Coordinates: 37°32′N 126°59′E

Joseon
Joseon (Korean:  조선 ; Hanja:  朝鮮 ; MR:  Chosŏn;
[tɕo.sʌn]; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Joseon
Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (Korean: 
선국 ; Hanja: 大朝鮮國
대조
; [tɛ.tɕo.sʌn.ɡuk̚]),[16] was the last
조선 朝鮮
( )

dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 1392–1897

years.[17][18] It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392
and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897.[19]
The kingdom was founded following the aftermath of the
overthrow of Goryeo in what is today the city of Kaesong.
Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated
Royal emblem
to modern-day Seoul. The kingdom's northernmost borders
were expanded to the natural boundaries at the rivers of
Amrok and Tuman through the subjugation of the
National Flag
Jurchens. (adopted in 1883)
During its 500-year duration, Joseon encouraged the National emblem
entrenchment of Confucian ideals and doctrines in Korean (late 19th century)
society. Neo-Confucianism was installed as the new state's
Royal seal
ideology. Buddhism was accordingly discouraged, and
occasionally the practitioners faced persecutions. Joseon
consolidated its effective rule over the territory of current
Korea and saw the height of classical Korean culture,
trade, literature, and science and technology. In the 1590s,
the kingdom was severely weakened due to Japanese
invasions. Several decades later, Joseon was invaded by
the Later Jin dynasty and the Qing dynasty in 1627 and
1636–1637 respectively, leading to an increasingly harsh
isolationist policy, for which the country became known as
the "hermit kingdom" in Western literature. After the end of
these invasions from Manchuria, Joseon experienced a
nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with
cultural and technological development. What power the
kingdom recovered during its isolation waned as the 18th
century came to a close. Faced with internal strife, power
struggles, international pressure, and rebellions at home,
the kingdom declined rapidly in the late 19th century.

The Joseon period has left a substantial legacy to modern Territory of Joseon after King Sejong's
Korea; much of modern Korean culture, etiquette, norms, conquest of Jurchens in 1433 (with current
and societal attitudes toward current issues, along with the borders)
modern Korean language and its dialects, derive from the Status Tributary relations with
culture and traditions of Joseon. Modern Korean Ming and Qing
bureaucracy and administrative divisions were also (1401–1895)[note 1]
established during the Joseon period.
Client state of Qing
dynasty
(1882–1895)[1][2][3][4]
History Capital Main :
Hanseong
(1394–1399/1405–1897)
Temporary :
Early Gaegyeong
(1392–1394/1399–1405)

Founding Official languages Middle Korean,

Early Modern Korean,
By the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old Goryeo Classical
established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing Chinese[5][6]: 243, 329 [7]: 74 
(literary Chinese or
from years of war spilled over from the disintegrating Yuan
Hanmun in Korean)
dynasty. Following the emergence of the Ming dynasty, the
royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, Religion Confucianism
one supporting the Ming and the other standing by the (state ideology),
Yuan. In 1388, a Ming messenger came to Goryeo to Buddhism,
demand that territories of the former Ssangseong Shamanism,
Taoism,
Prefectures be handed over to Ming China. The tract of
Christianity
land was taken by Mongol forces during the invasion of (recognized in 1886)
Korea, but had been reclaimed by Goryeo in 1356 as the
Yuan dynasty weakened. The act caused an uproar among Demonym(s) Korean
the Goryeo court, and General Choe Yeong seized the
Government Absolute monarchy[8]
chance to argue for an invasion of the Ming-controlled
Liaodong Peninsula. King  
• 1392–1398 Taejo (first)
General Yi Seong-gye was chosen to lead the attack; he • 1864–1897 Gojong (last)
revolted, swept back to the capital Gaegyeong (present-day Chief State  
Kaesong) and initiated a coup d'état, overthrowing King U Councillor[note 2]
of Goryeo in favor of his son, Chang of Goryeo (1388). • 1392 Bae Geuk-ryeom (first)
He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration • 1894–1898 Kim Byeong-si (last)
and forcibly placed a royal named Wang Yo on the throne
(he became King Gongyang of Goryeo). In 1392, Yi Legislature None (rule by decree)
(until 1894)
eliminated Jeong Mong-ju, a highly respected leader of a
Jungchuwon
group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King (from 1894)
Gongyang, exiling him to Wonju, and he ascended the
throne himself. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end History  
after 474 years of rule. • Coronation of 5 August 1392
Taejo
In the beginning of his reign, Yi Seong-gye, now ruler of • Promulgation of 9 October 1446
Korea, intended to continue to use of the name Goryeo for the Korean
the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of alphabet
descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of • Japanese 1592–1598
continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. After invasions
numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened • First and second 1627, 1636–1637
but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to Manchu
swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and to the invasions
now-demoted Wang clan, the consensus in the reformed • Japan–Korea 26 February 1876
court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify Treaty of 1876
the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo • Treaty of 17 April 1895
contemplated two possibilities – "Hwaryeong" (his place Shimonoseki
of birth) and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as • Proclamation of 13 October 1897
the Korean
well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's Empire
emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be
Population
Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of • 1400[9] 5,730,000
Gojoseon.[20] He also moved the capital to Hanseong • 1500[10] 9,200,000
(modern Seoul) from Gaegyeong (modern Kaesong). • 1600[10] 11,000,000
• 1700[10] 13,500,000
Strifes of princes • 1900[9] 17,082,000
Currency Mun
When the new dynasty was brought into existence, Taejo (1423–1425, 1625–1892)
brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. Yang
Although Yi Bang-won, Taejo's fifth son by Queen Sinui, (1892–1897)
had contributed the most to assisting his father's rise to
power, Chief State Councillor Jeong Do-jeon and Nam Preceded by Succeeded by
Eun used their influence on the king to name Yi Bang- Goryeo Korean Empire
seok, his eighth son (second son of Queen Sindeok), as Tamna
crown prince in 1392. This conflict arose largely because
Jeong Do-jeon, who shaped and laid down ideological, Today part of North Korea
institutional, and legal foundations of the new kingdom South Korea
more than anyone else, saw Joseon as a kingdom led by Russia(Nokdundo)[11]
ministers appointed by the king while Yi Bang-won China(Kando)[12]
wanted to establish an absolute monarchy ruled directly by Japan(Daemado)[13]
the king. With Taejo's
support, Jeong Do-jeon kept Korean name
limiting the royal family's
power by prohibiting political Hangul 조선
involvement of princes and Hanja 朝鮮
attempting to abolish their
Revised Joseon
private armies. Both sides
Romanization
were well aware of each
other's great animosity and McCune– Chosŏn
were getting ready to strike Reischauer
first. IPA [tɕo.sʌn]
After the sudden death of North Korean name
Queen Sindeok, while King Hangul 조선봉건왕조 [14][15]
King Taejo's portrait Taejo was still in mourning
for his second wife, Yi Bang- Hanja 朝鮮封建王朝
won struck first by raiding the Revised Joseon Bonggeon Wangjo
palace and killed Jeong Do- Romanization
jeon and his supporters as
well as Queen Sindeok's two McCune– Chosŏn Ponggŏn Wangjo
sons (his half-brothers) Reischauer
including the crown prince in Official name
1398. This incident became
known as the "First Strife of
Hangul 대조선국
Princes". Hanja 大朝鮮國
Revised Daejoseonguk
Aghast at the fact that his
Romanization
sons were willing to kill each
other for the crown, and McCune– Taejosŏn'guk
The throne room at psychologically exhausted Reischauer
Gyeongbok Palace from the death of his second IPA Korean
wife, King Taejo abdicated
pronunciation: [tɛ.dɕo.sʌn.ɡuk̚]
and immediately crowned his
second son Yi Bang-gwa as King Jeongjong. One of King
Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Gaegyeong, where he is believed to have been
considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Bang-won retained real power and
was soon in conflict with his disgruntled older brother, Yi Bang-gan, who also yearned for power. In 1400, the
tensions between Yi Bang-won's faction and Yi Bang-gan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to
be known as the "Second Strife of Princes". In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Bang-gan was
exiled to Dosan while his supporters were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately
invested Yi Bang-won as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Bang-won assumed
the throne of Joseon at long last as King Taejong, third king of the dynasty.

Consolidation of royal power

In the beginning of Taejong's reign, the former King Taejo refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the
legitimacy of any king's rule. Regardless, Taejong initiated policies he believed would prove his qualification
to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government
and the aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revocation of such rights to field independent forces
effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men
employed in the national military. Taejong's next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning
the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. With the discovery of previously hidden
land, national income increased twofold.

In 1399, Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping the Dopyeong Assembly, a council of the old
government administration that held a monopoly in court power during the waning years of Goryeo, in favor
of the State Council of Joseon, a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his
edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation legislation, he issued a new decree in which all
decisions passed by the State Council could only come into effect with the approval of the king. This ended the
custom of court ministers and advisors making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves,
and thus brought the royal power to new heights.

Shortly thereafter, Taejong installed an office, known as the Sinmun Office, to hear cases in which aggrieved
subjects felt that they had been exploited or treated unjustly by government officials or aristocrats. He kept
Jeong Do-jeon's reforms intact for most part. In addition, Taejong executed or exiled many of his supporters
who helped him ascend on the throne in order to strengthen his own royal authority. To limit influence of in-
laws, he also killed all four of his wife's brothers and Shim On, the father-in-law of his son Sejong.

