The Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System

 Sensory input – gathering information.

-To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body (changes = stimuli)
 Integration – to process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed.
 Motor output- A response to integrated stimuli. The response activates muscles or glands

Structural Classification of the Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS)

 Brain
 Spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

 Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord

Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory (afferent) division

 Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system

Motor (efferent) division

 Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system

Two subdivisions

 Somatic nervous system = voluntary

 Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

Interneurons (association neurons)

 Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system

 Connect sensory and motor neurons

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia or Glia)

Astrocytes

 Abundant, star-shaped cells

 Brace neurons
 Form barrier between capillaries and neurons
 Control the chemical environment of the brain (CNS)

Microglia (CNS)

 Spider-like phagocytes
 Dispose of debris
Ependymal cells (CNS)

 Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord

 Circulate cerebrospinal fluid

Oligodendrocytes (CNS)

 Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the central nervous system

Neuroglia vs. Neurons

 Neuroglia divide.
 Neurons do not.
 Most brain tumors are “gliomas.”
 Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia cells, not the neurons.
 Consider the role of cell division in cancer!

Support Cells of the PNS

Satellite cells- Protect neuron cell bodies

Schwann cells- Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Neurons = nerve cells

 Cells specialized to transmit messages

Major regions of neurons

 Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell

 Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body (dendrites and axons)

Neuron Anatomy- Cell body, Nucleus, Large Nucleolus

Extensions outside the cell body

 Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the cell body

 Axons – conduct impulses away from the cell body (only 1!)

Axons and Nerve Impulses

 Axons end in axonal terminals

 Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters
 Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap
 Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons
 Synapse – junction between nerves

Nerve Fiber Coverings

Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like fashion

Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along the axon

Application

 In Multiple Scleroses the myelin sheath is destroyed.

 The myelin sheath hardens to a tissue called the scleroses.
 This is considered an autoimmune disease.

Neuron Cell Body Location

Most are found in the central nervous system

 Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated fibers

 Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the central nervous system

Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system

Structural Classification of Neurons

 Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the cell body

 Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite
 Unipolar neurons – have a short single process leaving the cell body

How Neurons Function (Physiology)

 Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli

 Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse
 The plasma membrane at rest is polarized
-Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell

The Reflex Arc

 Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli

 Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

Types of Reflexes and Regulation

Autonomic reflexes

 Smooth muscle regulation

 Heart and blood pressure regulation
 Regulation of glands
 Digestive system regulation

Somatic reflexes

 Activation of skeletal muscles

Central Nervous System (CNS)

 CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube

 The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
 The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles
 Four chambers within the brain
 Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Surface lobes of the cerebrum

 Frontal lobe – Reasoning and thought

 Parietal lobe – Integrates sensory information
 Occipital lobe – Processes visual information from the eyes
 Temporal lobe – Processes auditory information from the ears

Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

 Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
 Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal muscles
 Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak

Layers of the Cerebrum

Gray matter- Outer layer. Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies

White matter- Fiber tracts inside the gray matter Example: corpus callosum connects hemispheres

Diencephalon- Sits on top of the brain stem, enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres

Made of three parts- Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus

Thalamus- Directs sensory impulses to the cerebrum

Hypothalamus -

 Controls and regulates temperature, appetite, water, balance, sleep, and blood vessel
constriction and dilation
 Also plays a role in the emotions such as anger, fear, pleasure, pain and affection.

Epithalamus

 Forms the roof of the third ventricle

 Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
 Includes the choroid plexus – forms cerebrospinal fluid

Brain Stem

Attaches to the spinal cord

Parts of the brain stem

 Midbrain
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata

Midbrain

 Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers

 Reflex centers for vision and hearing
 Cerebral aquaduct – 3rd-4th ventricles
Pons – Chewing, tasting and saliva production

Medulla Oblongata

 The lowest part of the brain stem

 Merges into the spinal cord
 Includes important fiber tracts
 Contains important control centers
 Heart rate control
 Blood pressure regulation
 Breathing
 Swallowing
 Vomiting

Cerebellum

 Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces

 Provides involuntary coordination of body movements
 Muscle coordination, balance, posture, and muscle tone

Protection of the Central Nervous

 Scalp and skin

 Skull and vertebral column
 Meninges
 Cerebrospinal fluid
 Blood brain barrier

Meninges

 Dura mater
 Double-layered external covering
 Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
 Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
 Folds inward in several areas
 Arachnoid layer
 Middle layer
 Web-like
 Pia mater
 Internal layer
 Clings to the surface of the brain

Cerebrospinal Fluid

 Similar to blood plasma composition

 Formed by the choroid plexus
 Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
 Blood Brain Barrier
 Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
 Excludes many potentially harmful substances
 Useless against some substances
 Fats and fat soluble molecules
 Respiratory gases
 Alcohol
 Nicotine
 Anesthesia

Spinal Cord
 Extends from the medulla oblongata to the region of T12
 Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of spinal nerves)
 Enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar regions

Spinal Cord Anatomy

 Exterior white mater – conduction tracts

 Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
 Dorsal (posterior) horns
 Anterior (ventral) horns
 Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 Meninges cover the spinal cord
 Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
 Dorsal root
 Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central
nervous system

