitional words and phrases correctly placed within paragraphs help to point
one sentence to another. Likewise they can lead the reader from one paragraph to another.
(c) Achieve appropriate Readability

For achieving readability ‗FOGINDEX‘ is calculated. The calculation is given below.
Formula:
Word Count 110
No. of sentences 7
Average sentence length (110 ÷ 7) 15.7 (a)
Hard Words 13
% age of hard words (13 ÷ 110 x 100) 11.8 (b)
Total of ‗a‘ and ‗b‘ 27.5
Multiplier (27.5 x 0.4) 0.4
FOGINDEX =11
If the answer of Fog Index ranges between 10 and15, this means the message is readable by a
person having average educational background. If the answer exceeds the mark of 15; this means
to understand the message, some higher educational qualification is required.
(d) Include Examples, Illustrations and other visual aids when desirable
Examples and illustrations work as supplementary tools for the writer. Examples help the reader
to understand meaning of the message.

When you have complicated or lengthy explanation in a letter, speech, or report; you will often
find you can improve the clarity by giving your receipts an example, analogy, or illustration.
Furthermore, visual aids such as headings, tabulations, itemizations, picture, and charts are
definite aid to clarity and easy understanding. Some important statements may be underlined,
numbered, colored, or typed in CAPITALS or italics or on short lines with wider margins.
4. Completeness
It is not necessary that all seven C‘s could be applied to all types of business messages. The ‗C‘
of completeness should be kept in mind especially giving replies to inquiries and writing
adjustment letter. By completeness means the message must bear all the necessary information to
bring the response you desire. The sender should answer all the questions and with facts and
figures. And when desirable, go for extra details. Message Receiver implies either listener or
reader, desire complete information to their question.
 Following points are considered for the ‗C‘ of completeness.

- Answer all questions asked
- Give something extra when desirable
- Check for five W‘s
(a) Answer all Questions Asked
If in the product related inquiry the prospective customer has asked four questions, it is much
necessary to answer all the four questions. Even if a single question is missed and not answered,
the inquirer is having all the reasons to believe that the person giving reply is a careless person or
he is not interested in answering the questions or there is something wrong which he is willing to
hide. So, replying to an inquiry or request, answer all questions asked, and even anticipate the
reader‘s reaction by providing other relevant information.
(b) Give Something Extra When Desirable
Sometimes, as an intelligent writer, you know what your reader may need to know about any
certain thing. In this case you must include anything that is of your reader‘s benefit.
Normally a good marketing technique applied by managers is to offer something extra apart from
original questions asked.
This something extra may be the point of sale for the producer because customer would like to
buy from such a manufacturer who is offering something extra, which others are not offering.

(c) Check for 5 W’s

Five W‘s to Who, What, When, Where and Why. For example to order merchandise, we should
make clear what we want, when we need it, where it is to be sent, how the payment will be
needed.
5. Concreteness
It means that message should be specific instead of general. Misunderstanding of words creates
problems for both parties (sender and receiver). When you talk to your client always use facts
and figures instead of generic or irrelevant information. Being definite, vivid and specific rather
than vague, obscure and generally leads to concreteness of the message. Facts and figures being
presented in the message should be specific.
Concreteness adds conviction to the message. It is easy for the reader to believe on concrete
messages. Concreteness also increases credibility of the sender of message.
 The following points should be considered for achieving concreteness.

- Use specific facts and figures
- Put action in the verb
- Choose vivid image building words.
(a) Use Specific Facts and Figures
Use of fact and figures play a vital role especially when describing a product or service. Using
specific facts and figures, whenever possible adds up to the concreteness of your message. The
receiver of your message would be very comfortable with your speech when you can support
some of your ideas with facts.
Example:
Vague: Please send us the following items by the end of this month.
Clear: The following items should reach us on or before 21 August
Vague: Ethiopia is making progress in obtaining investments.
Clear: In 2000 E.C, investments in Ethiopia were about $500 million; today, that figure
rose by 50%.

(b) Put Action in the Verb

The basic function of the verb is to describe action of a noun or pronoun. Therefore, care should
be taken that the action should always be represented by verb and an action is found in a noun, it
should be converted into verb.
(c) Choose Vivid Image Building Words
Vivid image building words are generally used for creating an impression upon the reader, so
that the reader should start building an image of the product or service in his mind. Such words
are used in sales and sales promotion letters.
Use comparisons, figurative language, and concrete instead of nouns.
Comparisons
A1) there are a great, many solder joints in the space craft, and each must have just the right
amount of solder.
A2) the spacecraft has 2.5 million solder joints. If an extra drop of solder had been left on these
joints, the excess weight would have been equivalent to the payload of the vehicle.
Figurative language
Figures of speech may express an idea more vividly than literal language.
Example:
A1) x product helps you lose your double chin in four weeks, if you use x as directed.
A2) if two chins quarrel for a place on your collar, x product helps settle the argument. Only one
chin remains after you use x just four weeks as directed.
Concrete, instead of abstract noun
This is especially very important as subjects of your sentences. Concrete nouns represent
subjects your recipient can touch, see, smell, hear or taste. Abstract nouns as subjects designate
intangible concepts. They bring vague ‗picture‘ if any, to a person‘s mind.
6. Consideration
Consideration refers to giving importance to the other person whether he is a reader audience,
spectator or listener. It means – to consider the receiver‘s Interest/Intention. Consideration
demands to put oneself in the place of receiver while composing a message. It refers to the use of
you attitude, emphases positive pleasant facts, visualizing reader‘s problems, desires, emotions
and his response.

It is very important in effective communication while writing a message you should always keep
in mind your target group consideration is very important ―C‖ among all the seven C‘s.
For achieving consideration following points are considered.
 - You attitude
- Show readers interest
- Apply integrity in the message
- Emphasize the positive
(a) You Attitude
You attitude means writing a business message from the point of view of the customer or at least
showing that the customer is very important. Your receivers are usually more concerned about
themselves than about you or the company you represent. They are more likely to read your
message when they see their name and the pronoun ―you‖ rather than ―I‖ ―WE‖ ―US‖.
Example:
I - Attitude: I want to send my congratulations for your promotion
You - Attitude: Congratulations to you on your promotion
I - Attitude: We will ship soon the goods in your May 4 order
You - Attitude: You should receive by May 8 the TV screens you ordered on May 4
I - Attitude: We allow 5% discount on Cash Payment.
You - Attitude: You can enjoy 5% discount on Cash Payment.
(b) Show Readers Interest
People are basically selfish in their nature. They are only interested in themselves and they
always look for some material benefit. Therefore business messages should always be drafted in
such a manner to offer something to the customer, which is of interest for him. Mind it customers
are not interested in the producer or service provider. Their focus of concentration is their own
self. A customer will be a loyal customer, if he is obtaining some benefit on a regular basis.

Readers may react positively when benefit are shown to them. So always try to address his/her
need and want. So always show/write to reader what has been done so far as his/her query is
concerned. So, always avoid that has not been done so far.
Always write a message in such a way how audience should be benefited from it. They will be
more likely to react favorably and do what you suggest if you show that benefits are worth the
effort and the cost. In situations where actual direct reader benefit is impossible or irrelevant to
the subject matter, the message should at least show interest in and concern for the readers needs
or viewpoint.
Even a simple request gets better response when a reader benefits plug accompanies it. For
example, an insurance company that wanted to update its address files sent to half its policy
holders a double postcard with this message. Because we have not written you in some time
please help us bring our records up to date by filling in and returning the other half of this card.
Only 3% of these cards came back. To the remaining half of its policy holders the firm sent the
same request reworded to show readers benefit: So that dividend checks, premium notices and
other messages of importance may reach you promptly, please fill out and the other half of this
card. This request brought 90% of the cards back in a few days.
Though your company is in business to make a profit, you omit that selfish sounding idea; the
reader assumes it anyway and is motivated only by what benefits he/she receives. Reader-benefit
appeals are desirable also in job applications, favor requests, and announcements to your
customers, prospective buyers, and the like.
(c) Apply Integrity in the Message

To be truly considerate, you need also to apply integrity – high moral standards, personal honor,
truthfulness and sincerity – to your written and oral messages. Integrity is indispensable in our
jobs, in business transactions, in social and political activities, in everything we do.
Integrity refers to character in the business message. This would come by being honest and
truthful with the customer. Never make such a promise, which can be fulfilled never give false
hopes to the customer and also never bluff the customer.
Without integrity business communication would provide worthless, & our confidence in people
would be shattered.

Ethics is concerned with what is right and wrong in human conduct. Codes of ethics provide
standards enabling us to determine the fundamental distinction between right and wrong human
behavior.
(d) Emphasize the Positive
Most of the statements even in business messages could be written from angles. One is the
positive angle and the other is the negative one. It is always better to highlight positively rather
than negatively. The communicator should therefore:
 Stress what can be done instead of what cannot be done, and

 Focusing on words your receiver can consider favorably
Example:
 Say -We do refund if the returned item is clean and saleable.

 Don’t say -We do not refund if the refund item is soiled and unsalable.
 Say-As soon as your signature card reaches us, we will gladly open an account
for you.
 Don’t say-It is impossible to open an account for you today.
7. Courtesy
In business, almost everything starts and ends in courtesy. Courtesy means not only thinking
about receiver but also valuing his feelings. Much can be achieved by using polite words and
gestures, being appreciative, thoughtful, tactful, and showing respect to the receiver. Courtesy
builds goodwill. Courtesy strengthen relations.
Knowing your audience allows you to use statements of courtesy; be aware of your message
receiver. True courtesy involves being aware not only of the perspective of others, but also their
feelings. Courtesy stems from a sincere you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical
insertions of ―please‖ and ―Thank you‖. Appling socially accepted manner is a form of courtesy.
Rather, it is politeness that grows out respect and concern for others.
Courteous communication generates a special tone in their writing and speaking.
Surviving in today‘s business world requires courtesy on the part of producer or seller. A
discourteous producer or service provider cannot succeed in the buyer‘s market. That is why
famous slogan of ‗Customer is always right‘ invented.

 To achieve courtesy following points should be considered.

- Be sincere, tactful, thought full and appreciative
- Omit expressions that can irritate
- Answer/mail promptly
- Grant and apologize
- Choose nondiscriminatory expressions
(a) Be sincere, tactful, thought full and appreciative

Tact means handling customer with a right technique. Otherwise, if customers are not handled
properly, business may suffer. Be sincere, tactful, thought full and appreciative
Though few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt, these negative traits are common cause of
discourtesy. Sometimes they stem from a mistaken idea of conciseness, sometimes from negative
personal attitudes.
Example:
Tactless: Your letter is not complete I cannot understand it.
Tactful: If I understand your letter correctly, you want to say that…….
Tactless: Your letter is not clear at all; I can‘t understand it.
Tactful: If I understand your letter correctly, it seems that it needs some clarification.
Tactless: Apparently you have already forgotten what I wrote you two weeks ago.
Tactful: As mentioned in my May 15 letter or memo to you continue with the facts.
(b) Omit Expressions that Can Irritate

The thoughtful business communicator should avoid expressions that might offend the reader or
listener. Irritating expressions are disliked by all and customers are not any exception.
Example:
Here is the list if expressions that you should avoid, particularly when used with ―you‘ and
―your‖.
 Your stubborn silence  You have no choice

 You leave us no choice  Contrary to your inference
 You have failed  You neglect

 You claim that  You neglect

 I do not agree with you  You surely don‘t expect etc
(c) Answer / Mail Promptly
It is a matter of business courtesy that all mails should be answered promptly. A late reply may
give an impression that the manufacturer is not interested in the customer.
(d) Grand and Apologize
It is always advisable to give some favor to the customer if he asked for it, and if some mistake is
committed, it is better to apologize.
(e)Choose nondiscriminatory expressions
Courtesy also requires use of nondiscriminatory expressions that refer to any particular, gender,
and race, ethnic, Origin, etc.
Instead of these gender-specific wordschoose these Bias Free words
Businessman Business person or business worker
Chairman Chair, chairperson, worker, employee
Manpower Worker, employee
Newsman Newscaster or reporter or journalist
Salesman Salesperson, sales, representative, agent
Mankind Humankind
Chairman Chairperson


ACTIVITY 1
List the principles of communication and define then in a single sentence
Principle Definition
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
ACTIVITY 2
In you workplace, observe two people talking and:
A. Describe their communication.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
B. See if you can find all the seven principles of communication and provide an example for
each one.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

UNIT SUMMARY
To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific communication principles. So,
communication should be complete, concise, clear, concrete, correct, considerate, and courteous.
At the core of correctness are the proper grammar, punctuation and spelling. But a message to be
correct should include the correct level of language, only accurate facts and figures, and maintain
acceptable writing mechanics.
When we say conciseness it means conveying a message by using fewest words so that the
message will save time of both the sender and the receiver.
Clarity refers to a clear understanding of the message by the receiver. Clarity demands the use of
simple language and easy sentence structure in composing the message.
By completeness we mean the message must bear all the necessary information to bring the
response you desire. The sender should answer all the questions and with facts and figures.
Concreteness means that message should be specific instead of general. When you talk to your
client always use facts and figures instead of generic or irrelevant information.
And Consideration refers to giving importance to the other person, whether he is a reader
audience, spectator or listener.
The last but not list principle of effective communication is courtesy and it means not only
thinking about receiver but also valuing his feelings.