Taejong remains a controversial figure who killed many of his rivals and relatives to gain power and yet ruled
effectively to improve the populace's lives, strengthen national defense, and lay down a solid foundation for his
successor Sejong's rule.

Sejong the Great

In August 1418, following Taejong's abdication two months earlier, Sejong the Great ascended the throne. In
May 1419, King Sejong, under the advice and guidance of his father Taejong, embarked upon the Gihae
Eastern Expedition to remove the nuisance of waegu (coastal pirates) who had been operating out of Tsushima
Island.

In September 1419, the daimyō of Tsushima, Sadamori, capitulated to the Joseon court. In 1443, The Treaty of
Gyehae was signed in which the daimyō of Tsushima was granted rights to conduct trade with Korea in fifty
ships per year in exchange for sending tribute to Korea and aiding to stop any Waegu coastal pirate raids on
Korean ports.[21][22][23][24]

On the northern border, Sejong established four forts and six posts to safeguard his people from the Jurchens,
who later became the Manchus, living in Manchuria. In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Jong-seo, a government
official, north to fend off the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign captured several castles, pushed north, and
 restored Korean territory, roughly the
present-day border between North
Korea and China.[25]

During the rule of Sejong, Korea saw

Portrait of Ha Yeon, who
served as Chief State
Councillor during King
Sejong's reign
advances in natural science,
agriculture, literature, traditional
Chinese medicine, and engineering.
Because of such success, Sejong was
given the title "Sejong the Great".[26]
The most remembered contribution of
King Sejong is the creation of Hangul,
the Korean alphabet, in 1443; rejected
in its time by the scholarly elite,
everyday use of Hanja in writing A page from the Hunmin Jeongeum
eventually was surpassed by Hangul in Eonhae, a partial translation of
the later half of the 20th century. Hunminjeongeum, the original
promulgation of the Korean alphabet
Six martyred ministers

After King Sejong's death, his son Munjong continued his father's legacy but
soon died of illness in 1452, just two years after coronation. He was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son,
Danjong. In addition to two regents, Princess Gyeonghye also served as Danjong's guardian and, along with
the general Kim Jong-seo, attempted to strengthen royal authority.[27] Danjong's uncle, Grand Prince Suyang,
gained control of the government and eventually deposed his nephew to become the seventh king of Joseon
himself in 1455. After six ministers loyal to Danjong attempted to assassinate Sejo to return Danjong to the
throne, Sejo executed the six ministers and also killed Danjong in his place of exile.

King Sejo enabled the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively.
He also revised the land ordinance to improve the national economy and encouraged the publication of books.
Most importantly, he compiled the Grand Code for State Administration, which became the cornerstone of
dynastic administration and provided the first form of constitutional law in a written form in Korea.

Sejo undermined much of the foundation of many existing systems, including the Jiphyeonjeon which his
predecessors, Sejong and Munjong, had carefully laid down. He cut down on everything he deemed unworthy
and caused countless complications in the long run. Many of these adjustments were done for his own power,
not regarding the consequences and problems that would occur. The favoritism he showed toward the ministers
who aided him in taking the throne led to increased corruption in the higher echelon of the political field.

Institutional arrangements and Prosper culture

Sejo's weak son Yejong succeeded him as the eighth king, but died two years later in 1469. Yejong's nephew
Seongjong ascended the throne. His reign was marked by the prosperity and growth of the national economy
and the rise of neo-Confucian scholars called sarim who were encouraged by Seongjong to enter court politics.
He established Hongmungwan (Hanja: 弘文館 ), the royal library and advisory council composed of
Confucian scholars, with whom he discussed philosophy and government policies. He ushered in a cultural
golden age that rivaled Sejong's reign by publishing numerous books on geography, ethics, and various other
fields.
He also sent several military campaigns against the Jurchens on the northern border in 1491, like many of his
predecessors. The campaign, led by General Heo Jong, was successful, and the defeated Jurchens, led by the
Udige clan (Hanja: 兀狄哈 ), retreated to the north of the Yalu River. King Seongjong was succeeded by his
son, Yeonsangun, in 1494.

Literati purges

Yeonsangun is often considered the worst tyrant in Joseon's history, whose

reign was marked by literati purges between 1498 and 1506. His behavior
became erratic after he learned that his biological mother was not Queen
Junghyeon but the deposed Queen Yun, who was forced to drink poison after
poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and leaving a scratch
mark on Seongjong's face. When he was shown a piece of clothing that was
allegedly stained with his mother's blood vomited after drinking poison, he
beat to death two of Seongjong's concubines who had accused Queen Yun and
he pushed his grandmother, Grand Queen Dowager Insu, who died afterward.
He executed government officials who supported Queen Yun's death along
with their families. He also executed sarim scholars for writing phrases critical
of Sejo's usurpation of the throne.
Portrait of the neo-Confucian
Yeonsangun also seized a thousand women from the provinces to serve as scholar, Jo Gwang-jo (1482–
palace entertainers and appropriated the Sungkyunkwan as a personal pleasure 1519)
ground. He abolished the Office of Censors, whose function was to criticize
inappropriate actions and policies of the king, and Hongmungwan. He banned
the use of hangul when the common people wrote with it on posters criticizing the king. After twelve years of
misrule, he was finally deposed in a coup that placed his half-brother Jungjong on the throne in 1506.

Jungjong was a fundamentally weak king because of the circumstances that placed him on the throne, but his
reign also saw a period of significant reforms led by his minister Jo Gwang-jo, the charismatic leader of sarim.
He established a local self-government system called hyangyak to strengthen local autonomy and communal
spirit among the people, sought to reduce the gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would
distribute land to farmers more equally and limit the amount of land and number of slaves that one could own,
promulgated widely among the populace Confucian writings with vernacular translations, and sought to trim
the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats. According to the Veritable Records of the
Joseon Dynasty, it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time
because as Inspector General, he applied law strictly.

These radical reforms were very popular with the populace but were fiercely opposed by the conservative
officials who helped to put Jungjong on the throne. They plotted to cause Jungjong to doubt Jo's loyalty. Jo
Gwang-jo was executed, and most of his reform measures died with him in the resulting third literati purge. For
nearly 50 years afterward, the court politics were marred by bloody and chaotic struggles between factions
backing rival consorts and princes. In-laws of the royal family wielded great power and contributed to much
corruption in that era.

Middle

The middle Joseon period was marked by intense and bloody power struggles between political factions that
weakened the country, and large-scale invasions by Japan and Manchu nearly toppled the kingdom.

Factional struggle
The Sarim faction had suffered a series of political defeats during the reigns of
Yeonsangun, Jungjong, and Myeongjong, but it gained control of the
government during the reign of King Seonjo. It soon split into opposing
factions known as the Easterners and the Westerners. Within decades the
Easterners themselves divided into the Southerners and the Northerners; in the
seventeenth century the Westerners as well permanently split into the Noron
and the Soron.[28] The alternations in power among these factions were often
accompanied by charges of treason and bloody purges, initiating a cycle of
revenge with each change of regime.

One example is the 1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, one of the bloodiest
political purges of Joseon. Jeong Yeo-rip, an Easterner, had formed a society
with group of supporters that also received military training to fight against
waegu. There is still a dispute about the nature and purpose of his group,
which reflected desire for classless society and spread throughout Honam. He
was subsequently accused of conspiracy to start a rebellion. Jeong Cheol, head
of the Western faction, was in charge of investigating the case and used this Jeong Cheol (1536–1593),
event to effect widespread purge of Easterners who had slightest connection head of the Western faction
with Jeong Yeo-rip. Eventually 1000 Easterners were killed or exiled in the
aftermath.

Early Japanese invasions

Throughout Korean history, there was frequent piracy on sea and

brigandage on land. The only purpose for the Joseon navy was to
secure the maritime trade against the waegu. The navy repelled pirates
using an advanced form of gunpowder technologies including cannons
and fire arrows in form of singijeon deployed by hwacha.

During the Japanese invasions in the 1590s, Toyotomi Hideyoshi,

plotting the conquest of Ming China with Portuguese guns, invaded
The Turtle ship (replica)
Korea with his daimyōs and their troops, intending to use Korea as a
stepping stone. Factional division in the Joseon court, inability to
assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led
to poor preparation on Joseon's part. The use of European firearms by the Japanese left most of the southern
part of the Korean Peninsula occupied within months, with both Hanseong (present-day Seoul) and
Pyongyang captured.

The invasion was slowed when Admiral Yi Sun-shin destroyed the

Japanese invasion fleet. The guerrilla resistance that eventually formed
also helped. Local resistance slowed down the Japanese advance and
decisive naval victories by Admiral Yi left control over sea routes in
Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore,
Ming China intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large
force in 1593 which pushed back the Japanese together with the
Koreans.
The Turtle Ship interior
During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and the turtle
ships. The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese at a deep
price. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended until 1609.