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system

Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers

Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue

Structure of a Nerve

 Endoneurium surrounds each fiber

 Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium
 Fascicles are bound together by epineurium
Classification of Nerves

 Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers

 Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses toward the CNS
 Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from the CNS

Spinal Nerves

There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs

Autonomic Nervous System

 The involuntary branch of the nervous system

 Consists of only motor nerves
 Divided into two divisions
 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division

Autonomic Functioning

 Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
 Response to unusual stimulus
 Takes over to increase activities
 Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment

Autonomic Functioning

 Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites

 Conserves energy
 Maintains daily necessary body functions
 Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation, and diuresis

Development Aspects of the Nervous System

 The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development
 Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects
 The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop
 No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues for several years
(new evidence!)
 The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult
 However, we can always grow dendrites

WHAT IS THE BRAIN MADE OF?

Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is a
combination of water, protein, carbohydrates, and salts. The brain itself is not a muscle. It contains
blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.
WHAT IS THE GRAY AND WHITE MATTER?

Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In the brain, gray matter
refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath.
In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits
within.

Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell bodies), and white matter is
mostly made of axons (the long stems that connect neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective
coating).

HOW DOES THE BRAIN WORK?

 The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different
signals control different processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you feel tired, for
example, while others make you feel pain.
 Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the spine and across
the body’s vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system
relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).

The forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain are the three primary portions of the brain during the
early development of the central nervous system. It controls body temperature, reproductive functions,
eating, sleeping, and any display of emotions.

FRONTAL LOBE

Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in
personality characteristics, decision-making, and movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts
of the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca’s area, which is associated with speech ability.

PARIETAL LOBE

The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person identify objects and understand spatial
relationships (where one’s body is compared with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also
involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe houses Wernicke’s area, which
helps the brain understand spoken language.

OCCIPITAL LOBE

The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.

TEMPORAL LOBE

The sides of the brain and temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm,
and some degree of smell recognition.

CEREBRAL CORTEX

 Cortex is Latin for “bark,” and describes the outer gray matter covering of the cerebrum. The
cortex has a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises about half of the brain’s weight.
 The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with ridges (gyri)
and folds (sulci).
  The two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial
longitudinal fissure) that runs from the front of the head to the back.
 The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left half controls the right side of
the body.
 The two halves communicate with one another through a large, C- shaped structure of white
matter and nerve pathways called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of
the cerebrum.

BRAIN STEM

The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the
midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

MIDBRAIN

The midbrain is the topmost part of the brainstem, the connection central between the brain and the
spinal cord. It serves important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and in
auditory and visual processing.

PONS

The midbrain is the topmost part of the brainstem, the connection central between the brain and the
spinal cord. It serves important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and in
auditory and visual processing.
PITUITARY GLAND

The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, behind the bridge of the nose. It is about one-

half inch (1.25 cm) in diameter. It is referred to as the “master gland” because it monitors and

regulates many bodily functions through the hormones that it produces.

HYPOTHALAMUS

The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that control its
function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst, and
also plays a role in some aspects of memory and emotion.

AMYGDALA

Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half (hemisphere) of the brain.

Its main job is to regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression. The amygdala is also involved in

tying emotional meaning to our memories. Reward processing, and decision-making.

HIPPOCAMPUS

Hippocampus is a complex brain structure embedded deep into the temporal lobe. It has a major role in
learning and memory. It helps humans process and retrieves two types of memory, declarative
memories, and spatial relationships.

PINEAL GLAND

The pineal gland was described as the “Seat of the Soul” by Renee Descartes and it is located in the
center of the brain. The main function of the pineal gland is to receive information about the state of the
light-dark cycle from the environment and convey this information to produce and secrete the hormone
melatonin.

VENTRICLES AND CSF

The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery fluid that circulates in and around the
ventricles and the spinal cord, and between the meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord
and brain, washes out waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.

SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is a long bundle of nerves and cells that extends from the lower portion of the brain to
the lower back. It carries signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

The length of the spinal cord varies from person to person. According to some estimates, females have a
spinal cord of about 43 centimeters (cm), while males have a spinal cord of about 45 cm.
GRAY MATTER

● The gray matter is the dark, butterfly shaped region of the spinal cord made up of nerve cell bodies.

WHITE MATTER

● The white matter surrounds the gray matter in the spinal cord and contains cells coated in myelin,
which makes nerve transmission occur more quickly. Nerve cells in the gray matter are not as heavily
coated with myelin.

POSTERIOR ROOT

● The posterior root is the part of the nerve that branches off the back of the spinal column.

ANTERIOR ROOT

● The anterior root is the part of the nerve that branches off the front of the spinal column.

SPINAL GANGLION

● The spinal ganglion is a cluster of nerve bodies that contain sensory neurons.

SPINAL NERVE
 The posterior and anterior roots come together to create a spinal nerve. There are 31 pairs of
spinal nerves. These control sensations in the body, as well as movement.