 CHECK LIST
1. Put a tick mark in the boxes for the tasks that you can perform
QUESTIONS YES NO
Can you identify all the seven principles of communication
Can you explain all the seven principles of communication
2. Can you demonstrate all the seven principles of communication? If not explain why and reread
them if it helps you improve the problem that make you cannot apply the principles.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

UNIT THREE
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
module.
Part I: Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is not
1. Consideration means convey the message by using fewest words.
2. Informal writing is more characteristic of business writing.
3. A correct message refers to spelling, punctuation and grammar only.
4. It is not necessary that all seven C‘s could be applied to all types of business messages.
5. Courtesy can be achieved by using polite words and gestures, being appreciative,
thoughtful, tactful, and showing respect to the receiver.

1. All are correct statements about the 7 C‘s except
A. Achieving conciseness does not mean to losing completeness of message
B. Checking for five W‘s is a technique important to achieve concreteness
C. Using specific facts and figures, whenever possible adds up to the concreteness of
your message
D. Consideration refers to the use of you attitude
E. All of the above
2. Courtesy in communication:
A. involves being aware not only of the perspective of others, but also their feelings
B. stems from a sincere you-attitude
C. is merely politeness with mechanical insertions of ―please‖ and ―Thank you‖
D. is politeness that grows out respect and concern for others
E. All of the above
3. So as to avoid wordy expression, you should:
A. Avoid that and which clauses in your sentences
B. Use single-word substitutes instead of phrases
C. Avoid over using of words at the beginning of sentences
D. None of the above
E. All of the above
4. All are correct statements except
A. Formal language is the language of business letters, memos and reports.
B. Formal language is used for writing research papers and legal documents.
C. Sub-standard level of language is either refers to the street language or unacceptable

language.

D. Formal writing is often associated with scholarly writing

5. It is a guideline considered for achieving correctness in communication
A. Maintain acceptable writing mechanics
B. Use the correct level of language
C. Include only accurate facts and figures
D. B and C
E. All of the above
6. Which one is a formal language of communication
A. That was not what we expect from you
B. We anticipated this result
C. I ain‘t a student
D. B and C
E. A and B
7. Which one comprises consideration principle of communication
A. We will ship soon the goods in your May 4 order
B. I want to send my congratulations for your promotion
C. You can enjoy 5% discount on Cash Payment
D. All of the above
8. Identify the odd one.

A. Show readers interest
B. Apply integrity in the message
C. Include examples and illustrations
D. Emphasize the positive

9. Which one is discriminatory expression

A. Chairperson D. Employee
B. Businessman E. None of the above
C. Businessperson

1. ________________________ is a principle of communication which demands to put
oneself in the place of the receiver while composing a message.
2. If someone says ‘Your letter is not clear at all; I can‘t understand it. S/he is most likely
violating the principle of ________________________in communication.
Part IV: Write Short Answer
1. List the techniques to be considered in achieving clarity of a message.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

UNIT FOUR
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION

Content Structure
4.1 Internal and External communication
4.2 Formal flow of communication
4.2.1 Downward communication
4.2.2 Upward communication
4.2.3 Horizontal communication
4.2.4 Diagonal communication
4.3 Informal Communication
Unit Summary
Learning Objectives
Understand internal communication

Understand external communication
Differentiate internal and external communications
Describe formal flow of communication
Analyze the different forms of formal communication
Describe informal flow of communication
Differentiate formal and informal communications
4.1. Internal and External Communication

Having appreciated the importance of communication in different contexts, it is imperative to
understand the different forms or categories of communication, in which people engage in. This
is because these different forms of communication demand unique sets of skills or tactics.
Organization charts make it easier to see how communication can take place vertically (between
levels), horizontally (between sections) and diagonally (between different levels and sections).
It is important to keep all communication routes as open and as effective as possible.

 Taking into consideration how communication flows from one point to another point it
may be divided into the following types.
 Internal Communication
 External Communication
 Internal Communication
When the flow of communication is within an organization it is internal communication. It does
not include outsiders. Internal communication helps people to interact in the organization to plan,
organize, staff, lead and control. It is used by all people in the organization at every level. It is
intra-company communication.
Businesses cannot function and employees cannot perform their jobs well without adequate
internal communication.
Communication between organizational members can be formal (vertical, horizontal or

crosswise) or informal.
 External Communication
External communication is the exchange of messages between the organization and the external
environment. The external communication links the organization with the outside world.
In external communication the flow of information is outside the organization. It is Intercompany
communication. It is used to communicate with vendors, suppliers, competitors, government,
consumer groups and general public.
In external communication special care and consideration has to be given as it is also important
for the goodwill and image of the company. Legal aspects are also given special attention while
communicating externally.
Why external communication is needed?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Since the survival of a business depends on the relationships established between members of the
organization and people outside the organization such as customers, stockholders, community
members, government agencies, and the media an organization is required to maintain relations
with the external environment.
Organizations are involved in communicating externally to present products and services, to

develop a positive image, to attract employees, and to gain attention.
The channels used for external communication include annual reports, newsletters, brochures,
advertisements, press releases, conferences, and sponsorship of special community events.
Many external messages are viewed or created by company public relations professionals to
ensure that they are consistent with the organizations philosophy and policy.
 The typical external communication program includes four distinct programs:

- Public relations - promotion of an identity as a contributor to the society
- Advertising - involves illustrating products or services in a positive manner to attract
customers.
- Promoting the culture and opportunities - this communication is designed to attract
employee talent to sustain and grow the organization.
- Customer surveys are used to gather feedback about the experience of external
constituents with the organization. This information is used to make modifications or
changes in service, product, or relationships.
 ACTIVITY1
1. Explain clear difference between internal and external communications by giving

practical examples of your own.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4.2. Formal flow of communication

Formal communication channels are established within the organization‘s chain of command in
order to accomplish task objectives. The way in which formal communication is done, is known
as formal communication network.
Formal communication can be done in different ways-it may be vertical communication or
horizontal communication.
In an effective organization, communication flows in various directions: downward, upward, and
crosswise: horizontal and diagonal.
In formal communication, transmission of messages is made as per the procedures specifically

set up for the purpose in the organization. Usually orders and instructions flow from the
superiors to the subordinates and reports, suggestions, and recommendations flow from the
subordinates to the superiors.
 Characteristics of formal communication
 Following are the chief characteristics of the formal communication:

(1) Written and Oral
Formal communication can both be written and oral. Daily works are handled through oral
communication, while the policy matters require written communication.
2) Formal Relations:
This communication is adopted among those employees where formal relations have been
established by the organization. The sender and the receiver have some sort of organizational
relations.
(3) Prescribed Path:
The communication has to pass through a definite channel while moving from one person to
another. For example, to convey the feelings of a worker to the manager, the foreman‘s help has
to be sought.
(4) Organizational Message:
This channel is concerned with the authorized organizational messages only and the personal
messages are out of its jurisdiction.

(5) Deliberate Effort:

This channel of communication is not established automatically but effort has to be made for its
creation. It is decided keeping in view the objectives of the organization.
4.2.1. Down Ward Communication
 The communication by top hierarchy with their subordinates is called downward

communication. This communication includes orders, rules, information, policies, instructions,
etc. It is a communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a lower level. In
other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a
downward communication.
This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-related information to the
employees at lower levels. The chief advantage of the downward communication is that the
subordinates get useful timely information which helps them in their work performance.
Employees require this information for performing their jobs and for meeting the expectations of
their managers.
Downward communication is used by the managers for the following purposes –
 Providing feedback on employees‘ performance.
 Giving job instructions.
 Providing a complete understanding of the employees‘ job as well as to communicate
them how their job is related to other jobs in the organization.
 Communicating the organization‘s mission and vision to the employees.
 Highlighting the areas of attention.
Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc. are all examples
of downward communication. In order to have effective and error-free downward
communication, managers must:
 Specify communication objective.
 Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous.
 Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in right
form

 Advantages of Downward communication

The advantage of downward communication is that when messages are clear and comprehensive,
employees better understand: their role in the company, what resources are available, and what is
expected from them professionally.
 Disadvantages of Downward communication
i. Noise - noise includes message filtering and distortion. Because message travel through
people, their perceptual differences may magnify, minimize, or alter a message as it
moves down through the ranks. People perceive messages differently, so they may add,
delete, or change information accordingly.
ii. Message overload - employees may experience message overload when they receive too
much information at one time. Many messages reiterate what employees already know
and other messages do not affect certain employees at all.
iii. It is Time consuming - Downward flow of information through the different levels of
the organization is time consuming. Indeed, delays may be so frustrating that some top
managers insist that information be sent directly to the person or group requiring it.
iv. Incomplete information - Problems in downward communication also exist when
managers do not provide employees with the information they need to carry out their
tasks effectively. This lack of communication is sometimes deliberate, as when managers
withhold information to keep employees dependent on them. The net effect of
incomplete downward communication is that employees can feel confused,
uninformed, or powerless and might fail to carry out their tasks properly.
Downward communication is by far the most frequent form of communication within an
organization, where higher levels communicate with staff below them.
4.2.2. Upward Communication
 This is quite the reverse of the downward communication. Communication that flows to
a higher level in an organization is called upward communication. This flows from the
subordinates to the superiors. The subject-matter of this communication includes suggestions,
reactions, reports, complaints, etc. This sort of communication helps the superiors in taking
decisions.

It provides feedback on how well the organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward
communication to convey their problems and performances to their superiors. The subordinates
also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the downward
communication.
It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in the
decision-making process. Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal
workforce in an organization because the employees are given a chance to raise and speak
dissatisfaction issues to the higher levels. The managers get to know about the employees‘
feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and organization in general. Managers can thus
accordingly take actions for improving things.
Grievance redressal system, complaint and suggestion box, Job satisfaction surveys etc. all help
in improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -
performance reports made by low level management for reviewing by higher level management,
employee attitude surveys, letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc.
 The functions of upward communication are the following:

1. It provides managers with feedback about current organizational issues and problems,
and information about day-to-day operations that they need for making decisions about
directing the organization.
2. It is management‘s primary source of feedback for determining the effectiveness of its
downward communication.
3. It relieves employees‘ tensions by allowing lower-level organization members to share
relevant information with their superiors.
4. It encourages employees‘ Participation and involvement, thereby enhancing
organizational cohesiveness.
Effective upward communication is usually found in participative and democratic organizational
environments. Effective upward communication requires environment in which subordinates feel
free to communicate.