Manchu invasions

A Korean painting depicting two
Jurchen warriors and their horses
After the Japanese invasions, the Korean Peninsula was devastated.
Meanwhile, Nurhaci (r. 1583–1626), the chieftain of the Jianzhou
Jurchens, was unifying the Jurchen tribes of Manchuria into a strong
coalition that his son Hong Taiji (r. 1626–1643) would eventually
rename the "Manchus." After he declared Seven Grievances against
Ming China in 1618, Nurhaci and the Ming engaged in several military
conflicts. On such occasions, Nurhaci required help from
Gwanghaegun of Joseon (r.1608–1623), putting the Korean state in a
difficult position because the Ming court was also requesting
assistance.[29] Gwanghaegun tried to maintain neutrality, but most of
his officials opposed him for not supporting Ming China, which had
saved Joseon during Hideyoshi's invasions.[29]

In 1623, Gwanghaegun was deposed and replaced by Injo of Joseon (r. 1623–1649), who banished
Gwanghaejun's supporters. Reverting his predecessor's foreign policy, the new king decided to openly support
the Ming, but a rebellion led by military commander Yi Gwal erupted in 1624 and wrecked Joseon's military
defenses in the north.[29] Even after the rebellion had been suppressed, King Injo had to devote military forces
to ensure the stability of the capital, leaving fewer soldiers to defend the northern borders.[29]

In 1627, a Jurchen army of 30,000 led by Nurhaci's nephew Amin overran Joseon's defenses.[30] After a quick
campaign that was assisted by northern yangban who had supported Gwanghaegun, the Jurchens imposed a
treaty that forced Joseon to accept "brotherly relations" with the Jurchen kingdom.[31] Because Injo persisted
in his anti-Manchu policies, Qing emperor Hong Taiji sent a punitive expedition of 120,000 men to Joseon in
1636.[32] Defeated, King Injo was forced to end his relations with the Ming and recognize the Qing as
suzerain instead.[33] Injo's successor Hyojong of Joseon (r. 1649–1659) tried to form an army to keep his
enemies away and conquer the Qing for revenge, but could never act on his designs.[34]

Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the imperial Chinese tributary system, Joseon
leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians, and [31]
regarded the Ming Dynasty as the center of the civilized world.[35] Joseon intellectuals, who had political and
cultural allegiances to the Ming Dynasty,[36] were forced to reexamine their state identity when the Qing
overthrew the Ming,[35] leading to an influx of Ming refugees into Joseon.[36] As a result, Joseon created the
Little China ideology, known as sojunghwa.[35] According to Youngmin Kim, " it held that the Joseon
embodied Chineseness authentically while other neighboring countries failed to do so in the face of the
barbarian domination of the center of the civilized world."[35] A set of standardized rites and unifying symbols
were developed in Late Joseon Korea in order to maintain that sense of cultural identity.[35] Long after
submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming reign periods, as when
a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of Chongzhen."[37]

Late

Emergence of Silhak and renaissance of the Joseon

After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Joseon
witnessed the emergence of Silhak (Practical Learning). The early group of Silhak scholars advocated
comprehensive reform of civil service examination, taxation, natural sciences and the improvement in
agromanagerial and agricultural techniques. It aimed to rebuild Joseon society after it had been devastated by
the two invasions. Under the leadership of Kim Yuk, the chief minister of King Hyeonjong, the implementation
of reforms proved highly advantageous both to state revenues and to the lot of the peasants.
 Factional conflict grew particularly
intense under the reigns of the kings
Sukjong and Gyeongjong, with major
rapid reversals of the ruling faction,
known as hwanguk ( 換局 ; literally
change in the state of affairs), being
commonplace. As a response, the next
kings, Yeongjo and Jeongjo, generally
pursued the Tangpyeongchaek – a Hwaseong Fortress in Suwon
policy of maintaining balance and
equality between the factions.[38][39]

The two kings led a second renaissance of the Joseon kingdom.[40][41]

Yeongjo's grandson, the enlightened King Jeongjo enacted various reforms
김육
Portrait of Kim Yuk throughout his reign, notably establishing Kyujanggak, a royal library in order
(1570–1658), an early Silhak to improve the cultural and political position of Joseon and to recruit gifted
philosopher of the Joseon officers to run the nation. King Jeongjo also spearheaded bold social initiatives,
period opening government positions to those who would previously have been
barred because of their social status. King Jeongjo had the support of the many
Silhak scholars. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and
development of Joseon's popular culture. At that time, the group of Silhak scholars encouraged the individual
to reflect on state traditions and lifestyle, initiating the studies of Korea that addressed its history, geography,
epigraphy and language.

Government by in-law families

After the death of King Jeongjo, the Joseon faced difficult external and internal
problems. Internally, the foundation of national law and order weakened as a
result of "Sedo Politics" (in-law government) by royal in-laws.

The young Sunjo succeeded his father, King Jeongjo, in 1800. With Jeongjo's
death the Noron seized power with the regency of Queen Dowager Jeongsun,
whose family had strong ties to the faction, and initiated a persecution of
Catholics. However, after the retirement and death of the Queen Dowager, the
Norons were gradually ousted, while the Andong Kim clan of Kim Jo-sun, the
father of the Queen Sunwon, gained power. Gradually the Andong Kims came
to dominate the court.[42]

With the domination of the Andong Kims, the era of Sedo Politics began. The
formidable in-law lineage monopolized the vital positions in government,
holding sway over the political scene, and intervening in the succession of the
throne. These kings had no monarchic authority and could not rule over the Sinjeong, Queen Regent of
government. The other aristocratic families, overwhelmed by the power Joseon. She served as
exercised by the royal in-laws, could not speak out. As the power was nominal regent of Joseon,
concentrated in the hands of the royal in-law lineage, there was disorder in the who selected Gojong to
governing process and corruption became rampant. Large sums were offered place upon the throne.
in bribes to the powerful lineages to obtain positions with nominally high rank.
Even the low-ranking posts were bought and sold. This period, which spanned
60 years, saw the manifestation of both severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless rebellions
in various parts of the country.
Externally, Joseon became increasingly isolationist. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries.

End of the dynasty

In 1863, King Gojong took the throne. His father, Heungseon Daewongun,
ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the
Regent was the main proponent of isolationism and the instrument of the
persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to the
French Campaign against Korea in 1866. The early years of his rule also
witnessed a large effort to restore the dilapidated Gyeongbok Palace, the seat
of royal authority. During his reign, the power and authority of the in-law
families such as the Andong Kims sharply declined. In order to get rid of the
Andong Kim and Pungyang Jo clans, he promoted persons without making
references to political party or family affiliations, and in order to reduce the
burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's economy, he
reformed the tax system. In 1871, U.S. and Korean forces clashed in a U.S.
Heungseon Daewongun
attempt at "gunboat diplomacy" following on the General Sherman incident of
1866.

In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. With the subsequent retirement of Heungseon
Daewongun, Queen Min (later called Empress Myeongseong) became a power in the court, placing her family
in high court positions.

Japan, after the Meiji Restoration, acquired Western military technology, and forced Joseon to sign the Treaty
of Ganghwa in 1876, opening three ports to trade and granting the Japanese extraterritoriality. Port Hamilton
was briefly occupied by the Royal Navy in 1885.

Many Koreans despised Japanese and foreign influences over their land and
the corrupt oppressive rule of the Joseon Dynasty. In 1881, the Byeolgigun, a
modern elite military unit, was formed with Japanese trainers. The salaries of
the other soldiers were held back and in 1882 rioting soldiers attacked the
Japanese officers and even forced the queen to take refuge in the countryside.
In 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution saw farmers rise up in a mass
rebellion, with peasant leader Jeon Bong-jun defeating the forces of local ruler
Jo Byong-gap at the battle of Gobu on 11 January 1894; after the battle, Jo's
properties were handed out to the peasants. By May, the peasant army had
reached Jeonju, and the Joseon government asked the Qing dynasty
government for assistance in ending the revolt. The Qing sent 3,000 troops and
the rebels negotiated a truce, but the Japanese considered the Qing presence a
threat and sent in 8,000 troops of their own, seizing the Royal Palace in Seoul
and installing a pro-Japanese government on 8 June 1894. This soon escalated
into a war (1894–1895) between Japan and the Qing Empire, fought largely in
Korea. (The king made a deal with Japan, partially out of a distrust of the
queen's support for open trade policies toward the Western civilizations and Emperor Gojong
China. He ended up preempting a specific disadvantageous, exclusive
negotiation with Japan previous to the Queen's decision, which was later used
as a political premise for Japan to wage military action. Scholars, particularly during the Joseon era, were
touted for expressing allegiance to the king.)

Empress Myeongseong (referred to as Queen Min)[43] had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea
and was considering turning to the Russian Empire and to China for support. In 1895, Empress Myeongseong
was assassinated by Japanese agents.[44] The Japanese minister to Korea, Lieutenant-General Viscount Miura,
almost certainly orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents[44] entered the Gyeongbok
Palace in Seoul, which was under Japanese control,[44] and Queen Min was killed and her body desecrated in
the north wing of the palace.

The Qing acknowledged defeat in the Treaty of Shimonoseki (17 April 1895), which officially guaranteed
Korea's independence from China.[45] It was a step toward Japan gaining regional hegemony in Korea.

Establishment of the Empire and Colonization

The Joseon court, pressured by encroachment from larger powers, felt the need to reinforce national integrity
and declared the Korean Empire, along with the Gwangmu Reform in 1897. King Gojong assumed the title of
Emperor in order to assert Korea's independence. In addition, other foreign powers were sought for military
technology, especially Russia, to fend off the Japanese. Technically, 1897 marks the end of the Joseon period,
as the official name of the empire was changed; the Joseon Dynasty still reigned, albeit perturbed by Japan and
Russia.

In a complicated series of maneuvers and counter-maneuvers, Japan pushed back the Russian fleet at the Battle
of Port Arthur in 1904. With the conclusion of the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War with the Treaty of
Portsmouth, the way was open for Japan to take control of Korea. After the signing of the Protectorate Treaty
in 1905, Korea became a protectorate of Japan. Prince Itō was the first Resident-General of Korea, although he
was assassinated by Korean independence activist An Jung-geun in 1909 at the train station at Harbin. In 1910
the Japanese Empire finally annexed Korea.

Government
Joseon was a highly centralized monarchy and neo-Confucian bureaucracy as codified by Gyeongguk
daejeon, a sort of Joseon constitution.

King

The king had absolute authority, but his actual power varied with
political circumstances. He was bound by tradition, precedents set by
earlier kings, Gyeongguk daejeon, and Confucian teachings. The king
commanded absolute loyalty from his officials and subjects, but the
officials were also expected to persuade the king to the right path if the
latter was thought to be mistaken. Natural disasters were thought to be
due to the king's failings, and therefore, Joseon kings were very
sensitive to their occurrences. When there was severe drought or a
series of disasters, the king often formally sought criticism from
The Phoenix Throne of the king of
officials and citizenry. On those occasions, critics were immune from Joseon in Gyeongbok Palace
prosecution, regardless of what they said or wrote (although there were
a few exceptions).

Direct communication between the king and the common people was possible through the sangeon ( ; 상언 上
言 ) written petition system and the gyeokjaeng ( ;격쟁 擊錚) oral petition system. Through the gyeokjaeng oral
petition system, commoners could strike a gong or drum in front of the palace or during the king's public
processions in order to appeal their grievances or petition to the king
directly. This allowed even the illiterate members of Joseon society to
make a petition to the king. More than 1,300 gyeokjaeng-related
accounts are recorded in the Ilseongnok.[46][47][48]

Royal seals

Royal standard of the King of Joseon

Seal used from 1392 Seal used from 1401

to 1401. to 1637, for use in
Ming-related state
documents.[49]

Seal used between Seal used between Seal used between The seal was
1637[50] and 1653, 1653 and 1776, for 1776 and 1876, for produced on
for use in Qing- use in Qing-related use in Qing-related December 15, 1876,
related state state documents.[52] state documents. for use in Japanese-
documents.[51] related state
documents.
 "Daegunju bo" "Daejoseon
designed to replace Daegunju bo" were
the former sergeant used as the 'seal of
"Joseon gukwang state' for credentials
jiin", used as the in diplomatic
seal of the king for relations with other
documents such as countries, between
appointment 1882[53]
documents for high-
ranking government
officials and
ordinances
proclaimed in Korea,
between 1882 and
1897[53]

Officials

정 품 正一品
Government officials were ranked in 18 levels, ranging from first senior rank ( 1 , ) down to ninth
종 품 從九品
junior rank ( 9 , ). Seniority and promotion was achieved through royal decree, based on
examination or recommendation. The officials from 1st senior rank to 3rd senior rank wore red robes. Those
from 3rd junior rank to 6th junior rank wore blue. Those below wore green robes.[54]

Here, "government official" means one who occupied an office which gave its holder yangban status –
hereditary nobility for three generations. In order to become such an official, one had to pass a series of
gwageo examinations. There were three kinds of gwageo exams – literary, military, and miscellaneous. The
literary route was the most prestigious. Many key posts, including all Censorate posts, were open only to
officials who advanced through literary exam. The literary route involved a series of four tests. To qualify, one
had to pass them all. 33 candidates who were chosen in this manner would take the final exam, before the
king. The candidate with the highest score was appointed to a position of 6th junior rank (a jump of six ranks).
The two candidates with the next highest scores were appointed to a position of 7th junior rank. The seven
candidates with next highest scores were assigned to 8th junior rank. The remaining 23 candidates were given
9th junior rank, the lowest of 18 ranks.
The officials of 1st senior rank, 1st junior rank, and 2nd senior rank were addressed with honorific "daegam"
대감 大監
( , ) while those of 2nd junior rank and 3rd senior rank were addressed with honorific "yeonggam"
영감 令監
( , ).[55] These red-robed officials, collectively called "dangsanggwan" ( 당상관 堂上官
, ), took part in
deciding government policies by attending cabinet meetings. The rest of the ranked officials were called
"danghagwan" ( 당하관 堂下官 , ).

Central government

State Council

의정부 議政府
State Council (Uijeongbu, , ) was the highest deliberative body,
whose power declined over the course of the period. The Chief State
영의정 領 議 政
Councillor (Yeonguijeong, , ), Left State Councillor
(Jwauijeong, 좌의정 左議政 , ), and Right State Councillor (Uuijeong, 우의정 ,
右議政 ) were the highest-ranking officials in the government (all three were of
1st senior rank). They were assisted by Left Minister (Jwachanseong, 좌찬성 ,
左贊成 ) and Right Minister (Uichangseong, 우찬성 右贊成 , ), both of 1st
junior rank, and seven lower ranking officials. The power of State Council was
inversely proportional to the king's power. There were periods when it directly
controlled the Six Ministries, the chief executive body of Joseon government,
but it primarily served in advisory role under stronger kings. State councillors
served in several other positions concurrently.

Six Ministries Portrait of Chief State

Councillor Chae Je-gong
육조 六曹
Six Ministries (Yukjo, , ) make up the chief executive body. Each (1720–1799)
minister (Panseo, 판서 判書
, ) was of 2nd senior rank and was assisted by
참판 參判
deputy minister (Champan, , ), who was of 2nd junior rank. Ministry
of Personnel was the most senior office of six ministries. As the influence of State Council waned over time,
Minister of Personnel was often de facto head of ministers. Six ministries are in the order of seniority.

Ministry of Personnel (Ijo,이조, 吏曹) – was primarily concerned with appointment of

officials
Ministry of Taxation (Hojo, 호조, 戶曹) – taxation, finances, census, agriculture, and land
policies
Ministry of Rites (Yejo, 예조, 禮曺) – rituals, culture, diplomacy, gwageo exam
Ministry of Defence (Byeongjo, 병조, 兵曺) – military affairs

Office of Police Bureau (Podocheong, 포도청, 捕盜廳) – office for public order
Ministry of Justice (Hyeongjo, 형조, 刑曺) – administration of law, slavery, punishments
Ministry of Commerce (Gongjo, 공조, 工曹) – industry, public works, manufacturing, mining

Three Offices

Three Offices, or Samsa ( 삼사), is a collective name for three offices that functioned as major organ of press
and provided checks and balance on the king and the officials. While modeled after the Chinese system, they
played much more prominent roles in Joseon government than their Chinese counterparts. In their role as organ
of press, they did not have actual authority to decide or implement policies, but
had influential voice in the ensuing debate.

The officials who served in these offices tended to be younger and of lower
rank compared to other offices but had strong academic reputation and enjoyed
special privileges and great prestige (for instance, censors were permitted to
drink during working hours because of their function of criticizing the king).
To be appointed, they went through more thorough review of character and
family background. Three Offices provided the fastest route of promotion to
high posts and was almost a requirement to becoming a State Councillor.

Office of Inspector General (Saheonbu, 사헌부 ) – It monitored

government administration and officials at each level in both
central and local governments for corruption, malfeasance, or
inefficiency. It was also in charge of advancing public morals Portrait of the Inspector
and Confucian customs and redressing grievances of the General Yun Bonggu (1681–
populace. It was headed by Inspector General (Daesaheon,
대사헌
1767)
), a position of 2nd junior rank, who oversaw 30 largely
independent officials.
Office of Censors (Saganwon, 사간원 ) – Its chief function was to remonstrate with the king
if there was wrong or improper action or policy. Important decrees of the king were first
reviewed by censors, who could ask to withdraw them if judged improper. It also issued
opinions about the general state of affairs. It was composed of five officials, led by Chief
Censor (Daesagan, 대사간 ), of 3rd senior rank.

While the primary focus for Office of Inspector General is the government officials and Office of Censors is
focused on the king, two offices often performed each other's functions, and there was much overlap. Together
they were called "Yangsa," ( 양사 ) which literally means "Both Offices," and often worked jointly especially
when they sought to reverse the king's decision.

Office of Special Advisors (Hongmungwan, 홍문관 弘文館, ) – It oversaw the royal library
and served as research institute to study Confucian philosophy and answer the king's
questions. Its officials took part in the daily lessons called gyeongyeon ( 경연 ), in which
they discussed history and Confucian philosophy with the king. Since these discussions
often led to commentary on current political issues, its officials had significant influence as
advisors. It was headed by Chief Scholar (Daejehak, 대제학 ), a part-time post of 2nd
senior rank that served concurrently in another high post (such as in State Council), and
Deputy Chief Scholar (Bujehak, 부제학 ), a full-time post of 3rd senior rank that actually ran
the office. There was great prestige attached to being Chief Scholar in this deeply
Confucian society. The office was established to replace Hall of Worthies (Jiphyeonjeon,
집현전 ) after the latter was abolished by King Sejo in the aftermath of Six martyred
ministers.