1.
ACTIVITY 2
What is the difference between Downward and Upward communication?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4.2.3. Horizontal Communication
 Communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in an organization is called

lateral communication, i.e., communication between peers, between managers at same levels or
between any horizontally equivalent organizational members. It takes place when two
individuals of the same level exchange information. Horizontal communication is used by the
same level officers to solve the problems of similar nature and profit by the experience of other
people. The subject-matter of horizontal communication includes information, requests,
suggestions, mutual problems and coordination related information.
The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:
 It is time saving.
 It facilitates co-ordination of the task.
 It facilitates co-operation among team members.
 It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.
 It helps in solving various organizational problems.
 It is a means of information sharing.
 It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or
conflicts within a department.
Can competition among employees of different departments in an organization

repress horizontal communication? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

The most notable disadvantage of horizontal communication is professional rivalry, which is

competition between members of different departments. Sometimes employees may be reluctant
to share information or collaborate because they feel threatened or jealous. Stiff competition over
company resources, choice projects, or new positions can repress horizontal communication.
4.2.4. Diagonal Communication
 Tasks frequently arise which involve more than one department and there is often no
obvious line of authority. Diagonal communication often relies largely on cooperation, goodwill
and respect between the parties concerned. Communication that takes place between a manager
and employees of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It generally does not
appear on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a training manager
interacts with Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task. The
Accounts people of an organization visiting different employees in various departments for their
IT calculation, bonus for workers etc. fall under diagonal communication. It is also called
crosswise communication.
Horizontal
Diagonal
Upward
Downward
Figure 4.1 Information flow in an Organization
The goals of employee communication are to identify, establish and maintain mutually beneficial
relationships between the organization and the employees on whom its success or failure
depends. The four stages of employment where effective communications are vital:
1. The start – attracting and inducting new employees.
2. The work – where instruction, news and job related information should be disseminated.
3. The rewards and recognition – promotions, special events, awards.

4. The termination – breakdown of equipment, layoffs, dismissals.
ACTIVITY 3
2. What is the difference between Horizontal and Diagonal communication.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4.3. Informal Communication

It refers to interchange of information unofficially. This communication is based on informal
relations (like friendship, membership of the same club, the same place of birth, etc.) and,
therefore, is free from all the organizational formalities.
The exchange of informal messages usually takes place on the occasion of community meals,
social occasions, parties, etc. On such occasions, the superiors gather such information from their
subordinates as may be difficult to get through formal communication. Such communication
includes comments, suggestions, etc.
Under this, communication takes place through gesticulation, moving of head, smiling and by
remaining quiet. For example, a superior wants to complain against his subordinate to his higher
officer and at the same time he is afraid of giving it in writing. This can be conveyed to the
higher officer through informal communication, say during the course of a conversation.
Informal communication is also called grapevine communication because there is no definite
channel of communication. When the correct lines of communication are not used, the grapevine
often results. This term describes an unofficial communication system, which is constantly
changing. Under it some information passes through many individuals and covers a long distance
making its origin obscure. This is exactly like a grapevine where it is difficult to find the
beginning and the end.
The information that travels through a grapevine typically takes the form of gossip (beliefs about
other people) and rumors (efforts to predict future events). For instance, gossip might describe an
incident in which a manager lost his temper, and a rumor might concern expectations that a new
sales office will open next year.

 Messages travel extremely quickly on the grapevine, which is short-cut to formal

channels. Some employees feel that grapevine information is more detailed and more current or
relevant than messages received through formal channels. The grapevine satisfies social needs;
helps clarify orders and decisions, and serve as a way of getting out information that can‘t be
expressed adequately through formal channels. Managers must recognize that information in the
grapevine travels more rapidly than information in the formal channels of communication. It is
important that managers should recognize that grapevine will exist whether they want it to or not.
Additionally, managers can do little to control the direction, speed, and accuracy of grapevines.
What managers can do, however, is diminish the amount of grapevine rumors with effective
communication. Management should use it to complement formal channels of communication.
In utilizing the grapevine, honesty is the best policy. The grapevine is a vehicle for distortions of
the truth; it is basically a kind of rumor and gossip. An active grapevine can cause much damage
to an organization by spreading incomplete, false or exaggerated information. It results in low
morale, cynicism, fear and an unsettled workforce. Although the grapevine may never be
completely eradicated, one should take steps to reduce its influence by considering carefully
ways in which information is communicated, particularly in times of uncertainty within the
organization. The confidence of an organization‘s employees is vitally important, and adequate
and accurate information should always be made available to the people concerned at the earliest
possible opportunity, through the correct channels.
Example of Grapevine Network of Communication
1. Suppose the profit amount of a company is known. Rumor is spread that this much profit
is there and on that basis bonus is declared.
ACTIVITY 3
 Describe how informal communication can affect an organization.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

• Characteristics of informal communication

Informal or grapevine communication has the following characteristics:
1. Formation through Social Relations
This communication is born out of social relations who mean that it is beyond the restrictions of
the organization. No superior-subordinate relationship figures therein. A more sociable superior
can gather much information through this channel.
2. Two types of Information
Through this communication, information about the work and the individual can be collected.
3. Uncertain Path
Since it is beyond the restrictions of the organization, it follows no definite channel. Like a
grapevine, it moves in a zigzag manner.
4. Possibility of Rumor and Distortion

Responsibility for the true or false nature of communication does not lie on any individual and,
therefore, not much attention is paid to its meaning while communicating. Consequently, the
rumors keep floating.
5. Quick Relay
Informal communication makes news spread like wildfire. Not only this, people start adding
something of their own which sometimes changes the real meaning of the communication.
• Advantages of informal communication
The informal channel of communication has the following advantages:
1. Fast and Effective Communication
Under this communication, the messages move fast and their effect is equally great on the
people.
2. Free Environment
Informal communication is done in a free environment. Free environment means that there is no
pressure of any office-big or small. The reactions of the employees can easily be collected.
3. Better Human Relations
Informal communication saves the employees from tension. Freedom from tension helps the
establishment of better human relations. This also affects the formal communication.

4. Easy Solution of the Difficult Problems

There are many problems which cannot be solved with the help of formal communication. There
is more freedom in informal communication which helps the solution of difficult problems.
5. Satisfying the Social Needs of the Workers
Everybody wants good relations with the high officers at the place of his work. Such relations
give satisfaction to the employees and they feel proud. But this can be possible only with the
help of the informal communication.
• Limitations of informal communication
The defects or limitations of the informal communication are as under:
1. Unsystematic Communication
This communication is absolutely unsystematic and it is not necessary that information reaches
the person concerned.
2. Unreliable Information
Most of the information received through this communication is undependable and no important
decision can be taken on its basis.
 The difference between Formal and Informal Communication

Formal Communication Informal Communication
Not flexible Flexible
Totally controlled by the management Cannot be controlled by the management
Has documentary evidence Has no documentary evidence
Takes place through the formal official channels Takes place by passing the formal channels
Official discipline is strictly maintained Official decorum and discipline are not
followed
Secrecy can be maintained Maintaining secrecy is very difficult
Time consuming Less time is taken for transmitting information
Expensive Less expensive
Almost no chance of misunderstanding Misunderstanding can take place due to lack of
control
Chance of mistakes is very low as official Possibility of mistakes is very high as strict
discipline is maintained rules are not followed

UNIT SUMMARY
Having appreciated the importance of communication in different contexts, it is imperative to
understand the different forms or categories of communication, in which people engage in.
Communication can be internal or external. When the flow of communication is within an

organization it is internal communication. External communication, however, is the exchange of
messages between the organization and the external environment (such as customers,
stockholders, community members, government agencies, and the media).
Internal communication can be formal or informal. Formal communication channels are

established within the organization‘s chain of command in order to accomplish task objectives.
Formal communication can include the communication by top hierarchy with their subordinates
(Down ward communication), communication flow from the subordinates to the superiors
(upward communication), exchange of information individuals in the same level of hierarchy
(horizontal communication), and information exchange between a manager and employees of
other workgroups is (diagonal communication).
Informal communication refers to interchange of information unofficially. This communication

is based on informal relations (like friendship, membership of the same club, the same place of
birth, etc.) and, therefore, is free from all the organizational formalities.
CHECK LIST
 Put a tick mark in the boxes for the tasks that you can perform
QUESTIONS YES NO
Understand internal communication
Understand external communication
Differentiate internal and external communications
Describe formal flow of communication
Analyze the different forms of formal communication
Describe informal flow of communication
Differentiate formal and informal communications
If you complete all the above tasks very well you can proceed to the next part, if not go
back and revise the appropriate parts above

 UNIT FOUR
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
module.
1. Intercompany communication can be formal (vertical, horizontal or crosswise) or

informal.
2. The communication by top hierarchy with their subordinates is called downward
communication.
3. Diagonal communication does generally appear on organizational chart.
4. Formal communication channels are established within the organization‘s chain of
command in order to accomplish task objectives.
5. The chief advantage of the upward communication is that the subordinates get useful
timely information which helps them in their work performance.
6. Effective upward communication is usually found in participative and democratic
organizational environments.
7. Upward communication is by far the most frequent form of communication within an
organization
8. Fast and effective communication is one advantage of informal communication.

1. External flow of communication is:
A. helps people to interact in the organization to plan, organize, staff, lead and control
B. used to communicate with vendors, suppliers, competitors, Government, Consumer

groups and general public
C. intra-company communication
D. B and C
E. All of the above
2. Which one is a characteristic of formal communication?
A. Can be written and oral D. Informal Relations

B. Prescribed Path E. Deliberate Effort
C. Organizational Message
3. One is not typical external communication program
A. Customer surveys D. Promoting the culture and
B. Public relations opportunities
C. Advertising E. None of the above
4. Upward communication:
A. provides feedback on how well the organization is functioning
B. is used by supervisors to tell how well they have understood the downward
communication
C. is used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in the
decision-making process
D. A and C
E. All of the above
5. The most notable disadvantage of horizontal communication is:
A. professional rivalry
B. competition between members of different departments

C. time consumption
D. A and B
E. All of the above
6. Downward communication is used by the managers for the purposes of:
A. Communicating the organization‘s mission and vision to the employees
B. Providing feedback on employees performance
C. Giving job instructions
D. Highlighting the areas of attention
E. To give job performance report
7. Which one is incorrect about unofficial communication?
A. Managers can do little to control its direction, speed, and accuracy
B. It satisfies social needs and helps clarify orders and decisions that can‘t be expressed
adequately through formal channels
C. Management should use it to complement formal channels of communication
D. All of the above
E. All except C
1. Subordinates use ______________ communication to convey their problems and
performances to their superiors.
2. Communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in an organization is called
__________________.
1. List two limitations of the informal communication.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. List four disadvantages of downward communication.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

UNIT FIVE
PUBLIC RELATIONS
Content Structure
5.1 The Publics
5.2 Public Relations
5.3 Media Relations
Unit Summary
Learning Objectives
Define what publics is

Understand the concept of public relations
Know the different activities/types of PR
Understand the distinction of PR from other disciplines
Identify the types of mass media
Recognize the functions of mass media
Understand the concept of media relations
5.1Publics
 Definition of Publics
Publics are communities of people at large (whether or not organized as groups) that have a
direct or indirect association with an organization: customers, employees, investors, media,
students, etc.
Publics can be also defined as: a collection of people who share ―a common understanding of the
world, a shared identity, a claim to inclusiveness, a consensus regarding the collective interest‖
In this sense, public may refer to a local collection of people (e.g., one‘s peers) or a much
broader collection of people (e.g., members of a nation-state). In marking, public can be defined
as a collection of people organized by nationality as an ―imagined community.‖

How would you define public relations then?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5.2 Public Relations
 Definitions of PR
Public relations (PR) is the actions of a corporation, store, government, individual, etc., in
promoting goodwill between itself and the public, the community, employees, customers, etc.
A Public Relations is the management function that identifies, establishes, and maintains
mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the various publics on whom its
success or failure depends.
Public relations is the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences,
counseling organization leaders and implementing planned programs of action which will serve
both the organization‘s and the public interest.
An earlier definition of public relations, by The first World Assembly of Public Relations
Associations, held in Mexico City, in August 1978, was "the art and social science of analyzing
trends, predicting their consequences, counseling organizational leaders, and implementing
planned programs of action, which will serve both the organization and the public interest."
Public relations is a distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain mutual
lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and co-operation between an organization
and its publics; involves the management of problems or issues; helps management to keep
informed on and responsive to public opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of
management to serve the public interest; helps management keep abreast of and effectively
utilize change, serving as an early warning system to help anticipate trends; and uses research
and ethical communication techniques as its principal tools.
Public relations:
1. Is a management function
2. Covers a broad range of activities and purposes in practice

3. Is regarded as two-way or interactive

4. Suggests that publics facing companies are not singular (i.e. consumers) but plural
5. Suggests that relationships are long term rather than short term
 The following additional elements are also common to the various definitions:
1. Deliberate - Public relations is intentional, not haphazard.
2. Planned- It is organized, not short term.
3. Performances - Public relations cannot be effective unless it is based on the actual
performance of an organization.
4. Public interest - This reinforces the idea that public relations should be beneficial to the
organization and to the general public.
Public relations are communication between an organization and its various stakeholders—both
internal and external. In its purest form, PR is the art and science of influencing public opinion
through communications.
A Public Relations is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and
understanding between an organization and its publics.
Public relations planners are in a privileged position in that they interact with organizational
publics frequently: their job is to manage and facilitate the relationship between the organization
and its publics, sometimes in conjunction with colleagues from elsewhere in the organization.
Furthermore, the public relations professional will be aware of the attitude towards or behavior
of the various stakeholders (or publics) in relation to the wider issues identified in the
environment and towards the organization itself.
The business world of today is extremely competitive. Companies need to have an edge that
makes them stand out from the crowd, something that makes them more appealing and
interesting to both the public and the media. The public are the buyers of the product and the
media are responsible for selling it.
Public relations provide a service for the company by helping to give the public and the media a
better understanding of how the company works. Within a company, public relations can also
come under the title of public information or customer relations.

These departments assist customers if they have any problems with the company. They are
usually the most helpful departments, as they exist to show the company at their best.
 Brief history of PR
Knowing where, when and how something started is also often helpful in working out what it is.
The idea of public relations has been around as long as people have sought to persuade other
people to get them to do something, not do something, or keep on doing something. But public
relations became a formal profession in America roughly between late 1800s and early 1900s.
In the 1800s, public relations techniques were used to encourage settlement in the American
West. Railroad companies – which were laying down new tracks across America – employed
former journalists to create flyers and pamphlets that described the vast opportunities in the
American frontier. And many believe it was the railroad companies that first used the term
―public relations.‖
 Types of PR
Another approach to understanding public relations is to describe what people do. Table 5.1
provides a rough guide to the main activities in public relations. These are organized either by
the kind of audiences they engage with or by the content of the activity. It is important to note
that these categories overlap. For example, a company intranet newsletter involves writing, new
technology and internal communications.
Public relations workers are either employed by an organization as part of its in-house PR
department or by consultancies which are retained by a number of organizations and/or
individuals to undertake public relations work. Some people also work on their own as freelance
PR practitioners.
There are two roles commonly assumed by public relations practitioners: technician or problem
solver. This would divide the publications manager supervising the printing of the annual report
from the strategic adviser drafting a policy document on the future of the organization. However,
many of the kinds of activity outlined here involve both problem solving and technical skills. A
well written press release should reflect understanding of current media practices and issues, and
a public affairs adviser also needs a range of technical skills, including writing. As so often in the
field of public relations, it is not easy to draw hard lines or lay down absolute rules.

In general, public relations are used to build rapport with employees, customers, investors,
voters, or the general public. Almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in
the public arena employs some level of public relations. There are a number of public relations
disciplines falling under the banner of corporate communications, such as analyst relations,
media relations, investor relations, internal communications and labor relations.
Table 5.1a rough guide to some of the main activities in public relations
Public relations activity Explanation Examples
Internal communications Communicating with employees In-house newsletter,

suggestion boxes
Corporate PR Communicating on behalf of whole Annual reports, conferences,
organization, not goods or services ethical statements,
visual identity, images
Media relations Communicating with journalists, Press releases, photo calls,
specialists, editors from local, national, video news releases, off-the-
international and trade media, including record briefings, press events
newspapers, magazines, radio, TV and
web-based communication
Business to business Communicating with Exhibitions,
other organizations, trade events, newsletters
e.g. suppliers, retailers
Public affairs Communicating with opinion formers, Presentations,
e.g. local/national politicians, briefings, private meetings,
monitoring political environment public speeches
Community relations/ Communicating with local community, Exhibitions, presentations,
Corporate elected letters, meetings,
social responsibility representatives, head teachers etc. sports activities,
and other sponsorship

• Distinctions of PR from other Areas/Disciplines

Sometimes, of course, it‘s easier to explain what you don‘t do. The following sections look at
areas often confused with PR. As with definitions, the lines are not always clear.
To repeat, PR draws on expertise and experience from many fields; it overlaps with other
disciplines; it tends to integrate rather than exclude – this is its strength as a practice, but a
weakness when it comes to descriptions and definitions.
Marketing
 This is the field most commonly confused with PR – not unreasonably since marketing
refers to PR in its texts and practice as part of the marketing mix. To marketing practitioners and
academics, a public relations is one of the four Ps – product, place, price and promotion – which
make up a successful marketing campaign. This is not incorrect – public relations can play an
essential role in creating successful products – if the other elements are right, of course. The use
of public relations to promote goods and services is sometimes called marketing public relations
(MPR). There is some dispute about how useful this term is, but it could reduce the confusion
caused by using the same term – public relations – to describe promoting products and planning
strategic communications.
So how can MPR support sales? It can help create awareness of the product – especially new
technological developments, where consumers need to understand what the product is before
they can distinguish between brands of that product.
Advertising
 The distinction between advertising and PR is more easily made: advertising involves
paying a medium (TV, radio, newspaper or magazine, for example) for airtime or column inches
in which to put across a promotional message. The content of an ad is always controlled by the
advertiser, unlike the content of editorial pages or programs, which are controlled by journalists.
Public relations practitioners try to persuade journalists to cover their products and services on
the grounds of newsworthiness. An ad doesn‘t have to satisfy any news value – it just has to be
legal and paid for.

 ACTIVITY 1
Precisely differentiate:
a. PR and Marketing
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
b. PR and Advertising
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
At the heart of public relations is persuasion – the ability to gain public support for a decision or
course of action. It is critical for public relations practitioners to understand how persuasion
works, from theoretical and practical perspectives.
5.3 Media Relations

Dear learner to better understand ‗what media relations is‘ about it is important to discuss some
details about mass communication and mass media.
 Mass Communication
And for better understanding of the nature of mass communication, we should analyze its two
basic components: the mass and the communication media.
The Mass
The concept “Mass’’ in mass communication is defined as a large, heterogeneous, assorted,
anonymous audience.
The Mass media
The concept “Mass media” refers to the channels of communication that produce and distribute
news, entertainment content, visuals and other cultural products to a large number of people.
Mass media can be classified in to three major groups on the basis of their physical nature.

• Mass Communication Process
How does mass communication work can be well explained in linear model of mass
communication?
Mass communication is a component system made up of senders (the authors, reporters,
producers or agencies) who transmit messages ( the book content, the news reports, texts,
visuals, images, sounds or advertisements) through mass media channels ( books, newspapers,
films, magazines, radio, television or the internet) to a large group of receivers (readers, viewers,
citizens or consumers) after the filtering of gatekeepers ( editors, producers or media managers)
with some chance for feedback ( letters to editors, phone calls to news reporters, web-site
postings or as audience members of talk shows or television discussions). The effect of this
process may formation of public opinion, acceptance of a particular cultural value, setting the
agenda for the society and the like.
A simple linear model of mass communication situation can be represented with the diagram
given below.
Reporte Report Media Audience
Feedback
Fig. 5.1 Mass communication process

• Types of Mass Communication/Media
Using the media to communicate with the public is often part of the communications strategy.
Mass media can be categorized according to physical form, technology involved, nature of the
communication process etc. Given below are the major categories of mass media.
i. Print Media
Johannes Gutenberg‘s invention of the moveable metallic type in the fifteenth century paved the
way for proliferation of the print media. The printing press using moveable types introduced the
method for mass production of texts. Before the invention of the printing press, books were
expensive materials affordable only for the aristocrats and royal families.

Printing reduced the cost of books and made them available to the common men also. Rapid
duplication of multiple copies of handy texts led to the innovation of modern newspapers.
Print media is ideal for comprehensive, thought provoking information and useful for conveying
long-lasting information. Print media is most interested in research results, figures, statistics,
explanations through interviews, testimonials, etc.
Print Media include:
- Newspapers: -Newspapers are periodically published documents that carry current
information about the society. Earlier newspapers were not daily publications as we see
now. Newspapers can be daily, weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, etc. They can come in
standard or tabloid size and reach a significant percentage of the reading public.
Because of the broad demographic reach of most newspapers, it is difficult to target a
specific audience. However, newspapers are effective in increasing awareness of the
organization and its activities within a specific geographical area. Newspapers are
primary mass medium from which people receive news. The research results show that
newspapers reach more people than any other medium do.
Unlike other mass media, newspapers influence people in a many significant ways. A
newspaper article or news is valued more than television or radio programs. And,
newspaper content is considered more credible and accurate.
- Magazines: - Magazine is originally a French word which means storehouse. In
journalistic terms, magazine is a collection of materials like stories, ads, poems, and other
items that editors believe will interest audiences.
Unlike newspapers, magazines are periodical publications carrying non-news items.
Magazines are usually focused on a more specific target audience but they have a much
longer lead time (many days and even weeks between the writing and the publication of a
story) so it is important to take into account the sort of news you are going to spread.
Magazines are better suited for more in-depth coverage than newspapers.
- Books: -Books are bound pages of written or printed messages of considerable length,
mostly on one topic. Being meant for circulation, they are produced using durable
materials and in a portable form.
- Other textual documents: - Other types of print media like flyers or brochures can either
inform or educate a targeted group of people.

ii. Electronic Media

Mass media that use electronic or electromechanical energy for transmission of messages are
called electronic media.
The history of electronic mass media starts with the invention of radio by Marconi. The first
radio station was set up in Pittsburg, New York and Chicago in the 1920s. Following theUSA,
European countries also started radio stations for broadcasting news and entertainment content.
The colonial powers like Briton and France set radio stations in Asian and African countries in
the early years of 20th century. The next step in electronic communication media history was the
invention of cinema. Following cinema, television broadcasting was initiated in the US on
experimental basis during 1920s. But, the dramatic impact of television as a mass medium began
in 1950s. Parallel to these, recording industry was also boomed in the western countries. In short,
the term electronic media mainly include:
- Radio: - The process of transmitting messages via radio waves or signals is called
broadcasting. Possibly because of the ability to spread messages to diverse audiences
through radio waves, the technique is called broadcasting. Radio is everywhere as the
signals reach every nook and cranny. It is wonder to hear that there are 6.6 radio receivers
on average in American homes.
- Television: -Television is one of the most popular inventions of the last century. Every
day we spend hours with television.
- Movies: - Like television, film is also an audio visual medium. It is the most popular
medium of the last century.
- Audio and Video records: -
iii. New Media
Online and digital means of producing, transmitting and receiving messages are called new
media. The term encompasses computer mediated communication technology. It implies the use
of desktop and portable computers as well as wireless and handheld devices. Every company in
the computer industry is involved with new media in some manner.
New media can be defined as interactive forms of communication that use the Internet, including
podcasts, blogs, social networks, text messaging, wikis, virtual worlds and all other computer
aided communication formats available online.