Other offices

The major offices include the following:

Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon, 승정원 ) served as a liaison between the king and Six
Ministries. There were six royal secretaries ( 승지
), one for each ministry, and all were of 3rd
senior rank. Their primary role was to pass down royal decree to the ministries and submit
petitions from the officials and the populace to the king, but they also advised the king and
 served in other key positions close to the king. In particular Chief Royal Secretary ( 도승지
), a
liaison to Ministry of Personnel, served the king in the closest proximity of all government
official and often enjoyed great power that was derived from the king's favor. Hong Guk-yeong
(during Jeongjo's reign) and Han Myeong-hoe (during Sejo) are some examples of chief royal
secretaries who were the most powerful officials of their time.
Capital Bureau (Hanseongbu, 한성부
) was in charge of running the capital, Hanseong or
판윤
present-day Seoul. It was led by Panyoon ( ), of 2nd senior second rank equivalent to
today's mayor of Seoul.
Royal Investigation Bureau (Uigeumbu, 의금부) was an investigative and enforcement organ
under direct control of the king. It chiefly dealt with treason and other serious cases that
concerned the king and royal family and served to arrest, investigate, imprison, and carry out
sentences against the suspected offenders, who were often government officials.[56]
Office of Records (Chunchugwan, 춘추관 ) officials wrote, compiled, and maintained the
government and historical records. It was headed by State Councillors, and many posts were
held by officials serving in other offices concurrently. There were eight historiographers whose
sole function was to record the meetings for history.[57]
Sungkyunkwan or Royal Academy ( 성균관 ) prepared future government officials. Those who
passed first two stages of gwageo examinations (literary exam) were admitted to
Sungkyunkwan. The class size was usually 200 students, who lived in the residential hall and
followed strict routine and school rules. (Tuition, room and board were provided by the
government.) It also served as the state shrine for Confucian and Korean Confucian sages. The
students' opinions on government policies, especially collective statements and
demonstrations, could be influential as they represented fresh and uncorrupted consensus of
young scholars. The official in charge was Daesaseong ( 대사성
), of 3rd senior rank, and 36
other officials including those from other offices were involved in running the academy.

Local government

The officials of high rank were sent from the central government. Sometimes a secret royal inspector
(Amhaengeosa, 암행어사 ) was appointed by the king to travel incognito and monitor the provincial officials.
These undercover inspectors were generally young officials of lower rank but were invested with the royal
authority to dismiss corrupt officials.

Provinces (Do, 도, 道) – There were eight provinces, each of which was governed by Governor
(Gwanchalsa, 관찰사, 觀察使), a position of 2nd junior rank.
Bu (부) – administrative offices in charge of major cities in provinces. Each bu was led by
Buyoon (부윤), which was equivalent to Governor in rank.
Mok (목, 牧) – There were twenty moks, which governed large counties named ju (주, 州). They
were run by Moksa (목사, 牧使), of 3rd senior rank.
County (Gun, 군, 郡) – There were eighty counties in Joseon, each governed by Gunsu (군수, 郡
守), a 4th junior rank.
Hyeon (현, 縣) – Large hyeons were governed by Hyeongryeong (현령, 縣令) of 5th junior rank
while smaller hyeons were governed by Hyeonggam (현감, 縣監) of 6th junior rank.

Administrative divisions
 도道
During most of the Joseon period, Korea was divided into eight provinces (do, , ). The eight provinces'
boundaries remained unchanged for almost five centuries from 1413 to 1895, and formed a geographic
paradigm that is still reflected today in the Korean Peninsula's administrative divisions, dialects, and regional
distinctions. The names of all eight provinces are still preserved today, in one form or another.

Military

Army

The army consists of the central army and the provincial armies. Each is made
of peasant soldiers, cavalry, pengbaesu and gabsa elite soldiers, archers, and
artillery. The king appointed their generals.

Navy

The Joseon Navy consists of two types of main warships, the panokseon and
the turtle ship. They also utilized small vessels and fishing boats for Portrait of Kim Hu (1751–
reconnaissance and landings. The king also appoints their admirals. 1805), a military officer of
the Joseon Dynasty
Royal Guard

The Naegeumwi were royal guards defending the king, queen, and ministers. These were soldiers hand-
selected by the king. The King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, the Wanggung Sumunjang ( 왕궁수문장
) were a
royal guard unit tasked with defending the gates of the five palaces and Hanseong's city gates.

Foreign relations
Joseon was a nominal tributary state of China but exercised full sovereignty,[58][59] and maintained the highest
position among China's tributary states,[60][61] which also included countries such as Japan, Vietnam, Ryukyu,
Burma, Thailand, Laos, Brunei,[62][63][64] and the Philippines, among others.[65][66] In addition, Joseon
received tribute from Jurchens and Japanese until the 17th century,[67][68][69] and had a small enclave in the
Ryukyu Kingdom that engaged in trade with Siam and Java.[70]

China

In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye led a successful coup to take political power in Korea from the King. General
Yi's followers forced him to take the crown as Taejo of Joseon, thus establishing a new dynasty.[71] In search
of a justification for its rule given the lack of a royal bloodline, the new regime wanted recognition from other
countries such as China. Furthermore, the only way to establish diplomatic relations and trade with China was
to accept the tributary system of China. Thus, Joseon joined the Imperial Chinese tributary system in 1401
within the context of the Mandate of Heaven, in return for recognition.[72][73][74] Within this tributary system,
China assumed the role of a "big brother", with Korea maintaining the highest position among the tributary
states,[75][76] which also included countries such as the Ashikaga shogunate, Ryukyu Kingdom, Lan Xang,
Đại Việt, and the Ayutthaya Kingdom,[77][78] in return for accepting the subservient tributary role of a
"younger brother".[79][80]

Joseon wanted to dispatch envoys as often as possible for economic and cultural interests as well as diplomatic
purposes.[81] China demanded that Joseon pay tribute only once in a three-year cycle. However, Joseon
strongly opposed this measure and demanded that Joseon pay tribute to China three times a year.[81] In
response, China put pressure on them by banning envoy delegates from entering the country or demanding
unreasonable tributes, but in the end Joseon, which had a theoretical advantage, got the privilege of paying
tribute at least one or two times a year.[81] Joseon enjoyed the most opportunities for tribute trade with China,
and the tribute trade with China was considered as a privilege not easily granted in Asia. China had to give a
higher value than the tribute it received in order to maintain face, and Joseon abused it.[81] Joseon experienced
numerous economic and cultural benefits through gifts from the imperial China. The purpose of the tribute
varied depending on the circumstances, but it was usually for economic or diplomatic gain.

In the 19th century, China faced major challenges due to the rise of the West and Japan. These countries,
which had already adopted a system of sovereignty, asked about the status of the relationship between Qing
and Joseon. Before the French expedition to Korea (1866) and the US expedition to Korea (1871), France and
the U.S. asked if the war with Joseon would lead to an invasion of the Qing Dynasty, if the Qing Dynasty
would intervene, and the nature of Qing-Joseon relationship. The Qing government replied that "Joseon is an
independent state, but at the same time it is a dependent state.", which means it was a 'sokgukjaju' ( 속국자주 ,
屬國自主 ). But it was the position of Joseon, the Western world, and Japan that tributary states such as Joseon
were virtually independent countries at the time.[82][83]

Ming and Qing had a laissez-faire policy toward Joseon; despite being a tributary state of China, Joseon was
independent in its internal and external affairs, and China did not manipulate or interfere in them. However,
After 1882 Imo Incident, China abandoned its laissez-faire policy, signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882, and
became directly involved in the affairs of Joseon.[3]

Sino-Korean relationship after the Imo Incident

after the Imo Incident in 1882, early reform efforts in Korea suffered a major setback.[84] In the aftermath of
the incident, the Chinese reasserted their influence over the peninsula, where they began to interfere in Korean
internal affairs directly.[84] After stationing troops at strategic points in the capital Seoul, the Chinese undertook
several initiatives to gain significant influence over the Korean government.[85] The Qing dispatched two
special advisers on foreign affairs representing Chinese interests to Korea: the German Paul Georg von
Möllendorff, a close confidant of Li Hongzhang, and the Chinese diplomat Ma Jianzhong.[86] The Chinese
supervised the creation of a Korean Maritime Customs Service headed by von Möllendorff.[84] A staff of
Chinese officers also took over the training of the army, providing the Koreans with 1,000 rifles, two cannons,
and 10,000 rounds of ammunition.[87] Furthermore, the Chingunyeong (Capital Guards Command), a new
Korean military formation, was created and trained along Chinese lines by Yuan Shikai.[86]

In October 1882, the two countries signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882 and Korea was reduced to a semi-
colonial tributary state of China with King Gojong unable to appoint diplomats without Chinese approval,[86]
and with troops stationed in the country to protect Chinese interests. [nb 1] China's new policy toward Joseon
was set by Li Hongzhang and implemented by Yuan Shikai. According to Ming-te Lin: "Li's control of Korea
from 1885 to 1894 through Yuan Shikai as resident official represented an anachronistic policy of intervention
toward Korea."[3]

Gyorin
This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the gyorin (kyorin) (neighborly relations) diplomacy in dealings
with Jurchens, Japan, Ryukyu Kingdom, Siam and Java.[88] Gyorin was applied to a multi-national foreign
policy.[89] The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework
developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical models would be modified, mirroring the evolution of a
unique relationship.[90]

Japan

As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring
about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to
commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and shōgun
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.[91] Not less than
70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's Edo
period.[92]

Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese
shōguns of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political
or military power[93][94] and the actual political and military rulers of Japan that Joseon communicated with
were the shoguns who were represented as "tycoon of Japan" in many foreign communications in order to
avoid the conflict with the Sinocentric system in which the emperor of China was the highest authority, and all
rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".[95]