New media makes it possible for anyone to create, modify, and share content and share it with
others, using relatively simple tools that are often free or inexpensive. New media requires a
computer or mobile device with Internet access.
New media tools can:
• Connect people with information and services.
• Collaborate with other people—including those within their organization or community.
• Create new content, services, communities, and channels of communication that help people
deliver information and services.
The forms of communicating in the digital world include:
- Internet facilities: -In today‘s electronic age, the internet — where it is available — is an
increasingly important way to communicate with the public. It is often the first place people will
look when searching for information about an issue or organization. In addition, the internet
offers a variety of other tools that reach a broad and international audience, this should not be
overlooked. These include online journals, publications, news-alerts, on-line press release
services, and social media websites (such as Face book or MySpace) amongst others.
• Functions of Mass Media

As mentioned earlier, mass media have pervasive effects on our personal and social life.
The role and scope of mass media in our society are in the following areas:
- Information
- Education
- Entertainment
- Persuasion
- Information function
Mass media carry a lot of information which are essential for our day to day life. We know exam
results, weather forecasts, current affairs, traffic regulations, last dates, precautions, government
policies etc. from mass media. The core of media‘s information function is performed by the
media content called news. The place or time dedicated for news in a mass media is called news
hole. News is the most consumed item of any media. News can be defined as reports on things
that people want or need to know. Information should be accurate, objective and complete.
Biased or incomplete reports will keep the audience away from the media.

Advertising is also mass media‘s information function. We get much useful information from
classified advertisements.
- Education function
Information is different from education. Education is systematically organized information with
predefined objectives. The primary source of education in our society is schools or colleges.
Media also perform the functions that educational institutions do. Media are life-long educators
for the society.
They give us comprehensive knowledge of selected topics. Non-news content or news-based
content like editorials, articles, columns in newspapers provide us with complete idea of a
subject. Health
- Entertainment function
Irrespective of their type, mass media are wonderful entertainers. All media have entertainment
content. Newspapers publish cartoons, comics, puzzles, special weekend supplements for
amusing people. Lion share of magazine content such as short stories, novels, satires and
cartoons are for entertainment. Movies are another big stock for entertainment.
Audio-Visual media such as television and radio are also primarily concentrating on
entertainment function through their programs based on sports, film, and fashion shows etc.
- Persuasion
Persuasion means influencing attitudes or opinions. Mass media have many ways to persuade
people. Most people form their opinion from information they get from mass media.
Media have direct and indirect methods for persuasion. For public opinion formation, mass
media use editorials, news analysis and commentaries. In such cases, the purpose is clear and
direct. The most obvious method of persuasion is advertising. Advertisements are direct methods
to influence purchasing behavior of the public. Some media report events hiding their vested
interests in news. Such biased, subjective reports are for persuading people to form favorable
attitudes towards them or their interests. Opinionated news is an undirected method of
persuasion. It‘s against the ethics of responsible journalism. News and opinion should be given
separately.
Media relations
Media relations involve working with various media for the purpose of informing the public of
an organization's mission, policies and practices in a positive, consistent and credible manner.

Typically, this means coordinating directly with the people responsible for producing the news
and features in the mass media. The goal of media relations is to maximize positive coverage in
the mass media without paying for it directly through advertising.
A Media relation is still the activity on which the majority of PR practitioners spend most of
their time.
 Many people use the terms public relations and media relations interchangeably;
however, doing so is incorrect. Media relations refer to the relationship that a company or
organization develops with journalists, while public relations extend that relationship beyond the
media to the general public.
Dealing with the media presents unique challenges in that the news media cannot be controlled
they have ultimate control over whether stories pitched to them are of interest to their audiences.
Because of this, ongoing relationships between an organization and the news media are vital.
One way to ensure a positive working relationship with media personnel is to become deeply
familiar with their "beats" and areas of interests. Media relations and public relations
practitioners should read as many magazines, journals, newspapers, and blogs as possible, as
they relate to one's practice.
Working with the media on the behalf of an organization allows for awareness of the entity to be
raised as well as the ability to create an impact with a chosen audience. It allows access to both
large and small target audiences and helps build public support and mobilizing public opinion for
an organization. This is all done through a wide range of media and can be used to encourage
two-way communications.
All organizations, whether profit-driven or charitable, must learn how to effectively

communicate who they are their objectives, functions, and activities. Some charitable
organizations, by their very nature, may not have the resources to hire a communications
professional or fund an ambitious communications and media strategy to help them do this.
However, all such organizations, regardless of available resources, can benefit from forming a
relationship with the local and perhaps even national media.

This monograph is meant to serve as a practical guide to help such organizations create and
maintain this mutually beneficial relationship.
Whether it is intended or not, the general public will form an opinion about an organization
based on what it says or even what it does not say. An organization must therefore think about
what it wants to communicate to the public and take the necessary steps to transmit that message
effectively.
 ACTIVITY 2
Using the terms public relations and media relations interchangeably is incorrect. Explain why?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
• Building Media Relations
Whenever possible, inform and update the media with interesting and positive stories. Creating
positive dialogue about your organization through the media is a lot cheaper than advertising.
The best strategy is to make the media your ally.
Build a list of media contacts
It is very important to have a database or other ways to gather information on the journalists with
whom you are creating professional relationships. These databases should include basic
information such as the type of media they work in, the audience they reach, their contact
information, etc. You can also add notes on the conversations or communications you have with
them on an ongoing basis.

Establish and maintain relationships
It is essential to maintain cordial, productive, and ongoing relationships with journalists working
in all types of media without discriminating against anyone based on their political ideology or
bias. Make sure that your media contacts can depend on you to provide them with clear, timely,
and accurate information about your organization and its activities. Doing so on a regular basis
will help you establish a relationship of trust, which is in everyone‘s best interest. The more
relevant information there is on an organization and the clearer, faster, and more accurately that
information is communicated, the better the results will be.
Communicating with the Media
Media requests
Occasionally, a journalist may come knocking on your door asking for specific information for
an article or special report.
Selling your story

The best way to interest the media in your story is to make it ―newsworthy‖. News is any
information that is interesting or unusual. The media are interested in local stories or national
stories with a local angle. Before deciding to involve the media in a particular aspect of the
organization‘s work, ask yourself if the story:
• Builds awareness of the organization, of the services it offers, and of the needs of its
members;
• Creates a need or increased desire to support the organization, its members, and the
services it offers;
• Has a local angle;
• Passes the ―interest test‖. Ask yourself and your colleagues if the story qualifies as news
to the media outlet you are targeting.

UNIT SUMMARY
As one aspect of communication organizations make Public Relations is the management
function that identifies, establishes, and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an
organization and the various publics on whom its success or failure depends. Publics are
communities of people at large (whether or not organized as groups) that have a direct or indirect
association with an organization: customers, employees, investors, media, students, etc.
The idea of public relations has been around as long as people have sought to persuade other
people to get them to do something, not do something, or keep on doing something. But public
relations became a formal profession in America roughly between late 1800s and early 1900s.
PR draws on expertise and experience from many fields; it overlaps with other disciplines like
for example marketing and advertising; it tends to integrate rather than exclude – this is its
strength as a practice, but a weakness when it comes to descriptions and definitions. To
marketing practitioners and academics, a public relations is one of the four Ps – product, place,
price and promotion. With regard to advertising its content is always controlled by the advertiser,
unlike the content of editorial pages or programs, which are controlled by journalists. Public
relations practitioners try to persuade journalists to cover their products and services on the
grounds of newsworthiness. An ad doesn‘t have to satisfy any news value – it just has to be legal
and paid for.
Many people use the terms public relations and media relations interchangeably; however, doing
so is incorrect. Media relations refer to the relationship that a company or organization develops
with journalists, while public relations extend that relationship beyond the media to the general
public. It is, therefore, important to describe what mass communication and mass media are so as
to understand what media relations is. Mass communication is a component system made up of
senders (the authors, reporters, producers or agencies) who transmit messages ( the book content,
the news reports, texts, visuals, images, sounds or advertisements) through mass media channels
( books, newspapers, films, magazines, radio, television or the internet) to a large group of
receivers (readers, viewers, citizens or consumers) after the filtering of gatekeepers ( editors,
producers or media managers) with some chance for feedback ( letters to editors, phone calls to
news reporters, web-site postings or as audience members of talk shows or television
discussions).

CHECK LIST
QUESTIONS YES NO
Can you define what publics is
Do you understand the concept of public relations
Do you know the different activities/types of PR
Do you understand the distinction of PR from other disciplines
Can you identify the types of mass media
Can you recognize the functions of mass media
Do you understand the concept of media relations
 UNIT FIVE
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
module.
1. Unlike other mass media, newspapers influence people in a many significant ways.
2. Within a company, public relations can also come under the title of customer relations.
3. A newspaper article or news is valued less than television or radio programs.
4. Public relations is planned and not short term.

Part II: Match the words in column ‘Á’ with their appropriate phrases in column ‘B’
Column ‘Á’ Column ‘B’
1. Corporate PR A. Communicating with employees
2. Community relations B. Communicating with journalists
3. Business to business C. Communicating with other organizations
4. Media relations D. Communicating with opinion formers/politicians
5. Public affairs E. Communicating with local community
F.Communicating on behalf of whole organization,
not goods or services
1. Online and digital means of producing, transmitting and receiving messages are
called______________.
2. The art and science of influencing public opinion through communications is
______________.
3. ___________________refers to the channels of communication that produce and distribute
news, entertainment content, visuals and other cultural products to a large number of people.
4. ___________________________ are communities of people at large (whether or not
organized as groups) that have a direct or indirect association with an organization.
1. List four functions of mass media.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

UNIT SIX
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
Content Structure
6.1. Overview of media of communication
6.2. Verbal Communication
6.2.1 Oral Communication
6.2.1.1. Speech
6.2.1.2. Telephoning vs. face to face conversation
6.2.1.3. Active listening
6.2.1.4. Interviews
6.2.1.5Meetings
6.2.2. Written Communication
6.2.2.1 Business letter writing
6.2.2.2. Memo and Report Writing
6.3. Nom-Verbal communication
Unit Summary
Learning Objectives
Describe what verbal communication is

Recognize the different oral media of communications
Recognize the different written media of communications
Know ways of writing a business letter
Know how to write a memo and report
6.1 Overview of Media of Communication

Communication may be verbal – by written or spoken symbols (usually words) or it may be
nonverbal – without words.


Verbal communication includes any oral or written method of transmitting meaning through
words. Written and oral communications are verbal communications. However, nonverbal
communication is any part of communication that does not use words. Non-verbal messages are
sometimes more clear, accurate and effective as compared to verbal communication.
6.2. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication means such a communication that takes place by means of a language or
words‖. It includes the following contents.
a. Oral communication (Speaking & listening)
b. Written communication (writing & reading)
Graduates should expect to engage in professional communication, especially the written and oral
form. Often oral and written communication in the work place goes hand in hand. For example,
the financial manager will be expected to prepare a monthly report on the financial position of the
organization. The report would then be orally presented and discussed with management during
the monthly management meeting. This is expected from the heads of department in any
organization. Therefore, written and oral communication is inevitable and vital in the work place.
6.2.1 Oral Communication

Not all business communication is done in writing. Oral communication is a vital part of your
work. In fact, most business communication is done orally. That is, a great deal of information is
communicated orally.
Some oral communications are formal and take place at meeting or interviews. Most oral
communication is informal and takes place in offices, hallways, in cafeteria, and over the
telephone.
Successful managers use their oral communication skills to give clear instructions, motivate their
employees, and persuade other people.
The principal advantage of oral communication is that it makes possible speedy interchange with
immediate feedback. Response to the message is available immediately, i.e., people can ask
questions and clarify points.

In a face-to-face interaction, the effect can be noted. It is more flexible as the words can be
changed to suit the reaction the receiver. Furthermore, a meeting with the superior may give the
subordinate a feeling of importance. Clearly, informal or planned meetings can greatly contribute
to the understanding of the issues.
However, oral communication also has disadvantages. It does not always save time, as any
manager knows who has attended meetings in which no results or agreements were achieved.
These meetings can be costly in terms of time and money. It doesn‘t provide record unless the
conversation is recorded. It is also not possible when parties are at distant places and no
telephone service is available. Oral communication takes place through speaking and listening.
6.2.1.1. Speech
Speaking in public is common organizational communication activity. Administrators, board
directors, executives, professional persons are called upon to speak.
The ability to communicate clearly, persuasively and confidently through speaking is one key to
success for both business and professional people.
Whether a manager, engineer, marketer, people need strong speaking skills to carry out their
tasks. Speaking opportunities allow these people to demonstrate their thinking and organizational
skills. Such speaking opportunities occur both on the job and off the job in the form of
interviews, and participation in meetings.
Please recall a time when you gave a speech in front of a group of people. How did
you feel? What did you learn from your experience?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

 Preparing to Speak
Since speeches and presentations are delivered orally under relative public circumstances, they
require a few special communication techniques. These techniques are discussed in the
following.
Defining the Purpose
The first step in preparing to speak is to determine the purpose. The purpose helps to determine
content. Purpose also affects the amount of audience interaction. The purpose of a speech may be
to motivate or entertain, to inform or analyze, or to persuade or collaborate.
Analyzing the audience
The speaker has to have information about the characteristic (the audience size and composition,
probable audience reaction, predicted audience response, audience relationship with the speaker,
level of audience understanding) audience of his/her audience.
Developing an outline
Be sure to include only the most useful, interesting, and relevant supporting evidence so that you
can keep the audience‘s attention. The outline can serve you to estimate how long your speech or
presentation will be.
Note development
Notes keep you on the track as far as they provide clues to the major ideas and verbal support
needed to flesh out the talk‘s content. Suggestions for making helpful notes: use key phrases;
make notes easy to read, etc.
Practice presentation
Speakers practice to increase their sense of control and to enhance their self-confidence. The
speaker will be able to deliver the talk with the major and minor points in the planned order with
his/ her eyes in the audience.

The speaker can make the practice in front of a mirror, a small group, and using a tape recorder.
• Conducting the Speech
Presentation Structure
a) Opening (Introduction)
One key objectives of the opining should be to capture the attention and interest of your
audience and make them want to listen.
Do not apologize about your speaking abilities or indicate you are not fully prepared on the
issues. Make your opening concise, clear, and relevant.
b) The Body
The body is the main part of the speech. It has to be organized in a logical pattern.
c) Closing (conclusion)
The closing is as important as the opening. Listeners want a speech (presentation) to come to a
neat, tidy conclusion.
• Along with the introduction, body and close, include in your speech or presentation an
opportunity for questions and answers.
6.2.1.2. Telephoning vs. Face - to - face conversation

In reviewing good telephone techniques, keep in mind that a telephone conversation is a unique
form of oral communication.
Unlike in face-to-face communication in telephone communication only voices are heard; the
speakers are not seen. Impressions are received only from the words and the quality of the
voices.
Thus, when speaking by telephone, it is extremely important that you work to make your voice
sound cheerful and friendly.
One often suggested way of improving your telephone voice is to talk as if you were face to face
with the other person- even smiling and gesturing as you talk.

For really important calls, you should plan your call, even to the point of making notes of the
points to cover. Then you should follow your notes to make certain you cover them all.
And perhaps most important of all, you should try to cover your message quickly in order to save
time and money.
• Why many people prefer face-to- face communication
- It provides people with a ‗total impression‘ in a way that written communication or telephone
calls do not
- The medium permits instant feedback
- It allows non-verbal usage
6.2.1.3. Active listening

Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication
process. Listening is a key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen effectively
messages are easily misunderstood – communication breaks down and the sender of the message
can easily become frustrated or irritated. Adults spend an average of 70% of their time engaged
in some sort of communication, of this an average of 45% is spent listening compared to 30%
speaking, 16% reading and 9% writing.
Active listening is a skill that can be acquired and developed with practice. However, active
listening can be difficult to master and will, therefore, take time and patience. It involves more
than just hearing. Hearing is a physiological activity that occurs when sound waves hit our
eardrums. Listening is far more complex than hearing. Listening refers to the interpretative
process that takes place with what we hear. Through listening, we store, classify and label
information, listening therefore, involves attention, interpretation and understanding.
 Benefits of listening
1. You enjoy two-way benefits - when people notice how well you listen to them, they usually
reciprocate and try to understand you better.
2. Relationship within a group improves - members develop a more positive attitude towards
each other, so personal support and teamwork is strengthened. Friendships develop and deepen.
3. You receive more accurate information - the more confident people are that you are listening
to them, the happier they will be to share facts they would not reveal to a poor listener.

4. Influence–you will have an effect on the attitude and behaviors of others, because people are
more likely to respect and follow those whom they feel have listened to and understand them.
5. Help –you be able to assist people because you hear more, empathize more and come to
understand others more deeply.
6. Learn - you acquire knowledge of others the world and yourself and profit from the insights of
others who have learned or seen what you have not.
• Type of listening
 Here under are some of the different types of listing.

1. Evaluative Listening
Evaluative listening is also referred to as critical/judgmental listening. In evaluative listening, we
listen to the sender's message, and make judgments on the same. In evaluative listening, we also
tend to evaluate the message against our own beliefs and values, trying to gauge whether the
message is good or bad.
2. Appreciative Listening
In appreciative listening, the person listens to things that he/she appreciates. For instance, have
you ever noticed that the day you decide you want to lose weight; you tend to pick up more
sounds/messages pertaining to the topic of losing weight? In other words, we tend to seek out
useful things pertinent to us.
3. Sympathetic Listening
As the name suggests, we engage in sympathetic listening when we sincerely care about the other
person. For example, when your close friend discusses his/her work concerns with you, you
listen with rapt attention so he/she knows that you care about him/her. We show the other person
that we care, which makes it an important constituent in the context of relationship building.
4. Empathic Listening
Empathic Listening entails not only caring for but showing compassion for the other person.
When we go beyond sympathy and "literally" feel what the other person is feeling, we engage in
empathic listening. However, to get the other person to open up, you must show the person that
you share their pain and happiness.

5. Relationship Listening
An important function of communication is to build a rapport with another person. This is where
relationship listening comes in. In relationship listening, we simply listen to the other person in
order to develop, maintain, and nourish a relationship.
6. False Listening
False Listening occurs when a person is pretending to listen but, in reality, does not hear
anything that is being said. Typically, we are all masters of this art. False listening is often used
by the people who want to give a good impression that they are indeed listening but know
completely well that it is not important for them to listen to the other person.
7. Initial Listening
Initial Listening occurs when we listen to the other person in the beginning or when we listen to
the opening message but then stop midway. This happens owing to one primary reason: You are
simply listening to find an opening in the conversation, so that you can interject with your own
points.
8. Selective Listening
Selective Listening takes place when you listen to only those things that you want to hear or to
those that interest you. However, do not confuse selective listening with biased listening.
Selective listening is not a result of our biases; on the contrary, it stems from our
interest/disinterest in a particular topic or even the level of knowledge that we want to gain from
the same.
9. Partial Listening
Partial Listening is a subtype of selective listening in which we make an utmost effort to listen
but get distracted midway. The most common reason for this is the speed at which we process
thoughts.
In other words, since we process thoughts at three times the rate of speech, even if we try to
listen attentively, our mind tends to wander because of this time differential.
10. Full Listening
During Full Listening, we concentrate completely on what is being said. It is also known as
active listening, wherein we try to understand the content wholly and completely. This form of
listening is replete with paraphrasing and seeking clarifications from the speaker, etc.

It obviously takes great effort on the part of the listener but is advantageous since the listener
does not miss a point.
11. Deep Listening
Deep Listening is the most profound of all listening types. Deep listening occurs when you go
beyond what is being said and try to fathom what is not being said. This entails reading between
the lines, reading nonverbal cues, understanding the speaker's personality, etc. Deep listening is
not an easy art to acquire and requires learning and effort on the part of the listener. However,
having said that, deep listening has a lot of advantages in the workplace, therefore making the
effort worthwhile.
 ACTIVITY 1
Explain the importance of becoming an active listener for you.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Dear learner, poor listening can generally be attributed to several causes, many of them involving
bad habits that can be categorized in to:
 Physical Barriers
Some barriers to effective listening are not directly under our control e.g. a noisy typewriter,
someone's loud voice, or a nearby machine making noise could prevent us from hearing an
important message. Visual distractions also pose barriers to effective listening. Concentration is
the key to dealing with physical barriers to listening.
 Personal Barriers
Our physical wellbeing affects the listening process. Illness, fatigue and discomfort make us
unable to concentrate.
Psychological distractions are another type of personal barrier. It could arise from almost any
source, such as problems of finances, social problems, family problems and even work-related
problems.

Attitudinal biases against the speaker are another type of psychological block to listening.
 Semantic Barriers
This is having differences of understanding of the meaning of words between the sender of
message and listener (receiver) e.g. the word red, and read.
 Bad listening habits

Authority on listening, Ralph Nichols, have identified several bad habits that people develop in
their listening behavior some of them are: criticizing the speaker's delivery, mentally disagreeing
with speakers, faking attention to most speakers, day dreaming during delivery of presentations,
etc.
• Factors to be considered to be a good listener/the responsibilities of a good listener

There are following responsibilities of good listeners:
1. Preparation for listening
A listener should prepare himself to listen. This preparation includes following point:
i)No talking: - A listener must not talk when he is going to listen otherwise, the idea may not be
received or it may be interrupted.
ii) Avoiding distraction: - The listener should not distract his attention from the speaker to some
other object. Shuffling papers or doing any other thing may disturb the person of receiving ideas.
iii) Good environmental condition: - The listeners should arrange a suitable condition before
listening. Noise of traffic, poor ventilation, extraordinary warmness or coldness and many other
such things cause problems in listening.
2. Concentration on message
A listener is required to concentrate on verbal and non-verbal message. For having good
concentration, following points are to be considered:
i) Controlling emotion and feelings -Sometimes it happens that speaker‘s words hurt the
feelings of listeners. In this situation the listeners should control his/her emotion and feeling
because if he loses temperament, he cannot get the message.
ii) Avoiding evaluation - The listener should concentrate only on listening and avoid jumping to
conclusion or evaluating the message.
iii) Showing interest - The listener should show his interest to the topic so that the speaker can
be motivated to convey his ideas in a better way.