Society
The exact population figures of Joseon-era
Korea are disputed as government records of
households are considered unreliable in this
period.[96] Between 1810 and 1850, the
population declined approximately 10% and
remained stable.[97] Before the introduction of
modern medicine by the Korean Empire
government in the early 20th century, the
average life expectancy for peasant and
commoner Korean males was 24 years and for
females 26 years, accounting for infant
mortality.[98]

Joseon Korea installed a centralised

administrative system controlled by civil
bureaucrats and military officers who were
A portrait of a civil collectively called yangban. By the end of the
Woman's mourning clothes
bureaucrat in the Joseon 18th century, the yangban had acquired most
in Joseon
period of the traits of a hereditary nobility except that
the status was based on a unique mixture of
family position, gwageo examinations for Confucian learning, and a civil
service system. The family of a yangban who did not succeed to become a government official for the third
generation lost their yangban status and became commoners. For most part, the only way to become a
government official was to pass a series of gwageo exams (one had to pass "lesser gwageo" exam ( 소과 ) in
both of two stages to qualify for greater gwageo exam, which again one had to pass in both of two stages to
become a government official). The yangban and the king, in an uneasy balance, controlled the central
government and military institutions. The proportion of yangban may have reached as high as 30% by 1800,
due to the later practices of transaction of yangban status to peasants, although there was considerable local
variation.[99] As the government was small, a great many yangban were local gentry of high social status, but
not always of high income.[100]

Another portion of the population were slaves or serfs (nobi), "low borns" (cheonmin) or untouchable
outcastes (baekjeong). Slavery in Korea was hereditary, as well as a form of legal punishment. The nobi were
socially indistinct from freemen other than the ruling yangban class, and some possessed property rights, legal
entities and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it's inappropriate to call them "slaves",[101] while
some scholars describe them as serfs.[102][103] There were both government- and privately owned nobi, and
the government occasionally gave them to yangban. Privately owned nobi could be inherited as personal
property. During poor harvests, many sangmin people would voluntarily become nobi in order to survive. The
nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about
10% of the total population.[104] Joseon slaves could, and often did, own property.[105] Private slaves could
buy their freedom.

Many of the remaining 40–50% of the population were surely

farmers,[106] but recent work has raised important issues about the size
of other groups: merchants and traders, local government or quasi-
governmental clerks (Jungin), craftsmen and laborers, textile workers,
etc.[107] Given the size of the population, it may be that a typical
person had more than one role. Most farming was, at any rate,
A Joseon painting which represents
commercial, not subsistence.[108] In addition to generating additional
the Chungin (literally "middle
income, a certain amount of occupational dexterity may have been
people"), equivalent to the petite
required to avoid the worst effects of an often heavy and corrupt tax
bourgeoisie
system.[109]

Gender roles tightened during the Joseon period compared to the

Goryeo era. The influence of Neo-Confucianism contributed to the increasingly male-dominated society of the
time. Women were expected to be silent and not socialize with men who were not their relatives, they were
required to be chaste to their husbands and widows were not allowed to remarry. Any doubt of a woman's
chastity would bring dishonor to the family. To protect the family's honor, young girls would carry a small
knife (paedo) and with this they were expected to take their own life if they were raped or even rumored to be
caught in an affair. Laws were also enacted to prohibit women from riding horses or to play sports.[110]

During the Late Joseon, the Confucian ideals of propriety and "filial piety" gradually came to be equated with
a strict observance to a complex social hierarchy, with many fine gradations. By the early 18th century the
social critic Yi Chung-hwan (1690–1756) sarcastically complained that "[W]ith so many different ranks and
grades separating people from one another, people tend not to have a very large circle of friends."[111] But,
even as Yi wrote, the informal social distinctions of the Early Joseon were being reinforced by legal
discrimination, such as Sumptuary law[112] regulating the dress of different social groups, and laws restricting
inheritance and property ownership by women.[113] Precisely because of the tenets of the Confucian Classic of
Filial Piety, the adult male practice of Joseon Korea prescribed to keep both hair and beard, in contrast to the
Japanese Tokugawa period.

Yet, these laws may have been announced precisely because social mobility was increasing, particularly during
the prosperous century beginning about 1710.[114] The original social hierarchy of the Joseon era was
developed based on the social hierarchy of the Goryeo era. In the 14th–16th centuries, this hierarchy was strict
and stable. Since economic opportunities to change status were limited, no law was needed.

In the late 17th to 19th centuries, new commercial groups emerged, and the old class system was extremely
weakened. The situation was most marked in the Daegu region's Yangban class, where they were expected to
reach nearly 70% in 1858.[115]
In 1801, government-owned slaves were all emancipated, and the institution gradually died out over the next
century.[116] By 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the total population of Korea.[117] The
institution was completely abolished as part of a social plan in the Gabo Reform of 1894.

Culture
The Joseon Dynasty presided over two periods of great cultural growth, during which Joseon culture created
the first Korean tea ceremony, Korean gardens, and extensive historic works. The royal dynasty also built
several fortresses and palaces.

Noble Korean women during this time were suppressed, along with shamans, in the 15th century when they
previously led some of the least restricted lives out of anyone in Asia because of Neo-Confucianist social
norms.[118]

Clothing

During the Joseon period, jeogori of

women's hanbok became gradually
tightened and shortened. In the 16th
century, jeogori was baggy and
reached below the waist, but by the
19th century, jeogori was shortened to
the point that it did not cover the
breasts, so another piece of cloth
(heoritti) was used to cover them. At
the end of the 19th century, Heungseon
Men's (right) and women's (left)
Daewongun introduced Magoja, a Male dress of a Seonbi. A
clothes (Hanbok) of Joseon period. A
Manchu-style jacket, to Korea, which portrait painted by Yi Jae-
portrait painted by Shin Yun-bok
is often worn with hanbok to this day. gwan (1783–1837).
(1758–?).
Chima was full-skirted and jeogori was
short and tight in the late Joseon period. Fullness in the skirt was
emphasized round the hips. Many undergarments were worn underneath chima such as darisokgot, soksokgot,
dansokgot, and gojengi to achieve a desired silhouette. Because jeogori was so short it became natural to
expose heoritti or heorimari which functioned like a corset. The white linen cloth exposed under jeogori in the
picture is heoritti.

The upper classes wore hanbok of closely woven ramie cloth or other
high-grade lightweight materials in warm weather and of plain and
patterned silks the rest of the year. Commoners were restricted by law
as well as resources to cotton at best. The upper classes wore a variety
of colors, though bright colors were generally worn by children and
girls and subdued colors by middle-aged men and women.
Commoners were restricted by law to everyday clothes of white, but
for special occasions they wore dull shades of pale pink, light green, Royal ceremony with Joseon era
gray, and charcoal. Formally, when Korean men went outdoors, they clothing
were required to wear overcoats known as durumagi which reach the
knees.

Art

15th century. Joseon period,
Korea. Blue and white
porcelain jar with plum and
bamboo design.
The Mid-Joseon period painting styles
moved toward increased realism. A
national painting style of landscapes
called "true view" began – moving
from the traditional Chinese style of
idealized general landscapes to
particular locations exactly rendered.
While not photographic, the style was
academic enough to become Early Joseon landscape painting by
established and supported as a Seo Munbo in the late 15th century
standardized style in Korean painting.
At this time China ceased to have pre-
eminent influence, Korean art took its
own course, and became increasingly
distinctive to the traditional Chinese
painting.[119]

Ceramics are a form of popular art during the Joseon period. Examples
of ceramics include white porcelain or white porcelain decorated with
cobalt, copper red underglaze, blue underglaze and iron underglaze.
Ceramics from the Joseon period differ from other periods because Landscape of Mt. Geumgang by Kim
artists felt that each piece of art deserved its own uniquely cultivated Hong-do (1745–1806) in 1788
personality.[120]

Beginning in the 10th century, white porcelain has been crafted in Korea. Historically overshadowed by the
popularity of celadon, it was not until the 15th and 16th centuries that white porcelain was recognized for its
own artistic value. Among the most prized of Korean ceramics are large white jars. Their shape is symbolic of
the moon and their color is associated with the ideals of purity and modesty of Confucianism. During this
period, the bureau that oversaw the meals and court banquets of the royal family strictly controlled the
production of white porcelain.[120]

Blue and white porcelain artifacts decorating white porcelain with paintings and designs in underglaze by
using natural cobalt pigment are another example of popular wares of the Joseon period. Many of these items
were created by court painters employed by the royal family. During this period, the popular style of landscape
paintings is mirrored in the decoration of ceramics.[120] Initially developed by the Chinese at the Jingdezhen
kilns in the mid-14th century, Joseon began to produce this type of porcelain from the 15th century under
Chinese influence. The first cobalt imported from China was used by Korean artists. In 1463 when sources of
cobalt were discovered in Korea, artists and their buyers found the material was inferior in quality and
preferred the more expensive imported cobalt. Korean porcelain with imported cobalt decoration contradict the
emphasis of an orderly, frugal and moderate life in Neo-Confucianism.[120]

Strikingly different from cobalt, porcelain items with a copper-red underglaze are the most difficult to
successfully craft. During production, these items require great skill and attention or will turn gray during the
process of firing. While the birthplace of ceramics with copper red underglaze is widely disputed, these items
originated during 12th century in Korea and became increasingly popular during the second half of the Joseon
period. Some experts have pointed to the kilns of Bunwon-ri in Gwangju, a city that played a significant role in
the production of ceramics during the Joseon period, as a possible birthplace.[120]

Porcelain was also decorated with iron. These items commonly consisted of jars or other utilitarian pieces.[120]

Literature
During the Joseon period, the yangban scholars and educated literati studied Confucian classics and Neo-
Confucian literature.[5][6]: 2 04 

The middle and upper classes of Joseon society were proficient in Classical Chinese.[6]: 3 29  The Joseon official
records (such as the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty and Seungjeongwon ilgi) and the written works
of the Yangban literati were written in Classical Chinese.[5][6]: 2 43, 3 29 [7]: 7 4 

Newspapers like the Hwangseong Sinmun toward the end of the period were written in the Korean language
using the Korean mixed script.[6]: 3 29 

Annals of the Joseon Dynasty

The Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty (also known as the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty) are the annual
records of the Joseon dynasty, which were kept from 1413 to 1865. The annals, or sillok, consist of 1,893
volumes and are thought to cover the longest continual period of a single dynasty in the world. With the
exception of two sillok compiled during the colonial era, the Annals are the 151st national treasure of Korea
and listed in UNESCO's Memory of the World registry.