6.2.1.4. Interviews
Interview involves face to face interaction between two parties (interviewer and interviewee)
who take turns acting as sender and receiver.
In your work in business, you may need to participate in a variety of types of interviews. Perhaps
the best known type is the employment interview. But also there are others. When workers leave
an organization, they may be interviewed to determine their reasons for leaving (exit interview).
Interviews are sometimes conducted to gather information on such matters as worker attitudes,
working conditions, managerial effectiveness, and worker plans.
The interviews are purposeful, conducted to achieve some specific objective. They are more
structured i.e., it has some predetermined agenda that is followed during the conversations. They
are more carefully prepared than are informal conversations.
6.2.1.5 Meetings
In any given organization, meetings are inevitable. The nature and weight or importance of
meetings determines whether or not proceedings of the meeting are to be recorded.
Any organization which has a number of members needs to hold regular meetings of various
kinds. It will need to bring its members together to exchange information to solve problems, to
take decisions and to make sure that each section or department knows what is going on in other
areas of the organization.
A written record of the proceedings during a meeting is referred to as minutes. Minutes are an
accurate record of decisions, accomplishments, tasks and agreements arrived upon during a
meeting. They are important because they communicate what happened in a meeting and act as a
reference document for purposes of tracking actions or items.
Generally, minutes should have the following elements:
Title
Time, date and place of meeting
List of attendees
List of people absent
Agenda (or purpose)
Approval of previous meetings (where necessary)
Main Body (Proceedings- motives, votes, tasks, steps etc.)

Time, date and place of next meeting (if applicable)
Why a meeting is needed?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Meeting is needed because:
- Helps coordinate activities involving a number of people or work groups.

- Meetings are used to negotiate sales, investigate problems, plan events, and develop new
procedures and so on.
- Through meetings people can keep up-to date with developments and changes, which
means better planning and co-operation between sections.
- Meetings give people an opportunity to share ideas and help develop team spirit.
- More effective problem solving.
Poorly run meetings can be lengthy, dull affairs, which seem to be controlled by people who like
the sound of their voice and which rarely make any impression on the day-to-day running of the
organizations. To safeguard against this, it is essential that everyone who is involved in a
meeting has a clear idea of its purpose and contributes fully and effectively to the discussion.
6.2.2. Written Communication

Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to
communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-to-
face or telephone conversations. You might be called upon to write a report, plan or strategy at
work; write a grant application or press release within a volunteering role; or you may fancy
communicating your ideas online via a blog. And, of course, a well written CV with no spelling
or grammatical mistakes is essential if you want a new job.
Many business managers have difficulty writing well. To improve their writing, managers can
apply several basic principles:
i. Write as simply and clearly as possible - Avoid writing in a way that is difficult to
understand.

ii. Be sure that the content and tone of the document are appropriate for audience - Do
not waste readers‘ time communicating information they already know. However, do not
assume they are as familiar with the topic as you are. Always use polite tone, especially
when writing to customers.
iii. Proofread the document - If you are using a computer, use the spell check function. If
you are not using a computer, use a dictionary to check the spelling of words you do not
know. Always read documents for incorrect grammar or usage.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Written Communication

Advantages
- A message can be carefully prepared and then directed to a large audience through
mass mailings
- Can reduce costs in some cases - it is cheaper when the parties to the communication
are situated at distant places.
- Providing records and references
- Promote uniformity in policy, rules, procedure, and so on
Disadvantages
- Less flexibility - once a message has been sent, it may not be possible to make changes
for incorrectness
- Difficult to maintain secrecy
- Create mountains of paper
- Provide no immediate feedback
ACTIVITY 2
 What advantages can written communication have over oral communication?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Few of the most common forms of written communication managers and employees
make are: business letters, memos, and reports.

6.2.2.1 Business letter writing

A business letter is a formal communication tool. Letters are used for formal communications
when the topic demands more attention than is possible with a phone call or an e-mail message.
Business Letters play an important role in written business communication because they still are
considered and remain the preferred official way of communicating important messages.
Although emails are the fastest way of sending written messages, they are not considered to be as
official as printed business letters. A business letter that is well structured, written and printed on
a letterhead carries more authority or weight than an email with an electronic signature.
Therefore, it is important for students to appreciate, develop and nature excellent business letter
writing skills.
Although there are many types of Business Letters and their structures may differ, all Business
letters have similar, key, common features, elements or attributes. Despite the variance in the
content across the typologies of business letters, the fundamental features or elements remain
constant across languages, cultures and setups.
The common features, elements or parts of any given business letter are:
The Date Subject
The Sender‘s Address Main Body
The Inside Address/Recipients Closing
Address Name of Sender
Salutation Signature
These elements are expected in any Business Letter be it an application letter, letter of enquiry,
letter of appointment, letter of instruction or letter of complaint. However, there may be slight
variations when it comes to the style and structure. For example - compare the structures of the
letter below. They are different to the extent of the structure or format and content but have the
same fundamental elements already listed above.
Let us now look at the different Standards of business letter writing. There are two common
structures for business letters: full block style and modified block style (Angell).

In full block style, everything in the letter begins at the left margin. In modified block style, the
date and the closing lines begin in the middle, while the other components remain at the left
margin.
Indenting paragraphs is an option in the modified format but is not in the full block format.
The full block style uses a colon after the recipient‘s name and comma after the close. Modified
block style uses no punctuation at all in those positions.

The Writing Organization

180 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, lllinois 60611
312-555-1222
November, 2010 Date
Mr. Bob Allison

Global Communication Network
Inside Address
333 West Wacker Drive
Chicago, IL 60610
Dear Mr. Allison: Salutation
The introduction connects you to your reader and connects your reader to the purpose of your
letter.
The body tells the reader basic information that supports your purpose. In the body of a letter,
include details, descriptions, examples, and rationale. The body could be one paragraph for a
short letter or any number of paragraphs for longer letters. The body should be as long as
necessary to make your point, but no longer.
The last paragraph or conclusion defines action or next steps. Inform the reader of any action that
you will take or that you request the reader to take. Invite the reader to contact you for additional
information; if you choose, include your phone number and e-mail address.
Sincerely, Closing
Reginald D. Piper Writer’s

Designer NameTitle
cc: Michael Jones cc stands for “courtesy copy”

Enclosure: A document enclosed with the letter
PS: Postscript
Full Block Style - Sample Letter


312-555-1222
November, 2010 Date
Mr. Bob Allison

Inside Address
Chicago, IL 60610
letter.
The last paragraph or conclusion defines action or next steps. Inform the reader of any action that
you will take or that you request the reader to take. Invite the reader to contact you for additional
information; if you choose, include your phone number and e-mail address.
Sincerely, closing

Designer NameTitle

PS: Postscript
Modified Block Style- Sample Letter


312-555-1222
November, 2010 Date
Mr. Bob Allison

Inside Address
Chicago, IL 60610
letter.
The last paragraph or conclusion defines action or next steps. Inform the reader of any action
that you will take or that you request the reader to take. Invite the reader to contact you for
additional information; if you choose, include your phone number and e-mail address.
Sincerely, closing

Designer NameTitle

PS: Postscript
Indented Modified Block Style - Sample Letter

Having appreciated the key elements or parts of a Business Letter, it is imperative to get
acquainted with some of the tips or techniques that may be useful for business letter writing
which include:
use of professional tones polite but persuasive language
clear and precise writing appealing structure or format
simple English proof reading
proper flow of points
6.2.2.2 Memo and Report Writing
 A Memo
Memos are generally short means of written communication within an organization. A memo is
a structured internal communication tool most often used to convey information, announcements,
and reminders. They are used to convey specific information to the people within an
organization. When a writer sends a memo, the writer does not expect a reply.
 The basic parts of memo
1. Heading: The necessary elements for a memo heading are To, From, Date, and Subject. Here
are the two most common headings:
To:
From:
Date:
Subject:
OR
TO: FROM:
SUBJECT: DATE:
2. Salutation: Memos do not require a salutation.

3. Body: Start the body of the memo 2 or 3 lines below the end of the heading.
4. Closing: Memos do not require a signature. But adding a writer‘s handwritten initials next to
the name at the top (or at the bottom) also personalizes a memo.

However, some organizations ask employees to sign memos rather than simply initialing them.
The signature goes below the last line of the memo and prevents anyone adding unauthorized
information (Locker). Note that the first letters of the reader‘s name, the writer‘s name, and the
subject phrase are lined up vertically.
Sample Memo
MEMO
To: Philip
From: Carson
Date: October, 2010
Subject: Performing Credit Policy
It‘s time to put our thinking caps. I have just spent an hour in my office having my ear chewed
off by a very irate customer in Idaho. It seems we have let things slip a little too far in certain
areas of customer service.
Let‘s plan a meeting to talk about how we can do things better. Can everybody get back to me
with a time and a day next week when you have an open slot grueling afternoon gathering? If
you don‘t have an afternoon free, please clear one.
I‘ll let you know a time and place as soon as all your responses are in.
Carson
 Report Writing
The Oxford English Dictionary (2012) describe a report as a structured written document or
statement with a clear purpose and for a particular audience; that succinctly analyses and
presents information about an investigation, matter or incident in an easy and professional
manner. Reports are written for different reasons as such there are many types of reports like;
Business report, Executive Report, Technical reports, Research Reports, feasibility study reports,
System Analysis reports, and Client Case Report and Incident reports.

Reports are important because they present information which is helpful in decision making and
may significantly reduce risk in decision making. Even though, there are many kinds of reports,
all reports should clearly have a Purpose, Approach and structure because, this type of business
writing is often highly structured. For purposes of industrial set ups, the basic elements of a
report are:
Writer
Audience or Recipient
Executive Summary
Main body (make use of graphics such as tables, illustrations and diagrams)
Finding, Implications, Conclusions or Recommendations
 Differences between oral and written communication
The difference between oral and written communication can be enumerated as under:
1. Ratio: -According to a rough estimate, about 75% of total communication is oral whereas the
rest is written.
2. Data Safety: -Data and information are safe in written communication while most of
information is forgotten in oral communication.
3. Nature of Message: -Written communication is used when the message is complex and oral
communication is used for simple message.
4. Legal Aspect: -From legal point of view, oral communication is least reliable and written
communication is much more reliable. For example, an oral promise may not be challenged in a
court in general but a written promise can be challenged.
5. Flow of Information: -Information can be transferred within a short period of time in oral
communication but it takes more time in written communication.
6. Nonverbal Facilities: - Oral communication can be supported by non-verbal facilities like
gestures, postures etc. but such a support is impossible in written communication.
7. Grammar and Accent: -Oral communication requires consideration for accent and
pronunciation whereas written communication needs correct grammar and spelling.

6.3. Non- verbal communications

It means communication without the use of language or words. Nonverbal communication is a
process of communication that occurs without words. It is communication which occurs through
our body movements, space, time, voice patterns, color layout and design of our surroundings. It
includes appearance, body language, silence, etc.
 Non-verbal communication describes all intentional and unintentional messages that are
not written or spoken.
In either of your role as a speaker or listener in oral communication, you will need to be aware of
the non-verbal part of your communication. Usually, we use nonverbal communication to
supplement and reinforce our words. Sometimes, nonverbal communication communicates by
itself.
 Types of Non-verbal Communication
Nonverbal communication may be divided into the following three categories:

a. Appearance
b. Body Language
c. Silence, Time, Space and Sounds
a. Appearance
Appearance affects the quality of written and spoken messages.
i. Written Messages
The envelope‘s overall appearance: size, color, weight, postage and the letter‘s overall
appearance: length stationary, enclosures, layout, etc. may convey significant information and
impressions.
ii. Spoken Messages
Personal appearance of the speaker-clothing, jewelry, hair-style, neatness, etc. may tell about the
age, sex occupation, and nationality, social, economic and job status. Similarly, appearance of
the surroundings room-size, location, furnishings, lighting, etc. may tell a lot about the message.

b. Body Language
Much of what we send to others without using words is sent through the physical movements of
our bodies. Facial expressions, gestures, posture, smell, touch, voice etc. are included in body
language.
i. Facial Expression
The eyes and face may express the hidden emotions e.g. anger, fear, joy, love, surprise, sorrow,
interest etc.
ii. Posture and Gestures
The message can effectively be communicated by actions. Deaf people and traffic constables
make use of actions. In our daily life clenched fists may indicate anger; leaning forward to the
speaker may reveal interest and repeatedly glancing at the watch may be a sign of being bored.
iii. Smell
Good or bad smell often expresses the situation e.g. smell because of oil or gas leakage warns the
danger. Similarly, fragrance and perfume convey emotions and feelings better than spoken or
written words.
iv. Touch
Touching people in different ways (and places) can silently communicate friendship, love
approval, anger or other feelings.
c. Silence, Time, Space and Sounds
i. Silence
Silence is an effective medium of expressing serious feelings and emotions e.g. death of relative
or loss in business. A mistake may be admitted by silence. Silence may also confirm a statement.
ii. Time
Time communicates in many ways, e.g. waiting for a long time may indicate interest or love and
giving a short notice means urgency.
It is not uncommon for a manager to assume that a subordinate who is frequently late to
department meetings does not care about them.
iii. Space
Space is the distance that is maintained by the speaker and listener. How we use space and what
we do in certain spaces we create tell much about us. And this space language is crafted by our
culture.

We create four different types of space: intimate (physical contact to 18 inches); personal (18
inches to 4 feet); social (4 to 12 feet); and public (12 feet to range of seeing and hearing). In
each of these spaces, our communication behaviors differ and convey different meanings. For
example, consider the volume of your voice when someone is 18 inches from you. Do you shout
or Whisper?
Our behaviors in each type of space are learned from our cultures. When people do not
appreciate differences in personal zones, discomfort, distrust, and misunderstanding can occur.
Thus, you will need to be sensitive to the spaces of others- especially those from different
cultures.
iv. Sounds and Para-language

The style of speaking and the volume of voice (Intonations and Modulations) of voice may
produce variations between what is said and what is meant, e.g. the words ―how prompt you are‖
may criticize a person arriving too late.
 ACTIVITY 3
MrsZimba is the Branch Manager for Bank UB in Nakonde. One of the Bank‘s corporate clients
is very annoyed because the Bank delayed the wiring of money to a supplier‘s account which has
resulted in this corporate client suffering some business loss. A fax had been sent to instruct the
Bank to wire the money followed by a phone call to confirm receipt of the fax. Unfortunately,
the Bank did not act on this instruction hence the complaint. MrsZimba needs to do some
damage control and find out from her subordinates how this happened. From her enquiries, it
turns out that the person who got the fax and answered the phone did not carry out the instruction
because shortly after he got the instruction, he received an emergency call from his wife and had
to rush to the hospital. In the midst of all this confusion, he forgot to pass on the instruction to
one of his colleagues.
1) Identify and mention the forms/media of communication that are explicit in the given
scenario.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2) What forms/media of communication would you recommend for MrsZimba to use when
communicating with her: Subordinates, the Client in question and the member of staff
who received this instruction but failed to act on it? Give examples and justify your
recommendations.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
UNIT SUMMARY
Media of communication may be verbal – by written or spoken symbols (usually words) or it

may be nonverbal – without words. Verbal communication includes any oral or written method
of transmitting meaning through words. However, nonverbal communication is any part of
communication that does not use words.
Not all business communication is done in writing. Oral communication is a vital part of your
work. In fact, most business communication is done orally. Some oral communications are
formal and take place at meeting or interviews. Oral communication takes place through
speaking and listening.
Speaking in public is common organizational communication activity. To make a speech you

have to first get well prepared by defining the purpose of speech, analyze the audience, develop
an outline of your speech, make notes, and practice your presentation in advance.
Listening is a key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen effectively
messages are easily misunderstood – communication breaks down and the sender of the message
can easily become frustrated or irritated. Good listening can improve quality, boost productivity,
and save money. And of course, bad listening can have the opposite effect.
Interview and meeting are other verbal communication. Interview involves face to face
interaction between two parties (interviewer and interviewee) who take turns acting as sender
and receiver.

In any given organization, meetings are inevitable. A written record of the proceedings during a
meeting is referred to as minutes.
As verbal media writing skills are an important part of communications. Good writing skills
allow you to communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than
through face-to-face or telephone conversations. So, knowing how to write business letters,
resumes, CV‘S, application letter, memos and reports in essential to be successful at work.
The other media of communication is the non-verbal communication describes all intentional and
unintentional messages that are not written or spoken. In either of your role as speaker or listener
in oral communication, you will need to be aware of the non-verbal part of your communication.
CHECK LIST
QUESTIONS YES NO
Can you describe what verbal communication is
Can you recognize the different oral media of communications
Can you recognize the different written media of communications
Do you know ways of writing a business letter
Do you Know how to write a memo and report
If you complete the above tasks very well you can proceed to the next part, if not go back
and revise the appropriate parts above.

 UNIT SIX
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
module.
1. Face-to-face communication is preferred to telephone because medium permits instant

feedback
2. In modified block style of business letter writing, everything in the letter begins at the left
margin.
3. When a writer sends a memo, the writer is expected to reply.
4. Partial listening occurs when a person is pretending to listen but, in reality, does not hear
anything that is being said.
5. Deep Listening is the most profound of all listening types.
6. Hearing is far more complex than listening.

7. Unlike in oral communication, data and information are safe in written communication.
Part II: Fill in the blank space
1. ______________________is a structured internal communication tool most often used to

convey information, announcements, and reminders.
2. A written record of the proceedings during a meeting is referred to as-
____________________
3. __________________________means communication without the use of language or
words.
4. __________________ is a barrier of communication due to having differences of
understanding of the meaning of words between the sender of message and listener.

ANSWER KEY FOR SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
UNIT ONE: Self-Test Questions
Part –I: True or False
5. True 9. True 13. False

6. True 10. False 14. False
7. True 11. True
8. True 12. True
Part –II: Choice
1. E 4. E 7. B
2. D 5. A
3. E 6. A
UNIT TWO: Self-Test Questions
1. True 4. False 7. False

2. False 5. True
3. True 6. True
Part –II: Choice
1. C 3. D 5. B
2. E 4. C 6. E
Part –III: Blank Space
1. Aim 3. Context 5. Information distortion

2. Sender 4. Feedback

UNIT THREE: Self-Test Questions
1. False 3. False 5. True

2. True 4. True
Part –II: Choice
1. B 4. A 7. C
2. C 5. E 8. C
3. E 6. B 9. B
1. Consideration 2. Courtesy
Part –IV: Short Answer
1. Choose words that are short, familiar and conversational

Construct effective sentences and paragraphs
Achieve appropriate readability
Include examples, illustrations etc.
UNIT FOUR: Self-Test Questions
1. False 4. True 7. False

2. True 5. False 8. True
3. False 6. True
Part –II: Choice
1. B 4. D 7. D
2. D 5. D
3. E 6. E

1. Upward
2. Horizontal/lateral communication
Part –IV: Blank Space
1. Unsystematic Communication
Unreliable information
2. Noise including message filtering and
Employees may experience message overload
It is Time consuming
Incomplete information from the top leads to confusion
UNIT FIVE: Self-Test Questions
1. True 3. False
2. True 4. True
Part –II: Matching
1. F 3. C 5. D
2. E 4. B
1. New media 3. Mass media

2. PR 4. Publics
Part IV: Short answer
1. Information
Education
Entertainment
Persuasion

UNIT SIX: Self-Test Questions
1. True 4. False 7. True

2. False 5. True
3. False 6. False
Part –II: Blank Space
1. Memo 3. Nonverbal 4. Semantic barrier

2. Minutes communication

Bibliography
 Bekele, M., Desta, T., and Yissa, H. (2010) Module on Business Communication,
Debreberhan University, College of Business and Economics, Department of
Management, Ethiopia: Debreberhan, unpublished.
 Bovee, C. I., and Thill, J.V. (1992) Business Communication Today, 3rd ED,
Sanfrsncisco: McGraw hill.
 Krizan, Marries, and Jones (2002) Business Communication, 5th ED, Cincinnati: South-
Western Publishing Company.
 Mberia, H.K. (2011) Communication Training Module, Jomokenyatta University of
Agriculture and Technology, Department of Social Sciences and Humanities,
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(20), 231- 255.
 Muhammadali, N. (2011) Introduction to Mass Communication, University of Calicut
Department of Journalism and Mass Communication School of Distance
Educationhttp://www.universityofcalicut.info/SDE/SMMassCommunication.pdf
(accessed on 15/01/16)
 Mutambo, L.N. (2013) ‗BBA140: Business Communication Skills,‘ University of
Lusaka, Lusaka, Zambia.
 Praveen, S. (2011) Business Communication, University of CalicutSchool of Distance
Education Department of Commerce, Calicut University, India.
 Murthy,N.S.(2007)ManagerialCommunication,[online],available:http://samsmba.blogspo
t.com/2007/10/module-01.html (accessed on 25/12/15)
 Businesscommunication,[online],available:http://www.vssut.ac.in/lecture_notes/lecture14
24355797.pdf(accessed on 25/12/15)
 Cabot, M. (2012). Introduction to Public Relations, San Jose State University, [online],
available: http://www.sjsu.edu/ajeep/docs/IntroToPR.pdf(accessed on 15/01/16)
 Theaker, A. (2001). The Public Relations Handbook, 2nd ED, London: Routledge,
http://soniapsebastiao.weebly.com/uploads/2/0/3/9/20393123/impresso_ebook_theaker_t
he_public_relations_handbook_2nd_edition.pdf(accessed on 15/01/16)
 CommunicationMedia,SystemsandStrategy,[online],available:http://www.unesco.org/edu
cation/aladin/paldin/pdf/course02/unit_13.pdf(accessed on 15/01/16)

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Debreberhan University Distance Education Module

Module Description .................................................................................................................................... IIII

Administrative and Business Communication Page I

4.3. Informal Communication ..................................................................................................................... 75

Administrative and Business Communication Page II

 Unit One: An overview of communication including the meaning of communication,

Administrative and Business Communication Page III

 Describe the concepts and importance of communication.

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Distinguishing Features of the Module

This is the key to the activities and self-check exercises.

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

Define the term communication

1.1 Meaning and Definitions of Communication

Dear learner, what do you understand by the term ‗communication‘?

Administrative and Business Communication Page 1

Communication is the process by which we exchange meanings, facts, ideas, opinions or

Administrative and Business Communication Page 2

Some important definitions of communication given by prominent writers are as follows:-

1. ―Communication is the means by which people are linked together in an organization to

Simply, Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more

Administrative and Business Communication Page 3

Why communication is called life blood of a business organization?

Administrative and Business Communication Page 4

According to William Scott as quoted by in his book organizational theory ―Administrative

Administrative and Business Communication Page 5

Business communication is a specialized field and branch of general communication. It is hardly

1. Stronger Decision Making

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12. Raising Morale and Motivation

1.2 Significance of Communication

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What do you think is the importance of communication to an individual employee, and

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The importance of communication in any managerial process can hardly be over-emphasized. If

Virtually all actions taken in an organization are preceded by communication:

Administrative and Business Communication Page 11

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The importance of communication in an organization in general can be summarized as follows.

a. Efficiency functioning of the organization-The efficient functioning of the organization

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1.3 Communication in Management

 Communication needs to be effective in business. Communication is essence of

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To be effective, a manager needs information necessary to carryout managerial functions and

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There are some tips for effective managerial communication at workplace:

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 Working in a team leads to effective managerial communication. Employees working

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Can you differentiate business communication and

Can you identify and describe the objectives of

Can you explain the significance of communication

Can you describe how communication the essence

Administrative and Business Communication Page 20

1. Business communication is a specialized field and branch of general communication.

2. Communication is a learned skill.