Uigwe

Uigwe is a collection of royal protocols of the Joseon period, which records and prescribes through text and
stylized illustration the important ceremonies and rites of the royal family.

Education

Buddhism and Confucianism

The Joseon kingdom was noted for having Confucianism as its main philosophy, and also included some
Buddhism.

The study of literary exchanges between Confucian scholar officials and Buddhists shows that Buddhism was
not cast out. There literary exchanges show a middle ground of both philosophies. "scholar-officials – Some
who in public castigated Buddhism as a heresy and deluded tradition, in private visited temples and associated
closely with monks." This shows that while in public some scholars shamed Buddhism their exchanges with
Buddhists show that in the very least it was not cast outside of the kingdom.

One example of this is a famous Joseon scholar official Park Se-dang ( 박세당 朴世堂
, , 1629–1703). He
argues against Buddhism with the following "People say that Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu have harshly criticized
Buddhism and therefore have only discussed what is aberrant and have not fully investigated what is profound.
People say, their understanding is lacking and they have not fully examined it [its profoundness]. I, myself,
don’t think that is the case… The heresies under heaven, they are also rather foul. Among them, Buddhism is
the worst. If a person is inclined to Buddhism then he is of the kind that pursues what is foul. Is it not clear that
there is nothing further to discuss? It is like Mencius who [also felt no need to argue in detail when he]
criticized Yang Zhu and Mozi.[121] Surely, he did not argue further than to say Yang Zhu and Mozi did not
respect their fathers and their emperors."[121] He wrote a poem:
 久離塵俗萬緣虛 For long, I have left the mundane world whose innumerable conditions are empty;

只愛游方不戀居 I have but travelled here and there, finding no enjoyment in settled life.

明日又浮滄海去 Tomorrow once again I leave for Changhae;

沃州寥落舊精廬 The old, pure and simple hut of Okju province looks lonely.

Buddhism was a part of the Joseon kingdom. While not supported publicly, privately it was very prevalent in
Confucian-scholar officials.[122]

Music

The Joseon period developed several musical forms. The form with the most extant pieces is sijo ( ,시조 時
調 ).[123] Sijo is a poetic form consisting of three lines, each with four feet, traditionally sung very slowly.  In
Korean verse, a foot is generally a short syntactic unit, such as a noun with an adjective or a verb with an
adverb. For example:

어인 벌리완대   낙락장송(落落長松) 다 먹는고

WhyCOP.ATTR insect-ceaselessly tall and full pine tree all eatQ

부리 긴 져고리는 어느 곳에 가 있는고
beak longATTR woodpeckerTOP which placeLOC go existQ

空山에 落木聲 들릴제 내 안 들데 업세라

sound of a tree falling cause NEG actively
deserted mountainLOC not existEMP
audible FUT.ATTR AUX experienced

Translation

Can tiny insects devour a whole great spreading pine?

Where is the long-billed woodpecker? Why is he not here?

When I hear the sound of falling trees, I cannot contain myself for sorrow.[124]

Here, like other Korean musical forms, each foot can stand on its own.  As sijo were sung in Korean, the
pioneering of Hangul created the possibility for sijo to be written down without the use of substitutions such as
Idu script. The first copy of sijo is of the 'Twelve Songs of Dosan' by Yi Hwang written in 1565, which were
written 100 years after the proclamation of Hangul.[125] Additionally, the first anthology of sijo was compiled
by Kim Cheontaek in 1728;[126] before the anthology few sijo were written.

Kim Cheontaek's anthology represents a change in the authorship of sijo.  At first, sijo were primarily
composed by the yangban aristocracy and entertainers of the Kisaeng class.  By the mid-seventeenth century,
the jungin or “professional class” were composing sijo as well.  This also coincided with a new form of sijo
사설시조 辭說時調
called “narrative sijo” ( , ), in which the first two lines were greatly lengthened.[127] This
expansion is likely a development from the so-called “irregular sijo” (
[128]
엇시조 旕時調 , ), in which there was a
minor lengthening of one of the first two lines.   While there are very few remaining irregular sijo, and the
form has not been revived, there is a sizable body of narrative sijo and the form continues to evolve.

P'ansori (판소리 ) is another musical form that combines singing and prose to portray a story. Its development
likely originates from shaman rituals and the songs within the Jeolla Province.  It became a full-fledged musical
form by the middle of the eighteenth century, and not long thereafter the yangban aristocracy also became
interested in it.  Originally there was a set of twelve stories that were sung, but only five were written down,
and hence those five are the only ones sung today.  Having been developed by commoners, p'ansori usually
reflected their attitudes and aspirations, but by becoming popular with the yangban, p'ansori shifted somewhat
toward yangban sensibilities and restrictions.  P'ansori had a strong influence of the writing of the time, both
because of the p'ansori novel (each based on one of the twelve stories) and by increasing the realism of the
classical novel.

Science and technology

15th century

The Joseon period under the reign of Sejong the Great was Korea's
greatest period of scientific advancement. Under Sejong's new policy,
Cheonmin (low-status) people such as Jang Yeong-sil were allowed to
work for the government. At a young age, Jang displayed talent as an
inventor and engineer, creating machines to facilitate agricultural work.
These included supervising the building of aqueducts and canals.
Korean celestial globe first made by
Some of his inventions were an automated (self-striking) water clock the scientist Jang Yeong-sil during
(the Jagyeokru) which worked by activating motions of wooden the reign of King Sejong
figures to indicate time visually (invented in 1434 by Jang), a
subsequent more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical
devices, and an improved model of the previous metal movable printing type
created in the Goryeo Dynasty. The new model was of even higher quality and
was twice as fast. Other inventions were the sight glass, and the udometer.

The highpoint of Korean astronomy was during the Joseon period, where men
such as Jang created devices such as celestial globes which indicated the
positions of the sun, moon, and the stars.[129] Later celestial globes (Gyupyo,
규표 ) were attuned to the seasonal variations.

The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances under King Sejong was the
Chiljeongsan, which compiled computations of the courses of the seven
heavenly objects (five visible planets, the sun, and moon), developed in 1442.
This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately predict all Surviving portion of the
the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and other stellar Water Clock (Jagyeongnu)
movements.[130] Honcheonsigye is an astronomical clock created by Song I-
yeong in 1669. The clock has an armillary sphere with a diameter of 40  cm.
The sphere is activated by a working clock mechanism, showing the position of celestial objects at any given
time.
Gangnido, a Korean-made map of the world was created in 1402 by Kim Sa-hyeong ( 김사형 金士衡
, ), Yi Mu
이무 李茂
( , ) and Yi Hoe ( 이회 李撓
, ). The map was created in the second year of the reign of Taejong of
Joseon. The map was made by combining Chinese, Korean and Japanese maps.

16th–19th century

The scientific and technological advance in the late Joseon period was less progressed than the early Joseon
period.

16th-century court physician, Heo Jun wrote a number of medical texts, his most significant achievement being
Dongui Bogam, which is often noted as the defining text of Traditional Korean medicine. The work spread to
China and Japan, where it is still regarded as one of the classics of Oriental medicine today.

The first soft ballistic vest, myeonjebaegab, was invented in Joseon Korea in the 1860s shortly after the French
campaign against Korea. Heungseon Daewongun ordered development of bulletproof armor because of
increasing threats from Western armies. Kim Gi-du and Gang Yun found that cotton could protect against
bullets if thick enough, and devised bullet-proof vests made of 30 layers of cotton. The vests were used in
battle during the United States expedition to Korea (1871), when the US Navy attacked Ganghwa Island in
1871. The US Army captured one of the vests and took it to the US, where it was stored at the Smithsonian
Museum until 2007. The vest has since been sent back to Korea and is currently on display to the public.

Economy

Commerce

During the Goryeo period, Korea had a healthy trade relationship with the Japanese, Chinese, and
Manchurians. An example of prosperous, international trade port is South Pyongan Province. Koreans offered
brocades, jewelries, ginseng, silk, and porcelain, renowned famous worldwide. But, during the Joseon period,
Confucianism was adopted as the national philosophy, and, in process of eliminating certain Buddhist beliefs,
Goryeo Cheongja porcelains were replaced by white Baekja, which lost favour of the Chinese. Also,
commerce became more restricted during this time in order to promote agriculture. Because silver was used as
currency in China, it played an important role in Korea-China trade.

House of Yi
The following is a simplified relation of Joseon royalty (Korean
Imperial Family) during the late period of the dynasty:

Emperor Gojong (1852–1919) – 26th head of the

Korean Imperial Household, adoptive heir to Crown
Prince Hyomyeong
Emperor Sunjong (1874–1926) – 27th head of the
Korean Imperial Household Japanese illustration of King Gojong and
Queen Min receiving Inoue Kaoru
Yi Kang, Prince Imperial Ui (1877–1955) – 5th son
of Gojong
Prince Yi Geon (1909–1991) – eldest son of Yi Kang; renounced the Imperial title and
heritage by becoming a Japanese citizen in 1947
Prince Yi U (1912–1945) – 2nd son of Yi Kang; adopted as the heir to Yi Jun-yong,
grandson of Heungseon Daewongun
 Yi Cheong (1936–)
Yi Jong (1940–1966)
Yi Hae-won (1919–2020) – 2nd daughter of Yi
Kang; married in 1936 to Yi Seung-gyu from the
Yongin Yi clan
Yi Gap (1938–2014) – 9th son of Yi Kang
Yi Won (1962–) – eldest son of Yi Gap;
adopted by Yi Ku as the 30th head of the
Korean Imperial Household This compilation photo, taken about 1915,
shows the following royal family members,
1st son (1998–) from left: Yi Kang, Prince Imperial Ui, the
2nd son (1999–) 6th son of Gojong; Yi Cheok, Emperor
Yi Seok (1941–) – 10th son of Yi Kang; self- Sunjong, the 2nd son and the last
claimed head of the Korean Imperial Household monarch of Korea; Yi Un, Prince Imperial
Yeong, the 7th son; Gojong, the Retired
Yi Hong (1976–), first daughter of Yi Seok Emperor; Empress Yun, wife of Sunjong;
Lady Kim, Consort Princess Imperial Ui,
1st daughter (2001–)
wife of Prince Imperial Ui; and Yi Geon,
Yi Jin (1979–), 2nd daughter of Yi Seok the eldest son of Prince Ui. The seated
Yi Jeong-hun (1980–), son of Yi Seok child in the front row is Princess Deokhye,
Yi Un, Imperial Crown Prince (1897–1970) – 28th Gojong's 5th daughter and youngest (14th)
head of the Korean Imperial Household; married in child. (This is a compilation of individual
1920 to Princess Masako of Nashimoto (Yi Bang- photographs since the Japanese did not
ja), an imperial member of the Empire of Japan. allow them to be in the same room at the
same time, and some were forced to
Prince Yi Jin (1921–1922) leave Korea).
Prince Yi Ku (1931–2005) — 29th head of the
Korean Imperial Household; son of Yi Un
Princess Deokhye (1912–1989) — married in 1931 to Count Sō Takeyuki
Countess Sō Masae (1932–?), disappeared since 1956

See also
History of Korea
Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty
List of Joseon monarchs
Kings family tree
Joseon Dynasty politics
Korean Empire

Notes
1. The Chinese tributary system was a largely-symbolic Confucian world order, with its basis in
trade and philosophical relations between foreign states and various Chinese dynasties. The
diplomatic system in East Asia was hierarchical and its relation to the sovereignty of some
states was flexible and diverse. Larger states, such as Joseon Korea and Japan, enjoyed full
sovereignty in both domestic and foreign affairs, and their international status cannot be
considered 'client states'. However, after 1882 Imo Incident, the Qing dynasty abandoned its
laissez-faire policy, signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882, and became directly involved in
the affairs of Joseon. The "radical change in China's policy" was in reaction to the growing
 influence of European powers and of Japan in Korea. The political influence of the Qing
Dynasty ended in 1895 with the Treaty of Shimonoseki.
2. Style: Yeonguijeong (1401–1894); Naegak chongri daesin (1894–96); Uijeong (1896–1905)

1. A Korean historian stated that "the Chinese government began to turn its former tributary state
into a semi-colony and its policy toward Korea substantially changed to a new imperialistic one
where the suzerain state demanded certain privileges in her vassal state".[87]

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Kim Haboush, JaHyun (2005), "Contesting Chinese Time, Nationalizing Temporal Space:
Temporal Inscription in Late Chosǒn Korea", in Lynn A. Struve (ed.), Time, Temporality, and
Imperial Transition, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, pp. 115–141, ISBN 978-0-8248-
2827-1.
 Larsen, Kirk W. (2008), Tradition, Treaties, and Trade: Qing Imperialism and Chosǒn Korea,
1850–1910, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, ISBN 978-0-674-02807-4.
Lee, Peter H.; de Bary, William Theodore (1997), Sources of Korean Tradition, Volume I: From
Early Times Through the Sixteenth Century, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-
0-231-10567-5.
Lin, Ming-te (8 December 2014), "Li Hung-chang's Suzerain Policy toward Korea, 1882-1894",
Chinese Studies in History, 24 (4): 69–96, doi:10.2753/CSH0009-4633240469 (https://doi.org/1
0.2753%2FCSH0009-4633240469).

Further reading
A Cultural History of Modern Korea, Wannae Joe, ed. with intro. by Hongkyu A. Choe, Elizabeth
NY, and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 2000.
An Introduction to Korean Culture, ed. Koo & Nahm, Elizabeth NJ, and Seoul Korea: Hollym,
1998. 2nd edition.
Noon Eu Ro Bo Neun Han Gook Yuk Sa #7 by Jang Pyung Soon. Copyright 1998 Joong Ang
Gyo Yook Yun Goo Won, Ltd, pp. 46–7.
Alston, Dane. 2008. "Emperor and Emissary: The Hongwu Emperor, Kwŏn Kŭn, and the Poetry
of Late Fourteenth Century Diplomacy". Korean Studies 32. University of Hawai'i Press: 104–
47. (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23718933)
Kye, Seung B.. 2010. "Huddling Under the Imperial Umbrella: A Korean Approach to Ming
China in the Early 1500s". The Journal of Korean Studies 15 (1). University of Washington
Center for Korea Studies: 41–66. (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257)
Robinson, David M.. 2004. "Disturbing Images: Rebellion, Usurpation, and Rulership in Early
Sixteenth-century East Asia—Korean Writings on Emperor Wuzong". The Journal of Korean
Studies 9 (1). University of Washington Center for Korea Studies: 97–127. (https://www.jstor.org/
stable/41485331)
Robinson, Kenneth R.. 1992. "From Raiders to Traders: Border Security and Border Control in
Early Chosŏn, 1392—1450". Korean Studies 16. University of Hawai'i Press: 94–115. (https://w
ww.jstor.org/stable/23720024)
Ji-Young Lee. 2020. "The Founding of the Korean Chosŏn Dynasty, 1392." in East Asia in the
World Twelve Events That Shaped the Modern International Order. Cambridge University
Press.
Hatada, Takashi; Smith, Warren W. Jr.; Hazard, Benjamin H. (1969), A History of Korea, Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, ISBN 978-0-87436-064-6.
Nahm, Andrew C. (1988), Korea: Tradition & Transformation: A History of the Korean People,
Elizabeth, NJ: Hollym, ISBN 978-0-930878-56-6.
Zhao, Quansheng (2003), "China and the Korean peace process", in Tae-Hwan Kwak; Seung-
Ho Joo (eds.), The Korean Peace Process and the Four Powers, Hampshire: Ashgate, pp. 98–
118, ISBN 978-0-7546-3653-3.

External links
三谷博 [in Japanese] (January 2016). グローバル化への対応－中・日・韓三国の分岐－ (http://
www.isr.or.jp/TokeiKen/pdf/gakusai/1_05.pdf) (PDF). 統計研究会『学際』第1号.
原田環 [in Japanese] (June 2005). 東アジアの国際関係とその近代化－朝鮮と－ (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20150910140201/http://www.jkcf.or.jp/history_arch/first/3/02-0j_harada_j.pdf)
(PDF). Japan–South Korea Joint History Research Project報告書（第1期）. Archived from the
original (http://www.jkcf.or.jp/history_arch/first/3/02-0j_harada_j.pdf) (PDF) on 10 September
2015. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
 Cultural Values of the Choson Dynasty (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928110202/http://ww
w.instrok.org/instrok/lesson1/page01.html?thisChar=4) – from Instrok.org, created by the East
Rock Institute.
"Click into the Hermit Kingdom" (Written by Yang Sung-jin and published by Dongbang Media
in Seoul, South Korea) – 100 articles in English on the Joseon Dynasty (https://web.archive.org/
web/20150510203519/http://www.sungjinyang.com/history/hermit.html)
Korean royal family website (https://web.archive.org/web/20050207052645/http://royalcity.or.kr/)
– currently available only in Korean.
Choson dynasty (https://web.archive.org/web/20050313144134/http://myhome.shinbiro.com/~m
ss1/choson.html)
"Japanese Document Sheds New Light on Korean Queen's Murder" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20050113191703/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501120024.html)
– Ohmynews.com's uncovered document about murder of Queen Minbi
"E-Annals Bring Chosun History to Everyman" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060202204421/h
ttp://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200601/200601270013.html), The Chosun Ilbo, 27
January 2006.
"Korean Lee (Yi) Dynasty Granite Sculptures. (https://web.archive.org/web/20080604062746/htt
p://www.bennettsfineart.com/lee%20dynasty.htm)

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